CSEC HISTORY

Theme A: The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans

 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

INTRODUCTION
The Caribbean, according to F. Knight, refers to the thousands of islands that stretch from the
southern tip of Florida peninsula to the slanting northern coastline of South America. The region
also is inclusive of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The history of these islands does
not start in 1492 with the coming of Columbus, but rather with those persons he encountered on
his voyages.

At the time of Columbus it is assumed that 3 million persons inhabited the region. It is argued that
Hispaniola had ½ million inhabitants in 1492, Jamaica, about 20,000 and Barbados and Antigua
showed no sign of permanent settlement. It was assumed that man first came to the Americas by
way of Asia. The original inhabitants were not Indians, but members of various ethnic groups
including the Taino, Kalinago and Mayan. The
ancestors of these groups of persons were said to
have migrated to the Americas 7000 years ago. They
crossed the Bering Strait, a narrow stretch of water
which separated Alaska from the coast of Siberia.
Man was following their source of food, the Ice aged
mammals, who themselves crossed from Siberia into
Alaska in search of greener pastures later they ended
further South in the North American grasslands.
When the Ice Age came to an end man remained on
the American continent.

The Amerindians eventually reached the mainland of south and Central America and it is there
that six cultural groups emerged. The 1st group came from Belize and the Yucatan. They 1st arrived
on the islands of Jamaica and the Greater Antilles. (Yucatan Islands) The Ciboneys came from
Venezuela and 1st arrived in Trinidad and Grenada moving northwards. The Tainos came for the
northern banks of the Orinico River and moved up the islands of the Lesser Antilles reaching the
Greater Antilles, as far north as Cuba and the Bahamas. They also settled in Barbados. The
Kalinagos settled the islands of the Lesser Antilles after they migrated from Brazil to Guyana and

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

then to Venezuela. The Mayan people settled in the Yucatan Peninsula: Guatemala, Honduras and
southern Mexico. Despite the fact that these groups have origins similar in nature they developed
different social, political and economic structures.

In the islands, the Amerindians settled near the coasts or inland near bodies of water such as
streams and rivers. Reasons for this included [1] These areas provided them with potable water
[2] transportation within and between islands for trade with other groups [3] they did not have the
tools needed to remove the dense forest cover on the islands. [4] it allowed them easy access to
fish, their main source of food as it was a good source of protein [5] The Taino chose to live on
the hillside of mountains in many territories so that they could see the approaching enemy. It was
easier for the Kalinago to attack from the coast. [6] Clay settlements were close to the shores and
this was essential for utilitarian crafts [7] mountains were close to the coast and the caves in these
were used for protection from enemies. Zemis were also kept in caves.

The Mayan lived in a geographical region that contained forests, savannahs, swamps, mountains
(6000-9000 ft), lagoons and rivers. They settled this area as they were able to build towns in the
midst of dense tropical jungles using primitive tools. They built over 100 city states in the area.
They built roads to connect towns. They willingly used the slash and burn method to clear vast
areas of forest land. Each city state contained all of the basic needs of the Mayan people; gates for
protection, temple-pyramids, a market, ball court, farmlands, cenotes for storing water, homes and
palaces. Because these cities had thousands of people, it was easier for the work to be completed.

REASONS FOR THE MIGRATION OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

As the wild berries were eaten, they needed to Following their source of food.
find other sources of food.

As groups settled, others had to move on to They developed new methods of travel once
find their own food and land to control the ice age came to an end.

The Kalinago forced the Taino to leave the They could see the land beyond Venezuela and
Lesser Antilles. some of the islands, and wanted to explore
these lands as they were looking for larger
parcels of land.

When the giant mammoths died, a new source Climate and soil in the islands was more
of food was needed. They needed to find land suitable for growing crops and they were no
to grow their own food. dangerous animals in the islands.

THE TAINOS

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

SOCIAL ORGANISATION: The Taino lived in the Greater Antilles, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico
and the Bahamas. Women were especially the elderly were given much respect in Taino society.
One legend of Taino society stated that an elderly woman taught that men of the regions
agricultural practices people, of medium height who wore few or no clothes. The Spaniards’
accounts revealed that Taino women were attractive and were either naked or scantily dressed
according to age and marital status. The young wore no clothing, while the married women wore
scanty clothing. All women wore necklaces and or beads. An account of Richard Ligon described
the women as having small breast, long black hair and flattened foreheads. Newly born babies had
their heads flattened between two boards.

Taino communities were communal and land ownership was highly limited. The Taino believed
that the land owned the individual rather than the individual owning the land and communal
ownership restricted indiscriminate land use. The Taino lived in villages, sharing property and
organising work together; but each man had some private possessions, while a certain share was
set aside for the cacique. Crime was rare among the Taino and theft was punishable by death.
Greed was seen as a great disgrace.

Taino societies were highly structured and everyone had a role to play. The roles played by women
mainly confined them to the home and village. Taino women played a vital role in crop production
and cultivation, as women were very skilled agriculturalist. The women carried the grains in large
bags after the seeds were soaked for a few days in order to speed up germination. They made holes
in seeds in each hole. Women also concerned themselves with the daily care at the crops.

The men cleared the ground for conucu (Farming) sites, burnt plant debris, hoed and moulded the
fields. Men were also responsible for constructing the houses and the canoes. Hunting and fishing
making tools and bearing arms and the defence of the village were also duties of the males.

The women also had the responsibility of food and drink preparation. One of their favourite dishes
was pepper pot, which consisted of cassava juice, potato, yam, maize and herbs. Women were also
the principal basket weavers, hammock and apron makers and child care givers.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION: The Social and political head of Taino society was the cacique,
below him were nitaynos or head men of the tribe. The cacique had the final say in all matters. For
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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

the most part the cacique was a male; however an example of a female cacique could be seen in
Aracaona the principal wife of Coionabo, the cacique who assumed the role of cacique in Xaraqua,
Hispaniola when her brother Behechio died.

While women were no heirs to the throne they were providers of heirs. If a cacique died with no
male heirs the title was passed to the eldest son of the eldest sister. If there were no nephews, the
title would be passed on to the caciques brother or the brother’s son. If there were no relatives to
take the throne, villages would elect a new cacique.

The Cacique was responsible for the good order of the village. He planned the hunting, fishing,
cultivation of crops and was responsible for keeping stores of food. The latter was done, so that in
times of scarcity, there would be adequate provisions to share among the villagers.

Caciques were given great privileges, the largest canoes, did no walking but were carried on titters,
had larger houses, a greater number of wives and more ornaments of gold. It was an honour to be
the wife of a cacique. At death he was buried with either a wife or a slave. The caciques’ chief
wife or queen produced the heir to the throne.

TECHNOLOGY: Despite their simplistic lifestyle the Taino had some technological advances.

[a] Hut building- The larger huts were built with a centre pole which gave extra support to the roof
and was deemed best at withstanding heavy gales. The use of cane walls prevented the draught
from entering the hut. [b] Irrigation- In some parts of Cuba and Hispaniola, they knew of
irrigation. Trenches were dug for two purposes. [c] Basket work cylinders- these were used to
extract the poisonous juice of the cassava plant. [d] Fishing- the use of nets and lines with hooks
of bone or turtle shell and harpoons. In Cuba artificial pools were created in which to keep excess
fish until needed. In other territories the fish were dried. The use of the remora to catch turtles was
also employed. [e] Mortars and pestles were employed to pound corn. [f] Canoe making, slash
and burn method was used to clear the land, pottery and tool making were also technological
developments of the Arawaks. Their stone tools were expertly made; they could weave cotton
cloth and make nets of sisal hemp. Taino, were excellent basket makers who wove double
bottomed baskets, so fine that they could hold water. Gold ornaments were made by hammering
rather than melting. Canoes could be considered to be the most valuable property of the Taino.
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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

They were made of wood and used for transportation. They were constructed using the following
method; the men would fell a tall and stout forest tree by [a] starting a fire at the base of the tree
and keep it going until the tree fell or [b] using stone axes. After the tree fell its branches were
removed and the carving, gouging and burning all occurred in the forest. The men chipped into
the canoe with sharp stones and then the trunk was placed over a fire in a trench in order to burn a
hollow in the trunk. Once this was accomplished, the canoe was then placed upright and filled
with boulders and water in order to stretch the canoe. This step took many weeks and afterwards
the wood was made smoother, seats were installed and paddles were carved. For the larger canoes,
planks were added to increase the height of its sides. The cacique’s canoe was brightly painted.
N.B. Taino canoes had square bows and Kalinago canoes pointed bows and sterns.

ARCHITECTURE: Huts were round and made of wooden frameworks of firmly tied posts. The
roofs were steeply sloped to let the rain run off quickly and the walls were made of plaited reeds
and barks. The chief’s house, the bohio, was rectangular and held several rooms. The houses had
no windows and one opening for a door and were built to withstand hurricanes

RELIGIOUS PRATICES: Taino societies were polytheistic and they were two supreme deities;
Yucahu- lord of cassava and the sea and Atabey – his mother who was goddess of fresh water and
human fertility and women prayed to her for a safe childbirth. They also worshipped Boinayel- the
rain god and his twin Márohu- the deity of fair weather. Zemis or idols were made in the forms of
humans, bats and birds. Tainos owned as many as ten zemis who were seen as the protectors of
the tribe and as necessary for crop growth. They believed that zemis protected them from
destruction by the Spaniards. For these reasons, food was offered to the zemis and they were kept
in niches or on tables in their homes. In Hispaniola each Cacique had huts on the outskirts of the
settlements in which to keep the zemis. Once a year, the whole village paid homage to the
Cacique’s zemis by inducing vomiting and offering cassava bread to the cacique’s zemis. They
also worshipped their ancestors. Parts of a Cacique’s body might be preserved as zemis. The
decorated their artefacts with figures of zemis and painted their bodies with them. They carved or
painted outlines of natural spirits in places where they believed they lived such as caves, rocks,
streams and coasts.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

Tobacco/snuff use was very important in religious ceremonies. It was taken in front of the zemis
in front of the zemis and caused them to hallucinate and this made communication with the zemis
possible. The word cogioba was used both for “prayer” and “tobacco.” If a priest danced or
sang, the zemis was giving pleasing answers but if he wept, the answers were unpleasant. During
a religious ceremony, the cacique Guarionex had a vision of “white and bearded strangers, who
would come, destroy the zemis and would carry long implements of a peculiar material with
which they could cut a man in two.”

Tainos also had shamans who cured the sick on demand. Both the shamans and their patients
fasted before the curing ritual. They also believed that the dog deity watched over the spitrits of
the dead who lived in Coaybay, a remote island region.

CUSTOMS: The Taino was very fond of dancing and singing and they used the same word
“arieto” was used for both. The flattening of their offspring’s foreheads was another custom of the
Taino and this was seen as a sign of beauty and because they believed that it enabled the boys to
aim bows and arrows into tree tops. Batos, the Taino ball game was one of their customs. Hands
were not used when playing this game, but rather the hips, knees, head, elbows and shoulders. The
cacique was the chief priest and he smoked tobacco and inhaled other herbs so that he could
communicate with the gods. They used a Y shaped pipe to inhale narcotics such as cahoba and
yopa.

TRADE: There is archaeological evidence which shows that trade existed among the Taino
peoples of the region. Such evidence shows Barbadian made pottery located in St Vincent. Canoes
were very important in maintaining inter island trade. Items traded included cloth, tools, weapons,
furniture, tobacco, some fruits and gold. Tainoes, from Puerto Rico traded mainly in pineapples
while both Puerto Rico and Haiti exported gold to Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas.

TAINO VOCABULARY [i] Duho- a ceremonial stool in the shape of an animal [ii] Hamacas –
hammocks [iii] Metate- a grinding stone [iv] Yocahu- the god of manioc [v] Cahoba- powdered
tobacco leaves [vi] Yopa – powdered leaves of other herbs used as narcotics.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

THE KALINAGO
The Kalinago, were similar in appearance to the Taino. They too flattened their offsprings
foreheads but this was to make them look fiercer. Kalinago women wore bracelets of shell and
gold above their ankles and below their knees. The women of elite status wore strings of beads
around their necks with a golden rod. Baldness was mocked in the society. Coiro, the practice of
wrapping their legs with cloth was considered beautiful.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION: The Kalinago were a warrior type tribe of people and this impacted
on their social organisation. As a result of their war like nature and the fact that their society
comprised of more males than females, the capture of Taino women was of high importance. This
resulted in cultural, political and economic integration of the two societies.

The men and women resided in separate houses even though polygamy was practiced and regarded
as a status symbol. Not only did they live apart, men and women also ate separately. The women
ate after the men completed their meals. Similar to the Taino society, women were responsible for
food cultivation, harvesting and preparation. The men however were responsible for clearing the
fields, hunting, fishing, and training boys for manhood, protection of the village and preparing for
war. If Kalinago men were away on a mission women would participate in battle.

The warlike nature of the kalinago affected their settlement patterns and hence social life. They
were constantly on the move and hence played greater interest to hunting and fishing rather than
farming.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION: Similar to the Taino, their political leader was a man. The
ouboutou was elected by the people for life, but unlike the Arawaks, they was no hereditary leader.
To become ouboutou, a man had to prove he was fearless, a good swimmer and diver, strong and
able to bear pain. The ouboutou was assisted by an ubutu maliaric.

RELIGIOUS PRATICES: The Kalinago’s religious practices were similar to those of the Taino.
They had an idea for an almighty sky- god, but as he was good they thought there was no need to
worship him. The rainbow was regarded as a super natural being. They worshiped their ancestors,
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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

nature and believed in evil spirits called maboya. They had a legend of a man who came from the
sky, and taught their forefathers how to make and use stone tools, build houses and grow crops.
He gave them cassava and taught them how to prepare it. The priests were known as boyas and
their chief function was to heal the sick and call up the spirits from the past.

The Kalianago believed that death meant a journey to either a heaven or a hell. The brave went to
the fortunate islands where they were waited on by Taino slaves and coward went to dreary desert
where they became slaves of Taino masters. They also believed that death led to life in another
form and hence their live bodies could become homes for the souls of dead enemies, so eating the
flesh of a brave warrior would give them his strength and courage.

TECHNOLOGY: Flint and obsidian (volcanic rock) and other hand stones were shaped and
smoothened to make utilitarian tools and weapons. Fishing arrows and spears were tipped with
shell and bone while battle arrows were tipped with fire and poison. Use of heavy wooden clubs
called batous. Use of paddles with cross pieces at the end to steer boats/canoes. They used the
edges of a sharp edge grass to trim their hair and painted their bodies, to protect themselves against
the heat and insect bites. When fishing in rock pools, they sprinkled bits of poisonous wood into
the water in order to stupify the fish. They made canoes similar to the Tainos.

The Kalinago did have a method of reckoning time, especially when setting the date for a raid;
they made knots in a string and untied a knot each day until none was left. Some Kalinago were
able to use the stars and the moon to tell time.

CUSTOMS: Flattening the forehead of their offspring and face scarification using an agouti’s
teeth. They did not consume salt, pig; which they believed made their eyes small; or turtle which
they believed made them heavy and stupid. On special occasions Kalinagos powdered their bodies
with gold dust. When a Kalinago died in his own village he was buried in his family’s hut and
accompanying him were bowls and weapons he would need in the afterlife. Other customs
included: [a] drinking of ouicou, a manioc beer which the Kalinago drank at feasts and prior to
war. [b] the carbet was the Kalinago dwelling house. [c] there were two types of canoes; the
couliana which was a small fishing canoe which was approx 20 ft long and a canoua was a large

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

canoe which was approx fifty feet long and used during attacks on other villages. [d] They could
read the stars.
Initiation of boys to manhood was a Kalinago custom and it involved a test for bravery. His father
and other warriors sat him on a stool and he was told what his warrior and man duties would be.
A bird was then beaten to death on his chest and afterwards, he was scratched with an agouti’s
tooth and the wounds were rubbed with the body of the dead bird which was dipped in pepper.
The boy was expected to show no pain. He was then given a piece of the bird’s heart to eat and
sent to his hammock without food for an extended time period. After this ordeal, he was considered
a man.

Preparation for war was important to the Kalinago and when a chief wanted to prepare he called
his warriors to a drinking bout. While they were drinking, an elderly woman would recite the
wrongs, real and imagined, which the Taino tribe had inflicted on them. If she gained their
sympathy, a raid was immediately planned. Women prepared for the raid by providing food such
as cassava flour, dried fish and fruits. Women were taken on the raids in order to protect the food
and the canoes.

Differences between the Taino and Kalinago

Taino Kalinago
Flattened foreheads were seen as a sign of Flattened foreheads made them look fierce
beauty
Men or women could be chiefs Only men could be chiefs
The cacique’s role was based on heredity. The ouboutou was elected
Houses were square Houses were round or oval
Pottery was highly decorated Pottery was very rough
They ate human flesh on special occasions
They were more stocky than Taino
Kalinago boys went through an initiation
process
THE MAYA
The Maya were a people who settled in the South American continent in places such as Honduras,
Guatemala, Southern Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula. They were the first to develop a very
high level of culture. The Mayan civilization was at its peak from AD350 to AD800. It lasted until
AD1540.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

SOCIAL ORGANISATION: Both genders held important roles to play in Mayan society. The
roles of both groups were supportive and interdependent of each other. Men held the top positions
in Mayan society. They were the priest, nobles, merchant class and recognised as the head of the
household. When a Mayan boy reached the age of 12, the men were responsible for his training in
warfare and priestly duties. As the head of the house hold, Mayan men were responsible for the
family’s economic support and working the milpa or land on which corn was grown for the family.
They hunted, constructed homes, cut wood, and supplied fire wood and brought home the meat
and salt.

A Mayans woman’s role was dependant on her age and mental status. Their roles were usually
confined to the home but at times they assisted the men in the milpas. The married women were
responsible for paying the family tribute to the priest and for flattening the heads of their offspring.
At family gatherings the girls not only shared the wine but they had to turn their backs as the men
drank. The older women served as midwives and participated at some level in religious and
ceremonial functions.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION: The Maya people were divided into city states and each was
ruled by a lord or nobleman. Priests were also of the highest class so they were seen as a means of
communication between the Gods and men. Below the priests and noblemen were many officers
who organised the running of the city states. They made sure (1) crop taxes were paid, (2)
organised labour and (3) kept records of the citizens. (4) Some of these officers were soldiers and
taught the villagers how to fight. The Taxes collected supported the priest and noblemen.

At the very top of the political pyramid was the Hulach Uhric or “True Man”. He had full power
over all the councils and officials of his city state. His position was heredity. The Chiefs of smaller
towns within the city state were known as batabos, each of whom had officials to assist. The Maya
also had war chiefs know as nacoms.

RELIGIOUS PRATICES: Similar to both the Taino and Kalinago, the Maya were polytheistic
and believed these gods existed in the underworld, walked the earth and ruled the skies and
heavens. Each and every group within the Maya society had their own gods: - Fishermen,
beekeepers, dancers, comedians etc. All gods were to be treated with respect and nourished

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

because (1) they ruled all forces and gifts of nature and (2) they had to fight drought, disease and
pest. The most valuable sacrifice was blood, particularly a throbbing heart. During times of
drought, epidemic and invasion sacrifices were made at water walls. High priests were known as
Ahkin.

Sacrifices of crops, animals and humans were supervised by priests and blood was the most
valuable sacrifice. The offering of a throbbing human heart was the most important sacrifice. The
person to be sacrificed was spread on his back across a sacred temple stone and the nacom priest
cut open the victim’s chest, pulled out the heart and placed it in a container in front of the god they
wished to satisfy. Another form of sacrifice involved smearing blood over idols. Sacrifices were
also performed at water wells during times of drought, invasion and epidemics and involved
throwing the victim in the cenote and weighing him down with ornaments and stones.

TECHNOLOGY: The Maya unlike the Taino and Kalinago were an advanced society. (a)
Weaving, this was done by women using handlooms. The woven articles were dyed using minerals
and vegetable dyes. Feather weaving was also practiced by Mayan women and the prized bird was
quetzal. (b) Basketry, rope making and pottery were very important. The ropes were used in
construction and Maya pottery was highly decorated with pouter stone and minerals. The main
colours were brown, white, yellow, black and red. (c) Pyramids soared to 229ft and were made of
stones cemented together with powdered limestone. (d) Agriculture, chinampas or raised field
agriculture was used to turn swamp land into productive plots of lands. An irrigation system using
cenotes/walls was used to irrigate the crops. To store excess food especially corn, the Mayan used
chultunes or underground storerooms/ granaries. (e) Weapons: Spears and clubs tipped with
obsidian, slings with stones the size of eggs, feathered shields, to protect themselves, Maya solders
also used tough padded cotton jackets to cover their chests. (f) Calendar: Time was of great
importance to the Maya and they developed a complex calendar of 3 circles which kept track of
days, months and years. The haab year was 18 months long and each month had 20 days. In
addition they were 5 unlucky days or vayela. The Maya also had a sacred calendar of 260 days.
The 3rd calendar recorded the no. of days since the beginning of civilization. The Mayan calendar
allowed priests to record past eclipses, note anniversaries, and remember the dates of hurricanes,
floods and other disasters. This ability gave priests additional power and control over the Mayan

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

people. The priests also taught the sons of noblemen how to write and determine the months and
years. (g) Writing: Mayans wrote using glyphs, most of their writings are difficult to understand.
Their number system is not. The Mayan also wrote on paper but only three pages of Mayan books
exist. The Mayan numerical system is easy to understand because a bar (-) has a value of five and
the dot (.) has a value of one. (h) Roads were built to link city-states between two towns. Mayan
roads were straight.

CUSTOMS: Flattening of foreheads and cross eyes. Rulers were placed inside the pyramids after
deaths. Cremation was practiced. Land was not owned separately but as a community. Taxes were
collected. At 12, boys left their mothers home to live with their fathers. Marriages were arranged
and after marriage the groom had to work for his father – in- law for 3-7 years. Adultery was
punishable by death for men and the shaving of the head for women. Women could neither own
nor inherit property. The religious ball game pok-a-tok involved aiming a ball at a stone ring set
high in a wall. If the court did not have a ring the players were expected to use their hips to send
the ball around the court.

The quetzal bird lived high in the mountains and its two bright green feathers were of high value
and only worn by high nobles and priests. Bright feather coats and costumes were worn by priests.
The Mayan did not have string instruments, they used percussion instruments. They played
instruments such as the tunkul, tortoise shells, conch shells, horns, wood and clay trumpets, and
pottery drums. Some of the elaborate dances involved 800 persons.

TRADE: As a result of their advanced technologies, the Maya were able to produce vast quantities
of goods. This abundant production allowed for trade among the Mayan city-states and outside the
Mayan empire. Trade generally took place in large markets which were accessed by roads. The
largest and most famous city states were Uxmal, Chichen, Itza, Tikal, Copan, Mayapan and
Palenque.

MOTIVATING FACTORS THAT LED TO COLUMBUS’ VOYAGES

Prior to 1415, European knowledge of the world was limited to Europe, Asian Minora and North
Africa. However the travels of Marco Polo in the 13th Century increased their desire to explore
beyond the known boundaries. The desire to explore coincided with and was influenced by the
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“Middle Ages” which was coming to an end. Many social and political changes were taking place.
The Renaissance, the period of revived learning, was on its way and it did two things; (i)
emphasised the power of the individual and of individual achievement and (ii) focused attention
on the world outside Europe and challenged them to explore. Other changes within Europe
included (iii) Developments in printing which enabled new ideas and facts to spread and the growth
of education institutions meant more people had access to knowledge. (iv)Nationalism: there was
a tendency to stress national differences and forget international concept of Christendom. Nations
not only wished to serve the church but their nation states. In order to maintain their power against
that of the Pope, Kings sought to acquire new territory. The rulers of Portugal, Spain, France and
England hoped for prestige and increased revenue. They were each jealous of the others and
anxious to be stronger.

Trade: An increasing demand for Asian products such as spices, peppers, silks, perfumes, drugs
and jewels. When the Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 they gradually extended their control
over lands bordering the Eastern Mediterranean. This hampered old trade routes between Europe
and Asia by land and sea. Additionally, a monopoly was held by Genoese and Venetian merchants
over certain branches of the Asian trade. In order to by-pass these obstacles alternative trade routes
were needed. For merchants such routes meant greater riches.

Geography- the myth that the earth was flat and that man could easily fall off was disappearing.
The belief was now held that if you sailed too Far East you would reach west. The study of
Ptolemy, Strabo and Greek geographers and this belief possible. In addition, Roger Bacon used
mathematics to speculate that both land and water distributed over a globe rather than a flat surface.
Geographers also believed the world could be dived into 360°. Ptolemy’s maps however a number
of errors including (a) that the world was shown smaller than it actually was (b) there was no land
mass to represent the American continent and (3) the Indian Ocean was land locked.

Technology- Astrolabe and quadrant allowed navigators to get an idea of where there were and
know how many miles the ship had travelled. The increase in trade led to the construction of bigger
ships which were able to carry goods between the Mediterranean and Northern European ports.
Consequently carracks replaced the galley. Additionally caravel planking replaced clinker-built
ships. Caravel planking made ships lighter and more water tight. Carracks were steered by a rudder
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instead of oars. A square sail was used. This was soon replaced by a lateen sail which was borrowed
from the Arab baglila. This sail could be adjusted to meet almost any condition. The lead was a
chunk of metal between seven and fourteen pounds and it measured the depth of water below. A
compass allowed the traveller to always know the direction in which they were travelling.

The desire to find Utopia: - there was a desire to convert heathens to Christianity and to end the
power of Muslim Turks. Tied to this was the desire to find the perfect society to provide the pattern
for their own intuitions. It was believed the Utopia could be found overseas.

Christopher Columbus and his Voyages to the New World

Between 1492 and 1504, the Admiral of the Ocean Sea made four voyages to the New World. He
first set sail from Spain on August 3, 1492 with three ships; the Nina, the Pinta and the Santa Maria
(his flagship). His initial intention was to sail to Japan and China in the East Indies but he ended
up in the West Indies where he called the people he found Indians. He was the first European to
establish a permanent link between Europe and the Americas. His first voyage ended in 1493 and
the Spanish royalty were so impressed that they allowed him to sail again later in that year. This
second voyage lasted for three years. Columbus made two additional voyages. They commenced
in 1498 and 1502 respectively and each lasted for two years.

Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy in 1451. He was the oldest surviving son of Domenico and
Susanna Colombo. As a boy he had a love for the sea. Sometime after May 1476, Columbus joined
his brother Bartholemew in Lisbon and the two established a chart making business. Columbus
married the daughter of a Portuguese explorer. Columbus believed it was possible to reach Japan
by sailing west from Europe. He believed the journey could take three weeks and that the distance
across the Atlantic was 2400 miles. This was known as the Enterprise of the Indies.

The Columbus Project refers to his attempt to arrive in the East by sailing westward. To finance
this journey Columbus sought financial support, first from Portugal and then Spain. The
Portuguese were committed to discovering a route around Africa and John II turned down
Columbus’ request. Bartholomew Diaz, in Dec 1488 opened up the route to India where he was
storm driven around the southernmost tip of Africa. Spain however was eager to compete with
Portugal and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were interested in Columbus’ goal. They agreed
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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

to supply him with ships so the he might search for Cipangu and the mainland of China. Spain
expected to tap the resources of the East and Christianise the heathens. They promised Columbus
that he would become the Admiral, Viceroy Governor and that he shall be given the title “Sir”.
On April 17, 1492, a contract was drawn up which allowed Columbus to sail west to discover and
acquire islands and mainland in the Ocean Sea namely Cipangu (Japan) and Cathay (China).

Columbus’ first voyage commenced on August 3, 1492 and ended on March 15 1493. Three ships
the Nina, Piñta and Santa Maria the Flag ship. On this journey Columbus discovered the Bahamas,
Cuba and Hispaniola. The island in the Bahamas he first saw San Salvador, on October 12 at 2 am,
its discovery was announced by Rodrigo de Triana. The second voyage lasted from Sept 25, 1493
to June 11 1496. This voyage was the largest colonising expedition to leave Europe. It left Spain
with 6th Months of supplies on 17 ships, between 12- 1500 colonist, seeds, foods, wine and
farming implements. The territories discovered on the journey were Jamaica, Puerto Rico,
Dominica, Guadeloupe, Montserrat, Antigua, St Christopher and Nevis, St Martin, St Croix and
La Desirade, Marie Galante and a number of other small islands. Voyage #3 commenced in May
31, 1498 and ended on Dec 1500. Columbus discovered the mainland of South America, Trinidad,
Grenada, St Vincent, Margarita and Cubaque and Tobago. On the 4th voyage, May 9 1502 to Nov
6 1504, St Lucia, Martinique and Central America were discovered.

Columbus’ discoveries were not the end but rather the start of European discoveries. The
discoveries of the West Indies led to a dispute between Spain and Portugal over possession of the
newly found lands. After Columbus’ first voyage, the King and Queen of Spain asked the Pope to
secure all the lands they discovered. He developed a series of papal bulls which divided the world
outside Europe into two zones, along 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All
lands west of the line were the Spanish area of exploration and control. These allowed control over
the New World. In 1494 the treaty of Tordesillas shifted the line 270 leagues farther West, giving
Portugal Brazil. No other European nation accepted Spain’s control of the New World and
England(1497) and France(1524) sent explorers to discover and settle new lands. These nations
wanted to gain the wealth they saw Spain receive from the colonies as well as deny Spain access
to all the wealth. The Spanish chose to settle the larger islands and neglected the smaller ones,

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

which allowed for settlement form other Europeans, especially English, French and the Dutch. It
was not until the 1600s, however, these would lay claim and settle within the West Indies.

Colonization of the Indies began because Columbus promised that there was endless Caribbean
gold. It started in 1494 in Santo Domingo and by March of that year, the first convoy, under
Antonio de Torres, arrived in Spain with 30,000 gold ducats from the Caribbean. This gold rush
was however, short lived and Columbus turned his attention to trading in Indian slaves. Queen
Isabella rejected this idea in 1493 and 1494 for the following reasons [1] there would be a very
high mortality rate [2] there was no shortage of labour on the farms in Spain. [3] she saw herself
as the spiritual protector of the indigenous people. By 1495 however, there was an attempt to
sponsor the trade in Indian slaves. On February 24, a fleet under the command of Antonio de
Torres took a cargo of 600 Arawaks to Spain to be sold. ½ of them died on the voyage and the
experiment was not repeated.

Settlement Patterns: For the first decade, Hispaniola remained the only Spanish settled colony in
the Caribbean. By 1510 the output of gold was at its peak and the Spanish population had increased
from a few hundred in 1494 to several thousands. After the exhaustion of gold in Hispaniola, the
Spanish turned their attention to Cuba, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. By the 1540s Spanish settlements
were established along the Caribbean coastline of Central and South America.

Systems of Colonisation: Encomienda- the Queen’s natives were allocated to settlers as estate
labourers, to work for and pay tribute to their masters. In return, the settlers were to be loyal to
Columbus and the Crown. They were also expected to christianise the Indians by keeping a priest
among them. This system was introduced by Columbus. By 1525, this system existed in all areas
under Spanish control.
In 1509, Jamaica was settled by Juan de Esquivel. In 1511, Cuba was settled by Diego de
Valazques.
In 1510 a group of Dominican Friars arrived in Hispaniola and were immediately shocked by the
conditions of Encomienda and reported to the Spanish crown that the Indians were enslaved,
overworked, ill-fed, and unable to reproduce naturally and generally in the most deplorable
condition. The Friars were successful in securing protectionist laws from King Ferdinand in the

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

form of The Laws of Burgos 1512-1513. These laws took the position that the Indians were
inclined to be idle, vicious and not receptive to Christian learning and therefore the only way to
improve their condition was to make them subordinate to Christians. Even though these laws did
not alter the relationship between the Spaniards and the Indians, they sought to improve the
condition of the Indians by [1] limiting their hours of labour in the mines [2] keeping children
under fourteen out of the mines [3] keeping families together [4] encouraging the encomenderos
to look after the spiritual welfare of the Indians. The Friars were disappointed with these laws.
The condition of the Indians continued to decline.
The Laws were resisted by the encomenderos and the numbers of Indians continued to decline
until there were less than 2,000 Arawaks in Hispaniola in 1530. However, Bartolomé de las Casas
attempted to preserve the Indians’ lives. He lived in both Hispaniola and Cuba between 11502
and 1512 and was an encomendero in Cuba. He petitioned the Council of the Indies (the body
through which the crown ruled the Indies) on behalf of the Church and the Indians. He informed
the Crown that unless the encomienda system came to an end [1] the Indians would be wiped out
and [2] the encomendero class would become so strong that it would eventually resist imperial
rule. In response a new body of laws called the New Laws was passed. These prohibited Indian
enslavement and punishment, and forbade the granting of new encomenderos. Additionally,
churchmen and royal officials were to give up their encomiendas. These laws were rejected by the
encomenderos and in 1545-46 they were repealed. Furthermore, encomiennda grants could be
passed from father to son via an inheritance system called the vida.

European Rivalry in the Caribbean up to 1763

The other European nations did not favour a Spanish domination of the New World. Their attack
occurred in three phases; [1] vocal attacks [2] Between 1555 and 1640, a consistent attack on
Spanish-colonial trade was launched by the English, French and Dutch. This was done via
privateers and interlopers and then by settlers, organized merchant companies and states. [3] after
the 1763, seven years’ war, Spain ceded the Windward Islands to the British and opened up
Caribbean ports to the British. The various European nations at first united against Spain and once
they secured territories, they started to fight among themselves.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

The French and Spanish politicians worked out a policy of no peace beyond the line which meant
that neither would relinquish their New-World counter claims. Peace would be kept in Europe but
not in the Caribbean. European governments would not support explorers who went beyond the
prime meridian and south of the Tropic of Cancer. The Spanish were unwilling to give up their
right to exclude all foreigners from the region and for the French it was a decision not to give up
their right to explore the Caribbean. This policy meant that pirates and merchants were on their
own.
From 155-1640, the French, English and Dutch launched a consistent attack upon Spanish traders
and settlements, Privateers and interlopers attacked Spanish settlements and ships carrying
colonial produce, illegal trade with Spanish colonist involved Slaves, wine, etc were traded by the
illegal traders in return for gold, tobacco, sugar, etc. Between 1530 and 1575, slaves were the most
valuable commodity with the Portuguese and the Dutch (1580s onward) being the primary
suppliers. The Portuguese were the first to obtain an asiento, (contract to sell slaves in Spanish
colonies) but after the 1560s the English began to illegally sell slaves. In the 1540s the French
began to trade illicitly and eventually captured many Spanish ships and a number of small towns
in Hispaniola. In response to attack the Spanish established a convoy system for protection at sea
and forts for protection on land.

Two English challengers to the Spanish monopoly were John Hawkins and Francis Drake, who is
known for his seizure of mule train carrying silver from Peru. This attack took place (a) the Isthmus
of Panama. The 1604 Peace Treaty allowed all unsettled areas to be open for competition while
giving Spain exclusive nights to her already settled areas. By 1620, the French, Dutch and English
were determined to settle, cultivate and defend the Caribbean. In 1621, the Dutch West India
Company was formed as a means of limiting further colonisation by the Spanish. Its aims were to
attack Spanish settlements and Force Spain to liberalize her colonial policy. The first attempt at
English settlement was in Guiana; but it was unsuccessful. (1623) In 1624, St. Christopher became
the first English colony and was financed by Ralph Merrifield and his merchant company.
Barbados was settled in 1627, Nevis in 1628 and Montserrat and Antigua in 1632. In 1616 and
1624, the Dutch settled Essequibo and Berbice respectively. Between 1630 and 1640, they settled
Saba, Curaco, St. Marten and St. Eustatius. Martinique and Guadeloupe were settled in 1635.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

After the rise of the sugar industry, there was a direct interference in Spanish affairs. Firstly, a
contraband trade of slave, wine and textiles emerged with Spanish colonists who sold their gold,
silver, tobacco, hides sugar and other colonial produce. Secondly, there were planned raids on
settlements and convoys carrying produce to Spain. Between 1530 and 1575, the most valuable
trade item among the non-Spanish was African slaves and the Portuguese were the primary
producers. They held the asiento which was a contract to sell slaves in the colonies but the English
traded illegally in slaves.
With the attack on their empire the Spanish responded by [1] using the convoy system to transport
goods to and from Spain [2] developed secret sailing directions and [3] built forts to protect their
towns. [4] Occasionally and randomly raided the settled territories [5] refused to recognise the
settlements. By the 1640s she had lost the energy and resources needed to drive the enemy out.
After being settled by other Europeans, the Caribbean became a region of global economic
importance and consequently a zone of heavy investment and expansive trade. Europeans devised
commercial systems to keep a monopoly over their colonies. It was called the mercantile
system/mercantilism and it involved [1] goods could only be imported or exported on a ship
belonging to either the mother country of the colony [2] colonial exports were to be confined to
the mother country [3] the goods of the mother country should be given the monopoly in the
colonial market [4] colonial goods should receive preferential treatment on the home market. [5]
Colonies were not to establish manufacturing industries to compete with the mother country’s
industries.

Settlements by Other Europeans

ENGLIISH FRENCH DUTCH

1609-Virginia 1625- the French were invited to 1616- Essiquibo

share St. Christopher

1624- St. Christopher- she 1635- Marinique and 1624- Berbice

changed hands many times between Guadeloupe
1625 and 1713. In 1629, a joint
Anglo-French alliance defended the
island against the Spanish. In 1631,
the English argued that the French
and not the Caribs attacked them.

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

During the Anglo-French Wars of

1666-67, 1689-97 and 1702 to 13,
the island changed hands between
the two but a treaty in 1713 handed
it to the British.

1627- Barbados 1655- Hispaniola was settled by the 1625- St. Croix was occupied by
French and by 1697, Spain was the Dutch and English.
forced to recognize the settlement.
Spain was forced to share her
mother-colony with France.

1628-Nevis 1630-1640- Saba, Curacao, St.

Martin and St. Eustatius

1630- the Providence Company was

founded and it settled three small
islands in the western Caribbean;
providence, Henretta and Tortuga.

1655- Jamaica

Impact of the Europeans on the Indigenous Peoples

The arrival of Europeans, signalled a new era in the lives of Amerindians, who were enslaved by
the Spanish. The repartimiento/encomienda systems were used to enslave the natives. It was a
system in which the “queen’s natives” were to provide labour for the settlers on estates and to pay
tributes to their masters. In return the settlers were to remain loyal to the Spanish crown and
Columbus. By 1525 repartimiento was in most of the Spanish West Indies. Frey Nicholas de
Ovando may be deemed responsible for the success of the system. The owners of the encomiendas
were called encomienderos.

The arrival of Europeans, signalled a new era in the lives of Amerindians, who were enslaved by
the Spanish. The repartimiento/encomienda systems were used to enslave the natives. It was a
system in which the “queen’s natives” were to provide labour for the settlers on estates and to pay
tributes to their masters. In return the settlers were to remain loyal to the Spanish crown and
Columbus. By 1525 repartimiento was in most of the Spanish West Indies. Frey Nicholas de
Ovando may be deemed responsible for the success of the system. The owners of the encomiendas
were called encomienderos.
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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

Demographic Changes- in the first ten years of conquest, it has been estimated that 2/3 of the
Arawaks had died. By 1530, Taino populations were declining to the extent that Africans were
needed to replace the declining labour supplies. The Taino populations in Puerto Rico, Jamaica
and Cuba were also affected by demographic changes. By 1508, only 60,000 of Hispaniola’s
original population of 300,000 were alive and by1548, the population of Hispaniola was 500. By
1586, there were no Arawaks in Santo Domingo and by 1655 there were no Arawaks in Jamaica.
Within the first 150 years of European settlement in the New World, there were no Arawaks left
in the islands. Factors responsible for these changes included overwork, inability to reproduce,
suicide, infanticide and the impact of European diseases such as measles and smallpox (Cuba in
1520). These factors were all as a result of the Encomienda System, which may be held
responsible for the decline and elimination of the Amerindian populations. In 1492 over 1 million
Amerindians listed in the Greater Antilles by 1560 they were less than 500 and by 1600 no pure
Indians remained. The system allowed for family, disintegration, and crop devaluation,
exploitation of women, low birth rates and death by European diseases. Wars and suicide also led
to the decline of Amerindians. In 1510, some Dominican friars began protesting against the
encomienda and were successful in gaining support from King Ferdinand through the laws of
Burgos 1512-1573. These laws (i) limited their hours of labour, (ii) kept children 14 and under out
of mines, (iii) Kept families together, (iv) Guaranteed religious instruments for Amerindians and
(v) did not change the relationship between Spaniards and Amerindians.

During the 1520s, there was resistance to the laws of Bugos. Bartoleme de las Casas emerged as
the main supporter of the Indians and petitioned the council of Indians to end encomiemda. In
1542, the “New laws” was passed. It ordered church and royal officials to give up their servants
and prevented the issuing of mew encomiendas. The laws were rejected by the Spaniards and this
forced the crown to repeal the laws. Encomienderos could pass the encomienda grants to their sons
and this was known as vida.

Colonization- By 1500, Columbus was only able to conquer the northern coast and the central
corridor (extending from the abandoned town of Isabela in the north to Santo Domingo on the
South coast) of Hispaniola. This central corridor passed through the original goldfield. To
maintain and extend control of Hispaniola, the Spaniards built forts and imposed a tribute system
on the Indians. The first fort established in Hispaniola by Columbus was at La Navidad and it was
built because his ship the Santa Maria, was damaged on a reef and all of its sailors could not return
to Spain on the Nina, which was Columbus’ only available ship. With respect to the tribute system,

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

each Indian, 14 years or older, was expected to pay one hawk’s bell full of gold dust every three
months.

Cultural Impositions- The culture of the Tainos changed after the conquest by the Spaniards.
Some of these changes included; [1] the duty of their caciques changed- they were no longer village
leaders but became mere overseers who were expected by the Spaniards to make their villagers
work for their European colonizers. [2] the Tainos were forced to adopt the teachings of
Christianity and give up their traditional religious beliefs and practices. [3] Taino women and
Spanish men reproduced and the mixed children of these unions were more open to accepting the
cultural beliefs and practices of both parents. [4] there was a decline in the production of traditional
Taino artifacts because the Tainos spent all of their time working for the Spaniards rather than
working for themselves. [5] they were forced to learn and used the language of the colonizer. [6]
they were forced to accept the observance of religious and secular holidays which were important
to the Europeans.
Economic destabilization - a direct consequence of the Encomienda system was economic
destabilization within the Taino communities. Due to the length of time the Taino spent working
for the Spaniards, they were unable to work their lands or produce their cultural artifacts. This
forced them to become reliant on the Spaniards for their basic necessities.

Impact of Indigenous Peoples on the Europeans

Introduction of crafts, agricultural products- the Taino played a role in the exchange of foods to
the Eastern hemispheres. Cassava was carried by slave traders to sub-Sahara Africa and Indian
corn was taken to Spain because it grows well in both temperate and tropical climates. From Spain,
the consumption of Indian corn spread to the Mediterranean Basin and Central Europe. It was
used mainly to feed cattle. The process of cultivating and processing cassava was also transported
to Europe. In addition to cassava and corn other crops which were transported included sweet
potato, bean, squash, peanuts, guavas, mammee apples and pineapples. The Taino also contributed
rubber, tobacco, canoes and hammocks to the

Columbian exchange1 which refers to the transmission of a number of biological, cultural and
linguistic traits to the Spaniards who in turn passed them on to their European neighbours. In terms

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 Theme A: the indigenous peoples and the Europeans

of language, the Taino words for many of the items taken across the Atlantic went with them.
These words included; barbecue, cannibal, hurricane and savannah.

Provision of Labour- The Encomienda System was instituted by Nicholas Ovando in 1503 when
he sent word to the Spanish crown that the Indians were lazy and would be better engaged in
regular work instead of being left to enjoy freedom. He was asked by the crown to assemble the
Tainos near the gold-fields so that they could be easily put to work. This was called Repartimiento
i.e. assigning whole Indian communities to individual Spanish settlers for use in goldfields or on
ranches. Each community had to spend six months at work and was then allowed to return to his
village for the other six months. The Cacique became overseers and were to take his villagers to
their place of work. Sundays and public holidays were to be used for religious instruction. The
time off was reduced to four month because the need for forced labour increased. Repartimiento
developed into the Encomienda System. Queen Isabella felt that the Encomiendas were a way of
carrying out God’s work by giving the Indians protection and a chance to learn the teachings of
Christianity.

Diseases- it has been accepted that the Tainos gave the Spaniards syphilis. According to Las
Casas, the Spaniards of the first and second voyages contracted it from the Taino women in
Hispaniola.

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