What is a prokaryote?

A prokaryote is any organism –

usually single-celled – whose
DNA is suspended freely in the
cytoplasm. The word means
“before the nucleus”.

Prokaryotes can be divided

into two groups:

l bacteria
l archaea.

Prokaryotes have simpler structure than eukaryotes, lacking

organelles such as the nucleus, ER and Golgi.
Features of the bacteria and archaea
Bacterial capsules
Many pathogenic bacteria are surrounded by a mucous-like
protective layer called a capsule.

capsule cell wall

The capsule protects bacteria from viruses, or attack from a

host organism’s immune system, by hiding antigens on the
cell surface.
The capsule is usually composed of polysaccharides, and
also contains water to protect against desiccation (drying out).
Flagella and pili
Some prokaryotic cells feature
one or more flagella. These are
long helical tubes extending out
of the cell wall, which rotate to
provide locomotion.

Flagella are powered by protein

motors and can propel bacteria at
a rate of more than 50 lengths per
second.

Many bacteria also feature pili. These are hollow protein

structures used during bacterial conjugation – the transfer
of genetic material from one bacterium to another.
Plasmids
Bacterial cells often contain several plasmids – small
continuous loops of DNA.
Plasmids are replicated independently of a bacterium’s
genophore (e.g. during bacterial conjugation), and may
confer an advantage, such as antibiotic resistance.

pilus draws replication of plasmid

bacteria together
Plasmids are commonly used in genetic engineering to make
copies of genes or large quantities of proteins or hormones.
What is a eukaryote?
A eukaryote is any organism
consisting of one or more cells that
contain DNA in a membrane-bound
nucleus, separate from the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotes include:
animals
plants
fungi
a diverse group known as the
protists (or protoctists).
All eukaryotic cells contain a large number of specialized,
membrane-bound organelles.
What is a cell?
Animal and plant cells come in different shapes and sizes,
but they all have three basic features.

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

animal cell plant cell

Plant cells also have some extra features that make them
different to animal cells.
The parts of a typical animal cell
The organelles of protein synthesis
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is an energy-generating organelle.
It is surrounded by two membranes. The inner layer folds
inwards to form the cristae. The cristae project into a liquid
called the matrix.

outer membrane cristae

matrix
inner membrane

The inner membrane is coated in enzymes, which catalyze

the reactions of aerobic respiration to produce ATP.
Microtubules and the cytoskeleton
The parts of a typical plant cell
Plant cells
Plant cells share all the common features of animal cells,
but also contain some additional organelles.
Plants gain all their energy from sunlight; cells in their leaves
contain many chloroplasts to convert this into a useful form.

chloroplast

vacuole

Every plant cell is

surrounded by a cell
wall, and contains
one or more
cell wall
permanent vacuoles.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts use carbon dioxide, water and light energy to
build sugars. They are present in all green plants.
The chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane. It is
filled with a liquid called the stroma, and contains stacks
of thylakoid membranes called grana.

grana
stroma

thylakoid membrane

The thylakoid membranes are the site of photosynthesis.

The cell wall
The cell wall of a plant cell gives it support and structure.
It is made of the polysaccharide cellulose, and can function
as a carbohydrate store by varying the amount of cellulose
it holds.

The cell wall does not seal off a

cell completely from its
neighbors. There are pores
within the walls called
plasmodesmata. These
connect two cells together by
their cytoplasm, enabling
substances to be exchanged
and transported between them.