Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering Department: Debre Tabor University

Hydraulics and water resources engineering department 2018/2019
DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY
HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Hydraulics and water resources engineering

department
Prepared by: - ASIRAT TESHOME
Debre Tabor
Ethiopia, 2018
EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is communication?
In addition to the analytical and design skills which you need to become a successful engineer,
communication skills will be required throughout your career. Communication is the vital act of
transferring ideas from one person to another. The main modes of communication are written,
verbal, and visual. In the scientific community, written reports are one important mechanism
whereby this transfer takes place. As a practicing engineer, you will need to write reports,
proposals, and scientific papers. Writing is perhaps the most important way in which you will
convey your ideas to managers, other engineers, and customers. Your communication skills will,
therefore, determine how successful you are as an engineer, perhaps even more so than your
technical expertise. The ability to communicate your ideas or findings to others is as important as
the knowledge itself.
1.2 What is the report?

Technical reports are the primary written work products of engineers. As such, they present facts
and conclusions about designs, experiments, and other projects. A technical report‟s purpose is
for an engineer to communicate information gained through a process of technical or
experimental work. Your goal as an engineer is to write technical reports that are formal,
logically organized and easy to read and understand.
1.3 Elements of Effective Communication:

 Clarity of Thought and Expression
 Correctness/Appropriateness
 Conciseness
 Conducive Environment
 Feedback
 Completeness
 Communication can be a matter of life and death.
 The most critical and obvious reason behind the collapse of any engineering structure is
poor communication.
• The main modes of communication are written, verbal, and visual.

1.4 Report
 It is a highly structured document written in a formal style.
 Normally a report is based on your reading and some practical works such as an
investigation, survey, experiment or review of practice in other organization.
1.4.1 Types of reports

 Technical Report:
 Popular Report
 The Report for the Administrator
 Oral Report
1.4.2 Difficulties or Problems in Writing a Report
1.4.2.1. The Problems of Communications

a. Technical terms should be properly explained.
b. Neither too simple nor too difficult expression
c. Level of Knowledge and subject-matter
d. Language and drafting
1.4.2.2. The problem of objectivity.
1.4.2.3. The Problems of expression of bitter truths and unpleasant facts

Common mistakes in writing a report
 A purpose of technical report writing for an engineer is to communicate information

gained through a process of technical or experimental work.
 The goal of an engineer is to write technical reports that are formal, logically organized
and easy to read and understand.
Technical reports generally aim to:-

 Set out the issue and explain why the activity was undertaken.
 Describe what was done and how it was done. Present finding, conclusion and any
recommendation.
Characteristics of good report

1) Attractive 5) Statement of scientific facts
2) Clear Topic 6) Practicability
3) Balanced Language 7) Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
4) No repetition of facts

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 COMPONENTS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT
The technical report is a kind of writing you will engage in throughout your academic and
professional career. It should include the following sections:
1. Title page 5. Body
2. Abstract /executive summary a) theory
3. Table of contents b) apparatus
4. Introduction c) experimental setup/experimental procedure
a) The background d) sample calculation
b) The purpose 6. Result and discussion
c) The scope 7. Conclusion and Recommendation
8. References
9. Appendix/Appendices
2.1Title Page
The title identifies the subject and indicates the purpose of the study. The title should be brief
and meaningful and describe the contents of the report. The title page includes the title, author‟s
name, course name and number, lab section number, instructor‟s name, and is not numbered.
2.2 Executive Summary/Abstract
Technical reports typically require either an Executive Summary or an Abstract, but not both.
The executive summary should give a concise and clear overview of the entire laboratory
experiment or topic to be discussed and should be the main explanation of the entire report.
Readers should be able to gain all the necessary information from the Executive Summary and
sometimes will read only this part. It should be written in the third person, passive voice, and
past tense because it explains work already done. It should be a document which can be read
independently of the main report. It usually contains 100 to 200 words

2.3 Table of contents

Under tables of contents, list all the main sections including the appendices remembering to
include the page numbers. Any illustration, tables, figures or diagrams are listed in tables of
contents.
2.4 Introduction
This section provides a context for the work discussed in the report. Therefore,
 It defines the experiment/work performed
 It defines the scientific purpose or objective for the experiment
 It includes a description of the problem and the reasons for the work being done
 It gives sufficient background information to the report
 It must answer the questions
 Why was this study performed?
 What is the specific purpose of the study?
2.5 Main section/body
 This part presents the results to the reader
 Depending on the types of the report this section can be divided into different areas as
literature review, methodology, results, and discussion
2.5.1 Results and Discussion
The results of the technical report should be analyzed, interpreted and stated clearly. The use of
figures and tables usually incorporated should have labels referenced in the text and fully
explained and interpreted. Any errors should be discussed and explained with regards to how
they occurred and how they affected the conclusion. An error analysis is usually an essential part
of the discussion and provides a comparison to expected results. Data presented as results should
be well organized. Numerical data should be included in graphs or tables to provide the best
possible information about the real situation. This section should answer the questions:
 What do the results clearly indicate?
 What was discovered?
 What is the significance of the results?
 Are the results fully discussed and conclusions drawn based on the knowledge gained?
 How did errors occur?
 Did any of the errors affect the conclusion of the experiment/study?
2.6 Conclusion
This section is the final part of the report used to summarize the key points from the main body
of the report relating them back to the introduction. This section should briefly summarize the
significant results of the experiment/the report. The conclusion:
 Must answer any questions raised in the introduction regarding what was shown,
discovered, verified, proved, or disproved.
 Must explain why the experiment was significant.
 Must explain the implications for your particular field of study.
 Should not include discussion of new information not already mentioned in the report.

The conclusion part does not introduce the new material in this section. This section must
explain the implications for your particular field of study.
2.7 Recommendations
This section provides you with the opportunity to suggest changes and improvements. Any
recommendations should be based on your conclusion.
2.8 References
The reference list should detail all the sources you have used in your report. It is in strict
alphabetical order.
2.9 Appendices
Useful information too long to fit within the body of the paper is placed in an appendix.
Typically appendices are used for long mathematical formulas and complete sets of data such as
tables or figures. All appendices should be referenced within the text of the report; items in the
appendices should be arranged in the order in which they are mentioned in the report itself.
Use this section to include material that the reader might want to refer to but would disrupt the
flow of the main report.
Each appendix is numbered so that it can be referred to in the report. Used for long mathematical
formulae.
3. Structure of Report
4. Fonts and spacing

In general use a „serif‟ font such as Times and new Roman.

Fonts should be minimum of 12point and 1.5 line spacing is recommended unless otherwise
specified.
Titles and headings may be in bold „sans-serif‟ font (such as „Arial‟)
Spacing is a blank line but not indentation between paragraphs.
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Visual Displays and Presentations
Tabular, Graphical, Chart and Pictorial Representations
Tables and figures are two major aids available to the technical writer. Written discussions can
be clarified by integrating tables and figures into the text. Tables present discontinuous, yet
numerically accurate information with no limit to the number of variables. The challenge in
using tables is to emphasize the most relevant trends. Figures include drawings, sketches,
photographs, maps, graphs, plans, and diagrams. An effort must be made to make figures
accurate and not misleading. Tables and figures are most effective when they are useful, clear,
self-explanatory, accurate, easily understood and remembered. They should have enough
explanation in their captions to stand alone, in case they are copied and used in presentations or
out of the context of the report. A table or figure should be placed in a consistent manner
throughout the report, either:
 Inserted in the text immediately following the paragraph in which it is first mentioned in
the body (textbook style);
 On a separate page which immediately follows the page where it is first mentioned (thesis);
 At the end of the report in a separate section (journal paper submission).
Common rules regarding table composition and arrangement.
 Never place a table on two pages if it can be arranged on one.
 Tables must conform to the same margin requirements as the text.
 Box headings all proper nouns and proper adjectives capitalized.
 Compare items in the same column in ascending or descending order of rank.
 Align all columns of figures by the decimal points.
3.1. Tables
Typically, tables are used to summarize “listed” data where:

 non-numeric data or a mixture of non-numeric and numeric data is summarized;
 numeric data is recorded with full numeric accuracy; or
 A large set of related data with many variables is presented, but subsets of this data will
be used for comparison by some other means.
Tables must be accurately compiled and arranged for easy readability and interpretation. The
principal comparison should be between columns, rather than rows. Number and title every
table. Tables are numbered consecutively in their order of appearance throughout the text (viz. 1,
2, 3, etc.) or by individual chapters (viz. 3.1., 3.2, 3.3, etc. where the first numeral indicates the
chapter). Following are a few of the common rules regarding table composition and arrangement.
 Never place a table on two pages if it can be arranged on one. Long tables may be continued
from page to page. The second page should start with a continuation (e.g. Table 2-
Continued) and a header row.
 Tables must conform to the same margin requirements as the text. If the table is too wide to
be accommodated within the required margins, even when placed broadside (landscape
mode), then reduction by the photographic process is a possible solution.
 Box headings have the first letter of the first word and all proper nouns and proper adjectives
capitalized.
 Compare items in the same column in ascending or descending order of rank.
 Align all columns of figures by the decimal points.
 Abbreviations and symbols may be used in box headings and the main body of the tables but
not in captions.
 Footnotes to tables are placed immediately below the tables. These should include
abbreviations used in the table but not in the text.
 Tables of more than two columns may be ruled. Minimize the number of lines used.
 When presenting very large or very small numbers use the appropriate power of 10. Either
multiply the number in the table by the power of 10 (viz. 5.3 x 104) or the units in the box
heading by the power of 10 (viz. pressure x 10-4 psi).
3.2. Graphs
Since most readers are visually orientated, a graph will often be easier to analyze and remember
than written text. Line graphs or x-y graphs are used to show a relationship between two or three
variables. Bar graphs can be used to illustrate the effect of a non-numeric variable upon a
numeric variable. Pie charts can show the relative importance of a set of values upon the whole.
All graphs should be clear, self-explanatory and accurate. A few common rules to be followed
when graphs are prepared are given below.
 Show coordinate axes and label them carefully. The dependent variable is plotted on the
ordinate (Y-axis) with the independent variable along the abscissa (X-axis).
 Label each graph with a title and number.
 The origin should appear on all graphs (except logarithmic).
 Data appearing on graphs may be tabulated in an Appendix to the report to provide a record
of exact values.
 Choose the ordinate and the abscissa scales so that points can be read with precision
approximately equal to the experimental error.
 Choose the units for the ordinate and abscissa to be multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10 rather than
odd multiples, viz. 2.8, 5.6, etc.
 Do not clutter any graph with too many curves. Identify each curve with a label. Use a key
for several curves on a single graph.
 Graph paper with a coarse grid is better than one with a fine grid because the ordinates and
curves are more predominant when there are fewer grid lines.
 The most prominent feature of the graph should be the data and/or trend line. Next in
importance are the axes. Least important are gridlines. Therefore the line thickness should
decrease in the following order: trend line, axes (including ticks), legend box, grid lines.
3.3. Diagrams
The importance of schematic diagrams, dimensioned drawings, plans and exploded views in
engineering report writing cannot go unmentioned. Schematic diagrams illustrate flow, but the
entities in them are not to scale. Dimensioned drawings, plans and exploded views can illustrate
the orientation of entities to each other. A dimensioned drawing of the apparatus constructed for
a research project is usually included. Large plans should be placed in a pocket at the back of the
report, but show the author's name and the date to ensure proper identification if separated from
the report.
Example of the table to display groups of data
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Mechanics of report writing
Careful attention to the mechanical details of a report will ensure a polished appearance and
professional touch. The neat well-ordered report indicates care and organized thinking. Both of
these qualities help the reader to form a favorable impression of the report and the author.
4.1. Paper
Print-out manuscripts with black ink on good quality paper of at least sixteen-pound weight cut
to the standard 215 x 280 mm (8.5" x 11") dimensions. Pages with unsightly marks and
corrections should not be incorporated into a finished report.
4.2. Margins
Adequate borders should be provided on every page of the manuscript to allow for binding and
trimming. Allow at least 38 mm (1.5") for the left-hand margin, 25 mm (1") for the top, right-

hand and bottom margins. Note that the margin requirements apply to the text and not the page
numbers.
4.3. Font
Use a common and easily readable font such as Arial, Courier, Helvetica or Times Roman. Use
the same font throughout the report.
4.4. Pagination
All pages of the report from the title page to the Introduction are numbered consecutively with
lower case Roman numerals (i, ii, etc.) centered at the bottom of the page. Although the number i
is assigned to the title page, it does not appear there. Consecutive Arabic numerals are used
throughout the remainder of the report to indicate page numbers. Each major component (e.g.
Introduction, Literature Survey, Experimental Details, etc.) which forms a complete chapter in
the basic report structure should begin on a new page with the Arabic numeral typed in the
bottom center.
All other pages may be numbered at the top right-hand corner or at the bottom center. Diagrams,
illustrations, and tables occupying a full page can be numbered near the bottom of the page at the
center (at the same position as the first page of a chapter). The List of References and
Appendices are numbered successively in their proper order of appearance with Arabic
numerals.
4.5. Numbers
Numbers are used more frequently in technical reports than in most other report forms. Several
rules pertaining to the use of numerals are given below.
 Do not start sentences with numerals; use words (e.g. Ten feet of pipe rather than 10 feet
of pipe).
 Use numerals for integers up to ten.
 If the number to be used is not a common fraction (3/4, 1/2), it is preferable to use the
decimal form, viz. 0.73.
 Precede the decimal point in a numeral less than one by a zero, viz. 0.383.
 If two numbers follow consecutively in a phrase, viz. 3 2 ft diameter tanks, errors due to
misreading can result. Uncertainty can be eliminated by writing one of the two numbers
in full, viz. three 2 ft diameter tanks. Generally, the least important number is written out
but if neither number deserves emphasis, use the shortest written form. Be consistent in
parallel construction: three 2 ft diameter tanks, four 2 in. valves.
 Use numerals for all data.
 Report only those significant figures consistent with the accuracy of the readings.
 Use numerals for percentages (10%), dates (1965), sums of money ($3000.00) and
numbers combined with abbreviations (15 psi.).

4.6. Equations
The presentation of equations in technical reports is often a source of great difficulty. Preparing a
preliminary Nomenclature as the report progresses can eliminate double-use of symbols.
Adhering to the following rules can facilitate the presentation of equations.
 Number each equation at the right-hand margin. Equations occupying more than one line are
numbered at the right-hand margin on the last line.
 Begin all equations on separate lines, centering them on the page if possible. Equations
requiring two lines or more begin on a paragraph indentation (five spaces) with each
successive line indented five additional spaces. For better appearance and clarity do not
crowd the text around equations.
 If the equation extends beyond one line, break it before a +, - or = sign and place that sign at
the beginning of the next line.
 Do not end a paragraph or a section with an equation.
 In a series of equations separated by phrases or single words of text, each equation is still
placed on separate lines. Include normal punctuations when equations are parts of sentences.
Do not use the equal sign as the main verb in the sentence.
 Exponential expressions are preferably written as exp(-ab/c), rather than e-ab/c.
 Leave one space after trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, before and after +, -, and =
signs when used as operators (sin x, 2 + 2, 2x = y + z, etc.).
 Do not leave a space between a symbol and its superscript or subscript (sin2 yo).
 In built-up fractions, attempt to contain the equation on one typewritten line (y = 2x/3z).
 A recommended order of closures for parenthesis, brackets, and braces, which are used
when necessary to avoid ambiguities, is the following: {[(....)]}
4.7. Symbols and Abbreviations
Symbols and abbreviations are used in technical reports for clarity and conservation of space.
When using abbreviations and symbols, ensure that all symbols and unusual abbreviations are
carefully defined in the text of the report. If there are too few abbreviations to warrant a
nomenclature section, abbreviations should be defined after they are first encountered in the text.
Since the use of symbols and abbreviations is specialized in the various scientific fields,
consistency can be maintained by referring to leading journals. Rules fundamental to the use of
symbols and abbreviations are as follows.
 Use the symbol for percent (%) only when it is preceded by a number (e.g. 81.3%).
 Do not abbreviate short words.
 Except when using a nomenclature section, define all abbreviations on first use (e.g.
green sulfur bacteria (GSB) was used in this ...). Avoid using abbreviations in the
abstract.
 Do not insert space between letters of abbreviations such as NASA, AECL, etc. (not N A
S A, etc.).
 Do not use an apostrophe in making an abbreviation plural (e.g. PAHs, not PAH‟s).

4.8. Headings
A well-organized report reflects the logical thinking of the author. Proper headings can break the
report into logical sub-sections which are easy to find by using the index. All headings should be
distinguished from the rest of the text by placing the heading on a separate line and by the use of
bold fonts. Be consistent with the font sizes used for each degree of heading and the spacing
between the headings and the following text. A number system has been used in this report
which enables the reader to understand how the section s/he is about to read fits in with the
whole. Technical reports are normally written in chapter form unless they are of such short
duration that this possibility is precluded. Each new chapter title is in upper-case, bold, centered
at the top of a new page, and preceded by the chapter number. When second-degree headings are
used, each heading is displayed in caps and lower-case letters and indented five spaces, or about
10 mm. Subsequent paragraphs are indented five spaces.
4.8.1. Third-Degree Reading
Third-degree headings are displayed in caps and lower-case letters and indented ten spaces while
all subsequent paragraphs are indented ten spaces.
4.9. Spacing
Reports should be typed double (line) spaced, except for figure and table captions, higher order
headings in the table of contents, literal quotes, and references. A double space at the end of each
sentence after the period improves readability.
4.10. Spelling and Grammar
A report with numerous spelling and grammar errors may be rejected outright by the evaluator.
Do not depend on the word processor to identify all errors. Have the report read by a colleague
prior to submission?
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Research Methodology

 Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order
to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or
interested.”
 Research is an art aided by skills of inquiry, experimental design, data collection,

measurement and analysis by interpretation, and my presentation”
 Research is concerned with seeking solutions to problems or answers to meaningful

questions.
 Research is a process that acquires new knowledge

 Development is a process that applies knowledge to create new devices or effects.
The salient feature of research distinguishing it from casual observation:
Systematic: - so ordered, planned and disciplined
Controlled: - the researcher can have confidence in his/her research outcomes.
Empirical: - putting beliefs, ideas or assumptions to test,
Critical:- many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of subsequent research
5.2 Research Characteristics

 Originates with a question or problem.
 Cyclical (helical) in nature.
 Requires clear articulation of a goal.
 Follows a specific plan or procedure.
 Often divides the main problem into subproblems.
 Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
 Accepts certain critical assumptions.
 Requires collection and interpretation of data.
5.3 Research and development problems

 Research seeks truth
 Development seeks utility
 The industry can‟t afford the luxury of research
 Academics uninterested with development
 intolerant views
 R&D is interdependent
 Research results cannot be reproduced
 Data collection is haphazard
 Experiment methods are chaotic
 Trial and error
 Lack of records

 Reports are disorganized
Steps to conduct scientific research

 defining the problem
 making tentative explanations
 gathering information
 testing the validity of the hypothesis
 making conclusions as to whether the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected
The scientific research follows logical steps
5.4 Types of Research

 Classification of Research
 Basic and Applied Research
 Descriptive, Explanatory and Exploratory Research
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
5.4.1 Types of research based on the purpose

Applied vs. Basic (fundamental):
 Basic (fundamental/pure):- research has its primary objective the advancement of

knowledge and the theoretical understandings of the relations among variables.
 obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate a theory,

 the discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge
Applied scientific research
 It is designed to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for the
knowledge sake.
 It is concerned with finding out the answer to a specific problem
 is conducted in relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which

they are found in practice
 employs a methodology that is not as rigorous as that of basic research
 yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in
terms of universal validity
Qualitative vs. Quantitative:
Qualitative research
 Seeks to describe various aspects of behavior and other factors studied in the social
sciences and humanities.
 In qualitative research data are often in the form of descriptions, not numbers.
 But sometimes results of qualitative research are subjected to relatively less rigorous
quantitative treatment.
 Often the goal of qualitative research is to look for meaning
Quantitative research
 The systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships.
 The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models,

theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena.
 it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical

expression of an attribute.
 It favors methods such as surveys and experiments, and test hypotheses or statements
with a view to inferring from the particular to the general.

5.4.2 On the Basis of Nature of Findings

 Explanatory research: Such researches explain more concerned theories. laws and
principles.
 Exploratory research: which provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or

situation, and it is conducted b/be a problem has not been identified. It is used to
determine the best research design, data collection method, and selection of subjects.
 Descriptive research: These are more concerned with facts.
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding inquiries of different kinds.
 Descriptive research involves a variety of research methods to achieve its goal. The
methods that come under descriptive research are:
 Surveys,
 Correlation studies,
 Observation studies,
 Case studies
Conceptual vs. Empirical

 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
 The empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory
Selection and formulation of a research proposal
5.5 What is the Research Proposal?
It is a detailed plan of study.

 The research proposal indicates that a specific course of action will be followed.
 Its intent is to present a focused and scholarly presentation of a research problem and
plan.
 The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will do, why it should be
done, how you will do it and what you expect will result

 A good research proposal hinges on a good idea. Getting a good idea hinges on
familiarity with the topic.
Identifying a research topic
 Defining the problem is the first step and one of the most difficult in research
undertaking.
 It is the crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly.
 Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed topic must be compared with all other
options.
 The guidelines or criteria for selecting a research topic:
 Relevance/Significance
 Avoidance of duplication
 The urgency of data needed (timeliness)
 Feasibility of the study
 Applicability of results
 Interest to the researcher
 Ethical acceptability
5.5.1 Types of Research proposals
Internal
 It is done by a staff specialist by the research department within the firm.
External
 These are sponsored by other sponsors, such as NGOs, industry or government agencies.
They can be further classified as solicited or unsolicited.
Three levels of complexity:

 The exploratory study is used for the most simple proposals
 The small-scale study is more complex and common in business
 The large-scale professional study is the most complex, costing millions

Points considered in selecting/identifying a research problem
1. The subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen
2. The controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one‟s reach.
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.
The technique involved in defining a problem

 Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in
the abroad general way.
 Understanding the nature of the problem: understand its origin and nature
 Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at
hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined.
 Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often

produces useful inform.
 Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition.
5.6 Components of a research proposal:

1. Title page
2. Summary/Abstract
3. Introduction/Background
4. Statement of the problem
5. Literature review
6. Hypotheses /Questions
7. Conceptual framework
8. Objective/Aim of the study
9. Research methods, materials, and procedures
 The study area, Study design, and Study subjects
 Eligibility Criteria (if any), Sample size and Sampling methods
 Method of data collection and Description of variables
 Data quality assurance

 Operational definitions
 Plan of data analysis
10. Work plan
11. Budget
12. Reference
13. Appendices/Annexes
Title page
 Must be well studied, and to give, so far as its limits permit, a definite and concise
indication of what is to come.
 should state the topic exactly in the smallest possible number of words.
 Put your name, the name of your department/faculty/college, the name of your advisor(s)
and date of delivery under the title
 A good title is defined with the fewest possible words that adequately describe the
contents of the study
 Titles should almost never contain abbreviations.
 no page number and it is not counted in any page numbering.
Summary/Abstract
 one page brief/concise summary of the thesis proposal or the material presented in the
proposal
 Though it appears at the front it is written last.
 it enables the reader to identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately, to
that end, it needs to show how your work fits into what is already known about the topic
and what new contribution your work will make
 Determine its relevance to their interests, and
 Decide whether they need to read the document in its entirety
Characteristics of an abstract

Introduction/background
 Is the part of the proposal that provides readers with
the background information for the research proposal.
 Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research.
 Proper acknowledgment of the previous work
 The introduction should be focused on the research question (s).
 All cited work should be directly relevant to the goals of the research.
 Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included
Statement of the problem

 Describes the context for the study and it also identifies. the general analysis approach.
 It is important in a proposal that the problem stands out

that the reader can easily recognize it.
 Effective problem statements answer the question why does this research need to be
conducted
 A well‐
articulated statement of the problem establishes the foundation for everything to follow in
the proposal and will render less problematic.

Literature review
 Provide a summary of previous related research on the research problem and their
strength and weakness and a justification of your research
 What is known/what has been done by others?
 And, why your research is still necessary?
The stages of a literature review

 Define the problem: narrow the scope of what to look out
 Search for relevant materials:
 Books(monographs, textbooks, reference books)
 Peer-reviewed journal articles
 Newspaper articles
 Historical records
 Commercial reports and statistical information
 Government reports and statistical information
 Thesis and dissertations
 Other information relevant to a particular discipline
Hypotheses /Questions
Question: an interrogative statement that can be answered by data
 Poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a
question
 Most often used in qualitative inquiry
Hypotheses: tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by means of

research
 A declarative statement of the relations between variables
 Typically used only in the quantitative inquiry
 Maybe stated in a directional (expected direction of results) or nondirectional form (no

difference or no relationship)
 Is a specific statement of prediction

 It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in
your study
 Not all studies have a hypothesis
 A single study may have one or many hypotheses
 When talking about hypothesis, we are thinking
 simultaneously about two hypothesis
 E.g. say you predict that there will be a relationship between two variables (A and B)
in your study
 The way the hypothesis test is set up is to formulate two hypothesis
 One that describes your prediction
 The other that describes all the other possible outcomes with respect to the
hypothesized relationships
 Your prediction is that variable A and variable B will be related. Then the only other
possible outcome would be that variable A and B are not related
 The hypotheses that you support is called the alternative hypothesis
 The hypotheses that describe the remaining possible outcomes is called the null
hypothesis
Conceptual framework
 Is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness and understanding
of the situation under examination
 Is a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of inquiry and used to
structure relevant fields of inquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation
 Has potential usefulness as a tool to scaffold research

has potential usefulness as a tool to scaffold research and, therefore, to assist a researcher
to make meaning of subsequent findings
 the starting point for reflection about the research and its context
Objective/aim of the study
 Summarize what is to be achieved by the study
 Should be closely related to the statement of the problem
 Simple (not complex),

 specific (not vague),
 stated in advance (not after the research is done)
 stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be measured
Objectives are useful to:

 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
 Avoid collection of data irrelevant to solving the problem
 Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases
General objective
 What exactly will be studied?
 A general statement specifying the desired outcomes
 Closely related to the statement of the problem
Specific objectives
 Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and outcomes and their
assessment in measurable terms
 Identifies in detail the specific aims of the research project
 Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under
„Statement of the problem‟ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the
problem.
Research Methodology/Methods
 The heart of the research proposal
 Decide exactly how you are going to achieve your stated objectives
 Research methodology defines the research methods and logic steps.
 What to do and how to solve the problem and achieve the proposed specific
objectives?
 Which research methods (e.g. survey, modeling, case study …) will be used.
The “methods” section should contain

 Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your approach
 Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment

 Description of your materials, procedure, theory, Calculations, technique, procedure,

equipment, and calibration plots
 Limitation, assumptions, and range of validity
 Description of your analytical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical

software
Research Design
 Definition
A framework or blueprint for conducting the research project
 Components
 Information needed
 Data collection methods
 Measurement and scaling procedures
 Sampling process and sample size
 Data analysis procedures
Preparing the research design

 A research design is a conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
 It facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
 Its function is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure
of effort, time and money
A research design should specify the following points:

 Objectives of research
 Scope of research
 Type of research
 Means of obtaining information
 The availability and skill of the researcher and his staff
 The time available for research
 The cost factor relating to research
 Tools to be used for analysis

Research planning
 A Research Plan is a document explaining the plan of the study/research project from its
start to the end.
 it should clearly show:
1. The research activities
2. The continuity of activities
3. The period of activities/timeline
4. Deliverables and milestones
5. The end goal
It basically addresses the issues of:

1. What to do
2. When to do
3. What to achieve
4. When to stop

Research design can be split into the following parts

 Sampling design: the method for selecting items to be observed for the given study.
 Observational design: conditions under which observations are to be made.
 Statistical design: how many items are to be observed and how they shall be analyzed.
 Operational design: the techniques by which the procedure specified in sampling, statist
ical and observational design are carried on
Descriptive Research Designs
Cross‐sectional designs
 Involves collection of information from a sample of respondents only once
 Could have a single cross‐sectional design(only one sample)or multiple

crosssectionaldesignone samples) or multiple cross-sectional designs
(many samples of respondents)
 Example: Sample surveys
Longitudinal Designs
 A fixed sample of the population is
measured repeatedly, i.e., same respondents studied over time
 Large amounts of data can be collected but can be expensive
 Useful for tracking changes in attitudes and behavior over time
 Example: Diary panel data
Experimental Design (ED)

 Definition: ED is a planned approach for determining cause and effect relationships
between input and output parameters
 Purpose: Collect the maximum amount of relevant information with a minimum

expenditure of time and resources.
Experimental Design Tools

Process in Conducting Research

Begin your research study with careful
 planning, followed by data gathering and then analysis and reporting
Planning
 Identify the problem or topic
 Review prior research
 Determine the Research Purpose, Research Questions, or Hypotheses
 Consider research implications
 Construct a research proposal
Gathering Data

 After planning your research study, the next phase is systematically gathering your data
(information) in an ethical manner
 Primary Data
 Secondary Data
Reporting results
 Analyze the data
 Determine findings: summarize the findings in relation to your research question(s) or

hypotheses and to previous research findings
 Report results: make sure to discuss what practical or theoretical implications can be
drawn from the findings
Budget and funding

Direct costs:
 Personnel: Salaries and wages of all participants of the study
 Principal investigator; supervisor; data collector; drivers; guards; data entry clerks, data
analysis, report writing, etc.
 Equipment's: properties which are expensive
 Travel: the cost of projected‐related travel
 Communications: postage, telephone, telegram, fax, e‐mail charges associated with a

project
 Publication: the cost incurred of preparing and publishing the results of the research.

Budget and funding
Indirect costs:
Includes;
 Overhead costs for institutions or associations
 General administrative cost
 Operational and maintenance
 Depreciation and use allowance
Measurement
 The process of assigning numbers or labels to objects, persons, states, or events in
accordance with specific rules to represent quantities or qualities of attributes.
Why do scores on a measurement scale differ?
 A true difference in the characteristic being A true difference in the characteristic being
measured.
 Short-term personal factors (e.g., moods, time constraints)
 Situational factors (e.g., surroundings)
 Variations in the method of administering the survey.
Basic scales of measurement

 Nominal scales focus on only requiring a respondent to provide some type of descriptor
as the raw response
Example.
 Please indicate your current marital status.
Married __ Single __ Single, never married __ Widowed
 Ordinal scales allow the respondent to Ordinal scales allow the respondent to express
“relative magnitude” between the raw responses to a question

Example.
 Which one statement best describes your opinion of an Intel PC processor?
 Higher than AMD‟s PC processor
 About the same as AMD‟s PC processor
 Lower than AMD‟s PC processor
Scales of measurement…
 Ratio scales: for the identification of Ratio scales allow for the identification of absolute
differences between each scale point, and absolute comparisons between raw Ratio scales
allow for the identification of absolute differences between each scale point, and absolute
comparisons between raw responses
Example1.
 Please circle the number of students above 40years of age currently enrolled in the PG
program. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (if more than 7, please specify ___.)
 Interval scales demonstrate the absolute Interval scales demonstrate the absolute
differences between each scale point
Criteria for scale selection

 Understanding the questions
 Discriminatory power of scale descriptors
 Balanced versus unbalanced scales
 Forced or non-forced choice scales
 The desired measure of central tendency and dispersion
 If a nominal scale is used, analysis of raw data can only be done using modes and
frequency distributions
 If ordinal scales are used analysis of raw data can be done using medians and ranges
(plus modes and frequency distributions)
 If interval or ratio scales are used, analysis of raw data can be done through the use of
sample means and estimated standard deviations as the means and estimated standard
deviations as the sample statistic (plus the above)

Primary data collection

 In an experiment, the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he
conducts intentionally.
 Survey refers to By face to face, telephone, mail, post
 In a survey, the investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe
independent of his action.
 observation method is relating to behavioral sciences
Limitations of observation Method

 It is an expensive method.
 The information provided by this method is very limited.
 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
 Fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates an obstacle

Questionnaire

Sampling
 A sample is a subgroup of the population selected for the study
 Sample statistics allow making inference about the population parameters, through
estimation and hypothesis testing.
 The sample space is a complete set of all possible results of the sampling procedure
The sampling design process

Define the target population, its elements, and the sampling units
2. Determine the sampling frame (list)
3. Select a sampling technique
 Sampling with/without replacement
 Probability/Nonprobability sampling
4. Determine the sample size
 Precision versus costs
 The marginal value in terms of precision of additional sampling units is decreasing

5. Execute the sampling process
The sampling techniques

 Probabilistic samples
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling Cluster sampling
 Other sampling techniques
 Nonprobabilistic samples
 Convenience sampling
 Judgmental sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling
 Only “convenient” elements enter the sample
Judgmental sampling
 Selection based on the judgment of the researcher
Quota sampling
1. Define control categories (quotas) for the population elements, such as sex, age…
2. Apply a “restricted judgmental sampling”, so quotas in the sample are the same as those in the
population
Data Analysis
 The data obtained from a study may or may not be in numerical or quantitative form, that
is, in the form of numbers.
 If they are not in numerical form, then we can still carry out qualitative analyses based on
the experiences of the individual participants.
 If they are in numerical form, then we typically start by working out some descriptive
statistics to summarize the pattern of findings.

 These descriptive statistics include measures of a central tendency within a sample (e.g.
mean) and measures of the spread of scores within a sample (e.g. range).
 Another useful way of summarizing the findings is by means of graphs and figures.
 In any study, two things might be true:
(1) There is a difference (the experimental hypothesis), or
(2) There is no difference (the null hypothesis).
Data Presentation
 Information about the scores in a sample can be presented in several ways.
 If it is presented in a graph or chart, this may make it easier for people to understand what
has been found, compared to simply presenting information about the central tendency
and dispersion.
Frequency polygon
 One way of summarizing these data is in the form of a frequency polygon.
 a graph showing the frequencies with which different scores are obtained by the
participants in a study.
Histogram
 a graph in which the frequencies with which different scores are obtained by the
participants in a study are shown by rectangles of different heights.
 In a histogram, the scores are indicated on the horizontal axis and the frequencies are
shown on the vertical axis.
Bar chart
 a graph showing the frequencies with which the participants in a study fall into different
categories.
 In a bar chart, the categories are shown along the horizontal axis, and the frequencies are
indicated on the vertical axis.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusions
 A short summary of your results or findings
 Based on the study done, what conclusions/inferences can be drawn?
 Recommendations
 Recommendations forwarded based on your findings
 Based on the conclusions.
 How should your research be modified?
 What recommendations would you give regarding your research?
 If possible quantify the benefits that can be gained from following the recommendations.
 Indications as to what other techniques can be applied to improve the systems viz.
References
 There are a variety of ways to reference material used in a report. You must use the APA
Publication Manual in listing your references.
 Include only the sources that were used in the project. Below is just one example.
 Books (notice that it is the book title that is italicized).
 Blogs, J. 1981. Advances in Computing. London: Academic Press.
 Book Chapters (this is to cite a chapter in an edited book)
 Blogs, J. 1981. The intelligent machine. In B.F.Black (Ed), The Future of

Computing. Edinburgh: Napier University Press.
 Journal Article the journal article title is italicized, the figure following is the volume
number, with the issue number after the oblique and then the page numbers)
 Blogs, J. 1981. The evaluation of the interface design, Journal of Man-Machine

Studies, 4/1, 99-150.

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Hydraulics and water resources engineering department 2018/2019

DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES

Hydraulics and water resources engineering

Prepared by: - ASIRAT TESHOME

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 1

1.1 What is communication?

1.2 What is the report?

1.3 Elements of Effective Communication:

 Communication can be a matter of life and death.

• The main modes of communication are written, verbal, and visual.

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 2

1.4.1 Types of reports

 The Report for the Administrator

1.4.2 Difficulties or Problems in Writing a Report

1.4.2.1. The Problems of Communications

b. Neither too simple nor too difficult expression

c. Level of Knowledge and subject-matter

d. Language and drafting

1.4.2.2. The problem of objectivity.

1.4.2.3. The Problems of expression of bitter truths and unpleasant facts

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 3

Common mistakes in writing a report

 A purpose of technical report writing for an engineer is to communicate information

Technical reports generally aim to:-

Characteristics of good report

2) Clear Topic 6) Practicability

3) Balanced Language 7) Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 4

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 5

2.3 Table of contents

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 6

4. Fonts and spacing

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 7

Titles and headings may be in bold „sans-serif‟ font (such as „Arial‟)

Spacing is a blank line but not indentation between paragraphs.

Typically, tables are used to summarize “listed” data where:

Example of the table to display groups of data

4.1 Mechanics of report writing

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 10

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 11

4.7. Symbols and Abbreviations

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 12

4.8.1. Third-Degree Reading

5.1 Research Methodology

 Research is an art aided by skills of inquiry, experimental design, data collection,

 Research is concerned with seeking solutions to problems or answers to meaningful

 Research is a process that acquires new knowledge

EnLa 3221 Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology Page 13

 Development is a process that applies knowledge to create new devices or effects.

The salient feature of research distinguishing it from casual observation:

Systematic: - so ordered, planned and disciplined

Controlled: - the researcher can have confidence in his/her research outcomes.

Empirical: - putting beliefs, ideas or assumptions to test,

5.2 Research Characteristics

 Cyclical (helical) in nature.

 Requires clear articulation of a goal.

 Follows a specific plan or procedure.

 Often divides the main problem into subproblems.

 Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.

 Accepts certain critical assumptions.

 Requires collection and interpretation of data.