Unit - V AC Machines

Unit- IV AC Machines
Single Phase Transformers
The main advantage of alternating currents (AC) over direct current (DC) is that, the
alternating currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage or high voltage to
low. Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of
electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a
static device called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It
transfers an electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection
between the tow circuits. Thus we can define transformer as, the transformer is a static piece of
apparatus by means of which an electrical power is transformed from one alternating current
circuit to another with the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the
frequency.
Transformers Construction
A transformer is a static device which consists of two or more stationary electric

circuit interlinked by a common magnetic circuit for the purpose of transferring electrical
energy between them. The transfer of energy takes place without change in frequency. The
transformer works on AC supply only. It works on the principal of mutual induction. It
works according to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Consider two coils C1 &
C2 with turns NP & NS respectively are wound on the magnetic circuit as shown in figure.
These two coils are insulated from each other and there is no electrical connection between
them. When a source of alternating voltage VP is applied to coil C1 an alternating current IP
flows in it. This alternating current produces an alternating flux  M in the magnetic circuit.
1 Anup Chandrashekhar Joshi

The mean path of this magnetic flux is shown by the dotted line. This alternating flux links
the turns NP of coil C1 and induces an alternating voltage E1 in them by self induction. The
flux produced by the coil C1 also links NS turns of the coil C2 and induces in them a voltage
E2 by mutual induction. If coil C2 is connected to the load then alternating current will flow
through it & energy will be delivered to the load. Thus the electrical energy is transferred
from coil C1 to coil C2 by a common magnetic circuit. Since there is no relative motion of the
coils, the frequency of induced voltage in coil C2 is exactly same as the frequency of the
voltage applied to coil C1.
The coil C1 which receives the energy from the AC supply source is called as primary
coil or primary winding or simply the primary. Coil C2 which is connected to the load &
delivers energy to the load, is called as secondary coil or secondary winding or simply
secondary. The circuit symbol for transformer is as shown in figure where the inductors on
either sides represents the windings & the vertical lines between them represents the
magnetic material i.e. core of the transformer.
If instead of AC, DC supply is given to the transformer primary, the primary current
will be DC & hence the steady flux will be produced, where the stationary flux can not
produce any EMF in primary or secondary winding. So primary EMF E 1 will be zero &
hence the primary current I1 will be very high due to high primary voltage. This high
current may damage the primary winding & the transformer. Hence transformers are never
operated on DC supply.
The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding

being wound on a separate limb or core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary
magnetic circuit. This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the "transformer core" is
designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for
induction of the voltage between the two windings.
However, this type of transformer construction were the two windings are wound
on separate limbs is not very efficient since the primary and secondary windings are well
separated from each other. This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two
windings as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself. But

as well as this "O" shapes construction, there are different types of "transformer
construction" and designs available which are used to overcome these inefficiencies
producing a smaller more compact transformer.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by bringing the

two windings within close contact with each other thereby improving the magnetic
coupling. Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may improve
the magnetic coupling between the two windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the
magnetic losses of the transformer core.
As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is
designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the iron core itself. Circulating
currents, called "eddy currents", cause heating and energy losses within the core
decreasing the transformers efficiency. These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in
the iron circuit, which is constantly being subjected to the alternating magnetic fields setup
by the external sinusoidal supply voltage. One way to reduce these unwanted power losses
is to construct the transformer core from thin steel laminations.
In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed from of
a highly permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations assembled together
to provide the required magnetic path with the minimum of losses. The resistivity of the
steel sheet itself is high reducing the eddy current losses by making the laminations very
thin. These steel laminations vary in thicknesses from between 0.25mm to 0.5mm and as
steel is a conductor, the laminations are electrically insulated from each other by a very
thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the surface.
Transformer Construction of the Core
Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependant

upon how the primary and secondary windings are wound around the central laminated
steel core. The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the
Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer. In the "closed-core" type (core
form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound outside and surround
the core ring. In the "shell type" (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary

windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell around the
windings as shown below.
In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and
secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through
air. In the core type transformer construction, one half of each winding is wrapped around
each leg (or limb) of the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the secondary on the
other but instead half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding are placed
one over the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling
allowing practically all of the magnetic lines of force go through both the primary and
secondary windings at the same time. However, with this type of transformer construction,
a small percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and this is called
"leakage flux".
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and secondary
windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional
area of the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed
magnetic paths to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before
returning back to the central coils. This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the
outer limbs of this type of transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux
has a closed path around the coils, this has the advantage of decreasing core losses and
increasing overall efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary windings are wound
around these laminated iron or steel cores for this types of transformer constuctions. The
coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross
section to suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core type
transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil windings, the individual laminations
are stamped or punched out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel
resembling the letters "E's", "L's", "U's" and "I's" as shown below.
These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core shape.
For example, two "E" stampings plus two end closing "I" stampings to give an E-I core
forming one element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These individual
laminations are tightly butted together during the transformers construction to reduce the
reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a highly saturated magnetic flux density.
Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to

produce an overlapping joint with more lamination pairs being added to make up the
correct core thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer
the advantage of reduced flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer
construction is mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-down transformers
as well as auto transformers.

Transformer Winding Arrangements
Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction,

because they are the main current-carrying conductors wound around the laminated
sections of the core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two windings would be
present as shown. The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates the
magnetic flux called the primary winding, and the second winding called the secondary in
which a voltage is induced as a result of mutual induction. If the secondary voltage is less
than that of the primary the transformer is called a "step-down transformer", and if the
secondary voltage is greater then it is called a "step-up transformer".
The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a transformer
winding is either copper or aluminum. While aluminum wire is lighter and generally less
expensive than copper wire, a larger cross sectional area of conductor must be used to
carry the same amount of current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger power
transformer applications.
Small kVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage electrical and
electronic circuits tend to use copper conductors as these have a higher mechanical
strength and smaller conductor size than equivalent aluminum types. The downside is that
when complete with their core, these transformers are much heavier.
Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and
sandwiched coils. In core-type transformer construction, the windings are usually arranged
concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the higher voltage primary
winding being wound over the lower voltage secondary winding. Sandwiched or "pancake"
coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are so named due to the
arrangement of conductors into discs. Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside
towards the centre in an interleaved arrangement with individual coils being stacked
together and separated by insulating materials such as paper of plastic sheet. Sandwich
coils and windings are more common with shell type core construction.
Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very common
cylindrical coil arrangement used in low voltage high current transformer applications. The

windings are made up of large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side
with the insulated strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the cylinder,
with suitable spacers inserted between adjacent turns or discs to minimize circulating
currents between the parallel strands. The coil progresses outwards as a helix resembling
that of a corkscrew.
The insulation used to prevent the conductors shorting together in a transformer is

usually a thin layer of varnish or enamel in air cooled transformers. This thin varnish or
enamel paint is painted onto the wire before it is wound around the core. In larger power
and distribution transformers the conductors are insulated from each other using oil
impregnated paper or cloth. The whole core and windings is immersed and sealed in a
protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil acts as an insulator and also
as a coolant.
Transformer Dot Orientation
We can not just simply take a laminated core and wrap one of the coil configurations
around it. We could but we may find that the secondary voltage and current may be out-of-
phase with that of the primary voltage and current. The two coil windings do have a
distinct orientation of one with respect to the other. Either coil could be wound around the
core clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep track of their relative orientations "dots" are
used to identify a given end of each winding.
This method of identifying the orientation or direction of a transformers windings is

called the "dot convention". Then a transformers windings are wound so that the correct
phase relations exist between the winding voltages with the transformers polarity being
defined as the relative polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary voltage
as shown below.

The first transformer shows its two "dots" side by side on the two windings. The
current leaving the secondary dot is "in-phase" with the current entering the primary side
dot. Thus the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also in-phase so when the
voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the voltage across the secondary
coil is also positive at the dotted end.
The second transformer shows the two dots at opposite ends of the windings which
means that the transformers primary and secondary coil windings are wound in opposite
directions. The result of this is that the current leaving the secondary dot is 180o "out-of-
phase" with the current entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the voltages at the
dotted ends are also out-of-phase so when the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the
primary coil, the voltage across the corresponding secondary coil will be negative.
Then the construction of a transformer can be such that the secondary voltage may
be either "in-phase" or "out-of-phase" with respect to the primary voltage. In transformers
which have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is electrically isolated
from each other it is important to know the dot polarity of the secondary windings so that
they can be connected together in series-aiding (secondary voltage is summed) or series-
opposing (the secondary voltage is the difference) configurations.

The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to

compensate for the effects of variations in the primary supply voltage, the regulation of the
transformer or varying load conditions. Voltage control of the transformer is generally
performed by changing the turns ratio and therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the
primary winding on the high voltage side is tapped out allowing for easy adjustment. The
tapping is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts per turn are lower than the low
voltage secondary side.
EMF Equation of Transformer (Analytical Method)
Let the flux at any instant be given by,
  M sint 
The instantaneous EMF induced in a coil of ‘N’ turns linked by this flux is given by
Faraday’s law as
e
d
.N    N d   N d m sin t 
dt dt dt
e   NM cost 
The above equation may be written as
e  eM sin(t   )
2
Where, em is maximum value of ‘e’.
For a sine wave input, the RMS value of EM is given as,
EM
E RMS  E 
2

N M
E
2
N .2f .M
E
2
E  4.44.N . f .M
The above equation is called as the EMF equation of a transformer.
The EMF induced in each of the winding can be calculated from the above EMF
equation. The primary RMS voltage is,
E1  4.44.N1. f .M
The secondary RMS voltage is,
E2  4.44.N 2 . f .M
Where, ФM is the peak value of flux in Webbers (Wb), f is the frequency in hertz (Hz)
& E1 & E2 are primary & secondary voltages in volts (V).
EMF Equation of Transformer (Form Factor Method)
Let,
N1 = No. of turns in primary winding
N2 = No. of turns in secondary winding
M = Maximum flux in the core
F = Frequency of input AC supply
The flux in the transformer core varies with respect to the current cycle. As shown in
figure, the core flux increases from zero to maximum value in one quarter of the cycle. That
is in 1/4f seconds.

Therefore average rate of change of during this period is,
𝑑𝜑 𝜑𝑚
= = 4𝑓𝜑𝑚
𝑑𝑡 1 4𝑓
Therefore, the average EMF induced is 4𝑓𝜑𝑚 volts
However, the flux in the core varies in sinusoidal manner. Hence the RMS value of EMF can
be obtained by form factor of AC supply,
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
For single phase sinusoidal AC supply, Form Factor = 1.1
∴ 1.1 =
Therefore, RMS value of EMF induced per turn = 1.1 𝑥 4𝑓𝜑𝑚
Now, the value of EMF induced in whole primary windings is
𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚 𝑁1
Similarly, the EMF induced in secondary windings is
𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑚 𝑁2
For an ideal transformer,
𝐸1 = 𝑉1 And 𝐸2 = 𝑉2
Where,
E1 = EMF induced in primary windings
E2 = EMF induced in secondary windings
V1 = Primary terminal voltage
V2 = secondary terminal voltage
From above EMF equations of transformer,

𝐸2 𝑉2 𝑁2
= = =𝐾
𝐸1 𝑉1 𝑁1
Where, K is called as transformation ratio.
1. If N2 > N1, i.e. K >1, then the transformer is called as step up transformer
2. If N2 V N1, i.e. K <1, then the transformer is called as step down transformer
Again, for an ideal transformer,
Input power = Output power
𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2
Or
𝑉2 𝐼1
= =𝐾
𝑉1 𝐼2

Transformation Ratio
Consider a transformer indicating various voltages & currents
Voltage Ratio
The EMF equation of a transformer is,
E1  4.44. f .m .N1 And E2  4.44. f .m .N 2
Taking ratio of E1 & E2 we get,
E2 N 2
 K
E1 N1
This ratio of secondary induced EMF to the primary induced EMF is called as voltage ratio
of transformer & is denoted by K.
Thus,
E2  K .E1
N2
Where, K 
N1
1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, then we get E2 > E1, the secondary voltage is greater than the
primary voltage, such a transformer is called as step-up transformer.

2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, then we get E2 < E1, the secondary voltage is less than the
primary voltage, such a transformer is called as step-down transformer.
3. If N2 = N1 i.e. K = 1, then we get E2 = E1, the secondary voltage is equal to the primary
voltage, such a transformer is called as isolation transformer. It is also known as 1:1
transformer
Ideal transformer
A transformer is said to be ideal transformer if it satisfies following properties:
1. It has no losses.
2. Its windings have zero resistance.
3. Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux produced by primary links with the secondary.
4. Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the
flux in it.
In short, for an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V1 is same as that of the
primary induced EMF E1 as there are no voltage drops. Similarly, the secondary induced
EMF E2 is also equal to the terminal voltage V2 across the load. Hence for an ideal
transformer we can write,
E2 V2
 K
E1 V1
Current Ratio
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of the primary
current I1 & primary voltage V1 is same as that of the secondary voltage V2 & the secondary
current I2.
So V1 I1  input .VA & V2 I 2  output .VA
For an ideal transformer,
V2 I1
 K
V1 I 2
Hence, the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.

Volt – Ampere Rating
When electric power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are
few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which
increases temperature of the device. Now this temperature must be maintained below
certain limiting value as it is always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is
main cause of producing heat, the output maximum rating is generally specified as the
product of output voltage & output current i.e. V2I2. This always indicates that when
transformer is operated under this specific rating, its temperature rise will not be
excessive. Actually output power available depends on cos 2 which is power factor of the
secondary. As cos 2 can change depending on load, the rating is not specified in watts or
kilowatts but indicated as the product of voltage & current called VA rating. This rating is
generally expressed in KVA (Kilo volt ampere rating).
Now,
V2 I1
 K
V1 I 2
V1 I1  V2 I 2
KVA.rating .of V2 I 2 V1 I1
 
transformer 1000 1000
If V1 & V2 are the terminal voltages of primary & secondary then from specified KVA
rating we can decide full load currents of primary & secondary, I1 & I2. This is the safe
maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value.
kVA.Rating .x.1000
I1 full load =
V1
kVA.Rating .x.1000
I2 full load =
V2
The full load primary & secondary currents indicate the safe maximum values of
currents which transformer winding can carry. These values indicate how much maximum
load can be connected to a given transformer of specified KVA rating.

Working of transformer at no load and with load
Ideal Transformer
Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in fig. the supply voltage is V1 &
as it is on no load, the secondary current I2 = 0.
The primary windings draw a current I1 which is just necessary to produce flux in
the core. As it is magnetizing the core, it is called as magnetizing current (IM). As the
transformer is ideal, the winding resistance is zero & it is purely inductive in nature. The
magnetizing current IM is very small & lags V1 by 900 as the winding is purely inductive.
This IM produces an alternating flux  which is in phase with IM.
This flux links with both the winding producing the induced EMFs E1 & E2, in the
primary & secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz’s law, the induced EMF
opposes the cause of producing it which is the supply voltage V1. Hence E1 is anti-phase
with V1 but its magnitude depends on N2. Thus E1 & E2 are in phase.
The Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load is shown below:

From phasor diagram, it can be seen that flux  is reference. IM produces  hence in
phase with  V1 leads IM by 900 as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag behind
the voltage by 900.
E1 & E2 are in phase & both opposing supply voltage V1.
The power input to the transformer is V1.I1.cos (V1^I1) i.e. V1. IM. cos (900) i.e. zero. This is
because on no load output power is zero & for an ideal transformer there are no losses
hence input power is zero. Ideal no load power factor of transformer is zero lagging.
Practical Transformer on NO load
In practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis & eddy current losses as it is
subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep
these losses minimum by
 Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis

 Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin laminations to
reduce eddy current loss.
Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary
winding has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper losses present. Thus
the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses. I.e. hysteresis
loss & eddy current loss & a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted
by I0.

Now the no load input current I0 has two components:
1. A purely reactive component IM called magnetizing component of no load current

required to produce flux. This is also called as Wattless component.
2. An active component IC which supplies total losses under no load condition called as
power component of no load current.
This is also called as wattful component or core loss component of I0.
The total no load current I0 is the vector addition of IC & IM
I0  I M  IC
In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current I0 is no longer at

900 with respect to V1. But it lags V1 by angle 0 which is less than 900. Thus, cos 0 is
called as no load power factor of practical transformer.
From the Phasor diagrams it can be seen that the two components of I0 are,
I M  I 0 .sin 0
This is magnetizing component lagging V1 exactly by 900.
I C  I 0 . cos 0
This is core loss component which is in phase with V1.
The magnitude of the no load current is given by,

I0  I M  IC
2 2
While  0 = no load primary power factor angle.
The total power input on no load is denoted as W0 & is given by,
W 0 V1.I1. cos 0  V1.I C
It may be noted that the current I0 is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated
current. Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence IC is called as core loss or
iron loss component. Hence power input W0 on no load always represents the iron losses,
as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as Pi & are constant for all
load conditions.
W 0 V1.I1. cos 0  V1.I C  Pi  iron _ loss
Practical Transformer on Load
Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig.
The various transformer parameters are,
R1 = Primary winding resistance
X1 = Primary leakage reactance
R2 = Secondary winding resistance
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
ZL = Load impedance
I1= Primary current
I2 = Secondary current = IL = Load current

Now,
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 𝐼2 ′
Where, I0 = No load current
I2'= Load component of current decided by the load
= K I2 where K is transformer component
The primary voltage V1 has now three components,
1. – E1, the induced EMF which opposes V1

2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1
3. I1 X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 90°
𝑉1 = −𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼1 𝑋1
𝑉1 = −𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑋1
𝑉1 = −𝐸1 + 𝐼1 𝑍1
The secondary induced EMF has also three components,
1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load

2. I2 R2, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2
3. I2 X2, the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 90°
𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝑋2
𝑉2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2
𝑉2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐼2 𝑍2
The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the
load power factor. Let us consider the various cases of the load power factor.
Unity power factor load, cosΦ2 = 1
As load power factor is unity, the voltage V2 and I2 are in phase. Steps to draw
the phasor diagram are,
1. Consider flux Φ as reference

2. E1 lags Φ by 90°. Reverse E1 to get -E1.

3. E1 and E2 are inphase

4. Assume V2 in a particular direction
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I2'.
8. Add Io and I2' to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and to -E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1 and cosΦ1 is primary power factor. Remember

that I1X1 leads I1 direction by 90° and I2 X2 leads I2 by 90° as current through inductance
lags voltage across inductance by 90°. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.
Lagging Power Factor Load, cos Φ2
As load power factor is lagging cosΦ2, the current I2 lags V2 by angle Φ2. So only
changes in drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I2 lagging V2 by Φ2 in step 5 discussed
earlier. Accordingly direction of I2 R2, I2 X2, I2', I1, I1 R1 and I1X1 will change. Remember that
whatever may be the power factor of load, I2X2 leads I2 by 90o and I1X1 leads I1 by 90°.

The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.
Leading Power Factor Load, cos Φ2
As load power factor is leading, the current I2 leads V2 by angle Φ2. So change is
to draw I2 leading I2 by angle Φ2. All other steps remain same as before. The complete
phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

Transformer Core Losses
The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than it is in air, and
this ability to allow magnetic flux to flow is called permeability. Most transformer cores are
constructed from low carbon steels which can have permeabilities in the order of 1500
compared with just 1.0 for air. This means that a steel laminated core can carry a magnetic
flux 1500 times better than that of air. However, when a magnetic flux flows in a
transformers steel core, two types of losses occur in the steel. One termed "eddy current
losses" and the other termed "hysteresis losses".
Hysteresis Losses
Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the friction of the molecules
against the flow of the magnetic lines of force required to magnetise the core, which are
constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and then the other due to
the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage. This molecular friction causes heat to be
developed which represents an energy loss to the transformer. Excessive heat loss can
overtime shorten the life of the insulating materials used in the manufacture of the
windings and structures. Therefore, cooling of a transformer is important.
Also, transformers are designed to operate at a particular supply frequency.

Lowering the frequency of the supply will result in increased hysteresis and higher
temperature in the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency from 60 Hertz to 50 Hertz
will raise the amount of hysteresis present, decreased the VA capacity of the transformer.
Eddy Current Losses
Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused by the flow of
circulating currents induced into the steel caused by the flow of the magnetic flux around
the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic flux the core is
acting like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good conductor, the eddy currents
induced by a solid iron core will be large. Eddy currents do not contribute anything
towards the usefulness of the transformer but instead they oppose the flow of the induced

current by acting like a negative force generating resistive heating and power loss within
the core.
Laminating the Iron Core
Eddy current losses within a transformer core can not be eliminated completely, but
they can be greatly reduced and controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core material of the transformer
or coil, the magnetic path is split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called
"laminations".
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of insulated
metal joined together to produce a solid but laminated core as we saw above. These
laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to increase the
effective resistivity of the core thereby increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of
the eddy currents. The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy
current power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this reason why the magnetic
iron circuit of every transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all laminated.
Using laminations in a transformer construction reduces eddy current losses.
The losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy
currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly as "transformer core losses". Since
these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result of alternating magnetic fields.
Transformer core losses are always present in a transformer whenever the primary is
energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary winding. Also these hysteresis and
the eddy current losses are sometimes referred to as "transformer iron losses", as the
magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.

Copper Losses
But there is also another type of energy loss associated with transformers called
"copper losses". Transformer Copper Losses are mainly due to the electrical resistance of
the primary and secondary windings. Most transformer coils are made from copper wire
which has resistance in Ohms, (Ω). This resistance opposes the magnetizing currents
flowing through them.
When a load is connected to the transformers secondary winding, large electrical

currents flow in primary and the secondary windings, electrical energy and power (or the
I2R) losses occur as heat. Generally copper losses vary with the load current, being almost
zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load when current flow is at maximum.
Transformers with high voltage and current ratings require conductors of large cross-
section to help minimize their copper losses.
Efficiency of Single Phase Transformer
The efficiency of any machine as a ratio of output power to the input power
For single phase transformer
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦  = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

= =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
In a transformer, if Pi is the iron loss, and PC is the copper loss at full load (when the
load current is equal to the rated current of the transformer, the total losses in the
transformer are Pi + PC. In any transformer, copper losses are variable and iron losses are
fixed. When the load on the transformer is (x × full load), the copper loss will be total x2Pc
and total losses = Pi +x2 PC.
PC is full load copper loss and ‘x’ is the ratio of load current to the full load current. If
the output power of the transformer is xV2I2cos φ, then efficiency (η) becomes,

𝑥𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
=
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐
𝑥 × 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

=
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐
The efficiency varies with load. So, we can find the condition under which the η is
maximum. For maximum efficiency,
𝑑
=0
𝑑𝐼2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑥𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
= =0
𝑑𝐼2 𝑑𝐼2 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐
Solving this, we get
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐
I.e. Iron Losses = Copper Losses
The copper loss varies with load current I2 so when the copper losses are equal to
the iron losses for a particular load then efficiency (η) of the transformer is maximum. This
is called condition for maximum efficiency.
𝑥𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑀𝐴𝑋 =
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 2𝑃𝑖
Now, we determine the load at which the maximum efficiency occurs. From the
condition of maximum efficiency, we have
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑖
𝑥=
𝑃𝐶

All Day Efficiency of Transformer (Energy Efficiency)
In electrical power system, we are interested to find out the all day efficiency of any
transformer because the load at transformer is varying in the different time duration of the
day. So, all day efficiency is defined as the ratio of total energy output of transformer to the
total energy input in 24 hours.
kWh output during a day

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
kWh input during the day
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Under no load conditions, the voltage at the secondary terminals is E2 and
𝑁2
𝐸2 ≈ 𝑉1
𝑁1
This approximation neglects the drop in primary resistance and leakage reactance due to
small no load current. As load is applied to transformer load current or secondary current
increases, correspondingly the primary current I1 also increases. Due to these currents,
there is a voltage drop in the primary and secondary leakage reactance and as a
consequence the voltage across the output terminals or the load terminals changes. In
quantitative terms this change in terminal voltage is called Voltage Regulation.
Voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the drop in the magnitude of load voltage
(or secondary terminal voltage) when load current changes from zero to full load value.
This is expressed as a fraction of secondary rated voltage
Secondary terminal voltage at no load − Secondary terminal voltage at any load

𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
Secondary rated voltage
Generally, it is given as,
VNL − VFL
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
VFL

Auto-transformers
Unlike the previous voltage transformer which have two electrically isolated windings
called: the primary and the secondary, an Autotransformer has only one single voltage
winding which is common to both sides. This single winding is “tapped” at various points
along its length to provide a percentage of the primary voltage supply across its secondary
load. Then the autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only has one winding,
which is common to both the primary and secondary circuits.
Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are linked together
both electrically and magnetically. The main advantage of this type of transformer design is
that it can be made a lot cheaper for the same VA rating, but the biggest disadvantage of an
autotransformer is that it does not have the primary/secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
The section of winding designated as the primary part of the winding is connected to the
AC power source with the secondary being part of this primary winding. An
autotransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage up or down by reversing the
connections. If the primary is the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the
secondary circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding, then the secondary
voltage is “stepped-down” as shown.
When the primary current IP is flowing through the single winding in the direction of the
arrow as shown, the secondary current, IS, flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in the
portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, VS the current flowing out of
the winding is the difference of IP and IS.
The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one single tapping point.
Auto-transformers can be used to provide different voltage points along its winding or
increase its supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage VP as shown.

Autotransformer with Multiple Tapping Points
The standard method for marking autotransformer windings is to label it with capital
(upper case) letters. So for example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the
common neutral connection is marked as N or n. For the secondary tapping’s, suffix
numbers are used for all tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding.
These numbers generally start at number 1 and continue in ascending order for all tapping
points as shown.
Autotransformer Terminal Markings
An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages to either change its
value or to keep it constant. If the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up or
down, then the transformer ratio is small as VP and VS are nearly equal. Currents IP
and IS are also nearly equal.
Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference between the two
currents can be made from a much smaller conductor size, since the currents are much
smaller saving on the cost of an equivalent double wound transformer.
However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since there is no second
winding) of an autotransformer for a given VA or KVA rating are less than for a double
wound transformer.
Autotransformers are clearly much cheaper than conventional double wound transformers
of the same VA rating. When deciding upon using an autotransformer it is usual to compare
its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.

Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
 The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the primary
to secondary winding isolation of a conventional double wound transformer.
Then autotransformer’s can not safely be used for stepping down higher voltages
to much lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.
 If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, current stops flowing
through the primary winding stopping the transformer action resulting in the full
primary voltage being applied to the secondary circuit.
 If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the resulting primary
current would be much larger than an equivalent double wound transformer due
to the increased flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.
 Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and secondary
windings, earthing of the secondary winding automatically Earths the primary as
there is no isolation between the two windings. Double wound transformers are
sometimes used to isolate equipment from earth.

The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction
motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can be used to transform
voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity.
Variable Autotransformer
As well as having a fixed or tapped secondary that produces a voltage output at a specific
level, there is another useful application of the auto transformer type of arrangement
which can be used to produce a variable AC voltage from a fixed voltage AC supply. This
type of Variable Autotransformer is generally used in laboratories and science labs in
schools and colleges and is known more commonly as the Variac (Variable AC).
The construction of a variable autotransformer, or Variac, is the same as for the fixed type.
A single primary winding wrapped around a laminated magnetic core is used as in the auto
transformer but instead of being fixed at some predetermined tapping point, the secondary
voltage is tapped through a carbon brush.
This carbon brush is rotated or allowed to slide along an exposed section of the primary
winding, making contact with it as it moves supplying the required voltage level.
Then a variable autotransformer contains a variable tap in the form of a carbon brush that
slides up and down the primary winding which controls the secondary winding length and
hence the secondary output voltage is fully variable from the primary supply voltage value
to zero volts.
The variable autotransformer is usually designed with a significant number of primary

windings to produce a secondary voltage which can be adjusted from a few volts to
fractions of a volt per turn. This is achieved because the carbon brush or slider is always in
contact with one or more turns of the primary winding. As the primary coil turns are
evenly spaced along its length. Then the output voltage becomes proportional to the
angular rotation.

We can see that the Variac can adjust the voltage to the load smoothly from zero to the
rated supply voltage. If the supply voltage was tapped at some point along the primary
winding, then potentially the output secondary voltage could be higher than the actual
supply voltage. Variable autotransformer’s can also be used for the dimming of lights and
when used in this type of application, they are sometimes called “dimmerstats”.
Variac is also very useful in Electrical and Electronics workshops and labs as they can be
used to provide a variable AC supply. But caution needs to be taken with suitable fuse
protection to ensure that the higher supply voltage is not present at the secondary
terminals under fault conditions.
The Autotransformer has many advantages over conventional double wound
transformers. They are generally more efficient for the same VA rating, are smaller in size,
and as they require less copper in their construction, their cost is less compared to double
wound transformers of the same VA rating. Also, their core and copper losses, I2R are
lower due to less resistance and leakage reactance giving a superior voltage regulation than
the equivalent two winding transformer.
In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at another design of transformer
which does not have a conventional primary winding wound around its core. This type of
transformer is commonly called a Current Transformer and is used to supply ammeters
and other such electrical power indicators.

Single Phase Alternator

Single-phase alternator (also known as single-phase generator) is an alternating
current electrical generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage.
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy by electromagnetic induction. A generator which produces alternating
current is referred to as an ac generator and, through combination of the words
"alternating" and "generator," the word "alternator" has come into widespread use. In
some areas, the word "alternator" is applied only to small ac generators. This text treats the
two terms synonymously and uses the term "alternator" to distinguish between ac and dc
generators.
The major difference between an alternator and a DC generator is the method of

connection to the external circuit; that is, the alternator is connected to the external circuit
by slip rings, but the DC generator is connected by a commutator.
The working principle
Above, figure shows how an alternator or AC generator works. According to the

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic
field EMF gets induced across the conductor. If the close path is provided to the conductor,
induced EMF causes current to flow in the circuit.

Now, see the above figure. Let the conductor coil ABCD is placed in a magnetic field.
The direction of magnetic flux will be form N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip
rings, and the load is connected through brushes resting on the slip rings.
Now, consider the case 1 from above figure. The coil is rotating clockwise, in this case the
direction of induced current can be given by Fleming's right hand rule, and it will be along
A-B-C-D.
As the coil is rotating clockwise, after half of the time period, the position of the coil
will be as in second case of above figure. In this case, the direction of the induced current
according to Fleming's right hand rule will be along D-C-B-A. It shows that, the direction of
the current changes after half of the time period, which means we get an alternating
current.
Construction of AC Generator (Alternator)
Main parts of the alternator, obviously, consists of stator and rotor. But, the unlike
other machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the armature coil
is stationary.
Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for magnetic
flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy current losses.
Why Armature Winding Is Stationary In An Alternator?
 At high voltages, it easier to insulate stationary armature winding, which may be as

high as 30 kV or more.
 The high voltage output can be directly taken out from the stationary armature.
Whereas, for a rotary armature, there will be large brush contact drop at higher
voltages, also the sparking at the brush surface will occur.
 Field exciter winding is placed in rotor, and the low dc voltage can be transferred
safely.
 The armature winding can be braced well, so as to prevent deformation caused by the
high centrifugal force.

Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:
(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type
1. Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators. Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the
figure above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called
salient poles), bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize
the eddy current losses. Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters
and short in axial length.
This type of rotor is used for slow speed machines which have large diameters and
small axial lengths.
The pole are made of thick steel laminations riveted together and attached to a rotor
by a dovetail joint. The overhang of the pole gives mechanical support to the field coil.
In most of the alternators, where the oscillation or the hunting effect is very high, the
damper winding in the pole faces is provided. The copper bars short circuited at both
ends are placed in the specially holes. The relative velocity of the damping winding
with respect to main field will be zero when the speed is steady but as soon as it
departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative motion between the
damper winding and the main field. This will induce current in them. This induced
current will exert a torque in such a way as to bring the alternator to operate at
synchronous speed.

The Pole face is so shaped that the radial gap length increases from the pole centre to
pole tips. This makes the flux distribution over the armature uniform to generate
sinusoidal waveform of EMF
The salient pole field structure has the following special feature
 They have large diameter and short axial length.
 The pole shoe covers about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
 Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
 These employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines. The speed is 100
to 375 RPM.
2. Cylindrical type:
Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo
alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having
slots along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel cylinder, having a number of slots
milled out at intervals along the outer periphery (and parallel to the shaft) for
accommodating field’s coils. Such rotors are designed mostly for 2-pole (or 4-pole)
turbo generators running at 3600 RPM Two (or four) regions corresponding to the
central polar areas are left unslotted.
The central polar area is surrounded by the field windings placed in slots. The field
coils are so arranged around these polar areas that flux density is maximum on the

polar central line and gradually falls away on either side. It should be noted that in
this case, poles are non-salient i.e. they do not project out from the surface of the
rotor. To avoid excessive peripheral velocity, such rotors have very small diameters.
Hence, turbo-generators are characterized by small diameters and very long axial (or
rotor) length. The cylindrical construction of the rotor gives better balance and
quieter-operation and also less winding losses

Alternators are also classified as rotating field alternators and stationary field alternator.
Rotating Field Alternator
The design of revolving field generators is to have the armature part on stator and the
magnetic field part on rotor. A basic design of revolving field single-phase generator is
shown on the right. There are two magnetic poles, north and south, attached to a rotor and
two coils which are connected in series and equally spaced on stator. The windings of the
two coils are in reverse direction to have the current to flow in the same direction because
the two coils always interact with opposing polarities. Since poles and coils are equally
spaced and the locations of the poles match to the locations of the coils, the magnetic lines
of force are cut at the same amount at any degree of the rotor. As a result, the voltages
induced to all windings have the same value at any given time. The voltages from both coils
are "in phase" to each other. Therefore the total output voltage is two times the voltage
induced in each winding. In the figure, at the position where pole number 1 and coil
number 1 meet, the generator produces the highest output voltage on one direction. As the
rotor turns 180 degrees, the output voltage is alternated to produce the highest voltage on
the other direction. The frequency of the AC output in this case equals to the number of
rotations of the rotor per second.

This design can also allow us to increase the output frequency by adding more poles. In this
example on the right, we have 4 coils connected in series on the stator and the field rotor
has 4 poles. Both coils and poles are equally spaced. Each pole has opposite polarity to its
neighbors which are angled at 90 degrees. Each coils also have opposite winding to its
neighbors. This configuration allows the lines of force at 4 poles to be cut by 4 coils at the
same amount at a given time. At each 90-degree rotation, the voltage output polarity is
switched from one direction to the other. Therefore, there are 4 cycles of the AC output in
one rotation. As the 4 coils are wired in series and their outputs are "in phase", the AC
output of this single-phase generator will have 4 times the voltage of that generated by
each individual coil.
A benefit of the revolving field design is that if the poles are permanent magnets, then there
is no need to use any slip ring and brush to deliver electricity out of the generator as the
coils are stationary and can be wired directly from the generator to the external loads.

Rotating Armature Alternator
The design of revolving armature generators is to have the armature part on a rotor and
the magnetic field part on stator. A basic design, called elementary generator, is to have a
rectangular loop armature to cut the lines of force between the north and south poles. By
cutting lines of force through rotation, it produces electrical current. The current is sent out
of the generator unit through two sets of slip rings and brushes, one of which is used for
each end of the armature. In this two-pole design, as the armature rotates one revolution, it
generates one cycle of single phase alternating current (AC). To generate an AC output, the
armature is rotated at a constant speed having the number of rotations per second to
match the desired frequency (in hertz) of the AC output.
The relationship of armature rotation and the AC output can be seen in this series of
pictures. Due to the circular motion of the armature against the straight lines of force, a
variable number of lines of force will be cut even at a constant speed of the motion. At zero
degrees, the rectangular arm of the armature does not cut any lines of force, giving zero
voltage output. As the armature arm rotates at a constant speed toward the 90° position,
more lines are cut. The lines of force are cut at most when the armature is at the 90°
position, giving out the most current on one direction. As it turns toward the 180° position,
lesser number of lines of force are cut, giving out lesser voltage until it becomes zero again
at the 180° position. The voltage starts to increase again as the armature heads to the

opposite pole at the 270° position. Toward this position, the current is generated on the
opposite direction, giving out the maximum voltage on the opposite side. The voltage
decrease again as it completes the full rotation. In one rotation, the AC output is produced
with one complete cycle as represented in the sine wave.
Advantages of rotating field system

 The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and rotating-field
windings.
 The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the generated
voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires slip
rings and brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The
armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-over and short
circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators are
usually of the rotating-field type.
 Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of high
voltage arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary armature, or stator,
of this type of alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic
field. The voltage generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the
ac power that will be applied to the load.

EMF Equation of Alternator
Let Φ = Flux per pole, in Wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
f = Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz
Z = Total number of conductors
Consider a single conductor placed in a slot.
The average value of EMF induced in a conductor
𝑑∅
𝑒=
𝑑𝑡
For one revolution of a conductor,
Flux cut in one revolution

𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
time taken for one revolution
Total flux cut in one revolution is ΦP
Time taken for one revolution is 60/Ns seconds.
∅𝑃
𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
60 𝑁𝑆
∅𝑃𝑁𝑆
𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
60
But,
𝑃𝑁𝑆
𝑓=
120
𝑃𝑁𝑆
= 2𝑓
60
𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝑓 𝜙

Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a conductor
which is 180° electrical apart. So there two EMF will try to set up a current in the same
direction i.e. the two EMF are helping each other and hence resultant EMF per turn will be
twice the EMF induced in a conductor.
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 2 × 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 2 × 2𝑓 𝜙
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 4𝑓 𝜙
Let T be the total number of turn phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated
winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So induced EMF in
all turns will be in phase as placed in single slot, Hence net EMF per phase will be algebraic
sum of the EMF per turn.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝑇 × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 𝑇 × 4𝑓 𝜙
But in AC circuits RMS value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form
factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal EMF
𝐹𝐹 =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹 × 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 1.11 × 4𝑇𝑓 𝜙
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 4.44 𝑇𝑓 𝜙

Unit - V AC Machines

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Unit- IV AC Machines

Single Phase Transformers

A transformer is a static device which consists of two or more stationary electric

1 Anup Chandrashekhar Joshi

The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding

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The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by bringing the

Transformer Construction of the Core

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependant

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Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to

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Transformer Winding Arrangements

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction,

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The insulation used to prevent the conductors shorting together in a transformer is

Transformer Dot Orientation

This method of identifying the orientation or direction of a transformers windings is

7 Anup Chandrashekhar Joshi

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The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to

EMF Equation of Transformer (Analytical Method)

Let the flux at any instant be given by,

The above equation may be written as

Where, em is maximum value of ‘e’.

For a sine wave input, the RMS value of EM is given as,

9 Anup Chandrashekhar Joshi

The above equation is called as the EMF equation of a transformer.

The secondary RMS voltage is,

EMF Equation of Transformer (Form Factor Method)

N1 = No. of turns in primary winding

N2 = No. of turns in secondary winding

M = Maximum flux in the core

F = Frequency of input AC supply

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Therefore average rate of change of during this period is,

Therefore, the average EMF induced is 4𝑓𝜑𝑚 volts

For single phase sinusoidal AC supply, Form Factor = 1.1

Therefore, RMS value of EMF induced per turn = 1.1 𝑥 4𝑓𝜑𝑚

Now, the value of EMF induced in whole primary windings is

𝐸1 = 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑥 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

Similarly, the EMF induced in secondary windings is

For an ideal transformer,

E1 = EMF induced in primary windings

E2 = EMF induced in secondary windings

V1 = Primary terminal voltage

V2 = secondary terminal voltage

From above EMF equations of transformer,

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Where, K is called as transformation ratio.

Again, for an ideal transformer,

Input power = Output power

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Consider a transformer indicating various voltages & currents

The EMF equation of a transformer is,

E1  4.44. f .m .N1 And E2  4.44. f .m .N 2

Taking ratio of E1 & E2 we get,