CHAPTER 3: MEDIUM OF THE VISUAL ARTS
Philippines has produced many oils, one of which, "Red
Medium refers to the materials which are used
by an artist. It is the means by which he communicates
his ideas. Many mediums have been used in creating
different works of art. The architect uses wood,
bamboo, bricks, stone; the sculptor uses wood and
metals like bronzes; while the painter uses pigments on
wood or canvas. Medium is very essential to art.
Painting
Painting is the art of creating meaningful effects
on a flat surface by the use of pigments. Different
mediums are used in painting. Each medium exerts a
pronounced effect on the finished product, is capable of
varied treatment, and determines its own stroke. The
materials of the painter are pigments applied to wet
plaster, canvas, wood or paper
Oil. In oil paintings, the pigments are mixed in
oil. The surface used is usually canvas although other
surfaces like wood, paper and metal may be used. The
most familiar type of painting is done with oils on
canvas. This method has been used since the 15th
century. The surface to be suitable must receive oil
paint freely and yet not absorb it, can withstand
temperature changes and not crack the pigment on it.
Pigments mixed with oil provide a medium that gives
richness in opacity of light and depth of shadow.
Pigments can come from many sources:
minerals, vegetable matter, coal tars, and other chemic
combinations. These are ground by hand or machine
then mixed with oil. Painters usually depend upon
those pigments which do not change through the years.
There are 2 methods of painting in oil: the
direct and indirect method. In the direct method, the
paints are opaque and are applied to the surface just as
they are to look in the finished product. In the indirect
method, the paint is applied in many thin layers of
transparent color. The direct method is the more
flexible method of the two.
This medium is popular to painters because
there is no limit to the ways of handling oil pigments. It
is possible to get a wide range of separate effects. The
pigment may be applied in thick and heavy opaque
manner or in washes of almost watercolor
transparency. Oil color is the best method for a
convincing representation where exact reproduction of
a color tone is necessary. Its ease of handling, the easy
blending tones and the possibility of painting over and
covering any mistake are some of the reasons why oil
painting is a very popular technique.
Many well-known Filipino painters use oil.
Carlos "Botong" Francisco recorded history and folklore
in his oils. His "Maria Maikling" has for its subject the
woodland nymph of Mount Maikling in the province of
Laguna. "Sari-Sari" by Norma Belleza was produced in
1979. Jose Joya, a well-known pain yet and former dean
of the College of Fine Arts of the University of the
Talisman" painted in 1975.
Professor Eric Zerrudo, the director of the
cultural facilities for the GSIS explains that the painting
was originally entitled "The Maid" in 1953, "Coquette"
in 1960 and "Interested de un Cafe" or "Interior of a
Cafe" in 1983. It was only in 2002 when the painting
was entitled "Parisian Life".
Professor Zerrudo further explains that there
are three possible interpretations of the painting:
1. The three gentlemen's (J. Luna, Dr. J. Rizal and Dr.
Ariston Bautista Lin) attention were caught while in the
cafe in Paris by a beautiful lady in period clothes seated
awkwardly on a plush sofa.
2. Juan Luna was probably projecting his turbulence
with his wife into his painting and that he was asking for
a counsel from his two friends, Rizal and Bautista Lin.
3. The third interpretation was submitted by UP Fine
Arts professor Roberto Fileo and his students comparing
the body of the lady to the Philippines map.
The painting was owned by the descendants of
Filipino physician Dr. Aniston Bautista Lin, to whom Juan
Luna gave the oil and it stayed with Dr. Bautista Lin and
his family for over a century since it was painted. In
1904, the painting was presented at Christie's, at the St.
Louis Exposition (World's Fair) where it won a Silver
Medal. It is undeniable that the “Parisian Life” has both
historical and aesthetic significance to our country and
thus, we should be more proud as Filipinos.
Oil Painting has some disadvantages. The oil
paint dries slowly and has tendency to rise to the
surface and form a film over the picture making it
appear dull. It also has a tendency to become yellow
and crack so that preservation usually becomes a
problem.
Tempera. Before oils were in general use, a
type of painting called tempera was popular. This is a
mixture of ground pigments and an albuminous or
colloidal vehicle, either egg, gum or glue, used by
Egyptian, Medieval and Renaissance painters. It is still
used today.
The special characteristic of tempera is its being
an emulsion. An emulsion is a watery, milk-like mixture
of oily and watery consistency. Tempera,
notwithstanding its oil content, dries readily with the
evaporation of water. This rapid drying is one of its
advantages.
Tempera painting is usually done on a wooden
panel that has been made smooth with a coating of
plaster. The colors are mixed with egg yolk. Since the
paint dries rapidly, there is little blending or fusing of
colors in tempera painting. This is evident in the
“Resurrection with Two Angels” by Bernardino Fungai
and in Segna di Bonaventura’s “Majesty”. Colors are laid
on side by side or superimposed. It is hard to obtain
rich, deep tones and shadows. This medium needs
careful details. Its advantage is its great luminosity of
tone. The colors are clear and beautiful.
The use of tempera falls into the three principal
dimensions: unvarnished or gouache-like tempera,
varnished tempera and tempera as an under painting
for oil. Unvarnished tempera is the simplest to use. One
paints with water or thinned emulsion on a dampened
or dried ground. When the tempera is varnished, many
problems may arise. The air quality of the color may be
lost. Some colors may appear glaring and others may
stand out in a very unpleasant way. The decorative
quality in varnished tempera is an advantage. Since
tempera is essentially a watercolor, it must remain so if
it qualities have to be preserved. An important
requirement is a faultless, clean ground. If the ground
changes when varnished. The painting will change with
it. The colors should remain simple
Watercolor. Good watercolor paintings are not
easy to make. They require a high degree of technical
dexterity. In watercolor, the pigments are mixed with
water and applied to fine white paper. The colors are
applied in very thin layers. In pure watercolor painting,
all the lights comes from the ground. Paper is the most
commonly used ground. Other materials like
parchment, ivory, silk and cambric are also used as
ground. The ground must be very clean and white and
at the same time unchangeable.
Opaque watercolor is called “gouache”. It is
made by grinding opaque colors with water and mixing
the product with a preparation of gum by adding
Chinese white to transparent watercolors. If differs
from the brilliant quality of translucent watercolor
painting whose major effects are caused by the white
paper. Watercolor is a process familiar to every school
child.
Pastel. Pastel is the more recent medium.
Pastel color possesses only surfaces of light, gives no
glazed effect and most closely resembles dry pigment.
The pigment is bound so as to form a crayon which is
applied directly to the surface, usually a paper.
As support for pastel painting paper,
pasteboard or canvas is used. As far as the technique is
concerned, the painter is free to handle the material to
suit himself. It is a very flexible medium. Varied effects
may be produced in pastel painting. It is not a very
popular medium because no one has yet discovered the
way to preserve its original freshness. The chalk tends
to rub off and the picture loses some of its brilliance.
Fresco. The most popular type of painting is
fresco. The colors are mixed with water and applied to
fresh plaster which absorbs the color. Since the pigment
has been incorporated with the plaster, it lasts until the
wall is destroyed. Fresco painting flourished during the
15th and 16th centuries when Masaccio, Michelangelo,
Raphael, Tintoretto and others covered the wall of
Italian churches with their masterpieces. In Italian,
"fresco" means fresh and is used to designate the
process of painting and fresh wet plaster.
Generally, the process begins with preliminary
sketches later in large to full size cartoons which are
transferred to rough plaster. The coloring must be ready
as soon as the plaster is put on the wall. It is prepared
by mixing a pigment with water or with water and lime.
When this is applied to the wet plaster, the lime binds
the pigment to the plaster and makes the painting a
part of the wall.
Since fresco must be done quickly, it is a very
exacting medium. There is no changing once the design
is begun. Only earth pigments are used because of the
chemical action of the plaster on the paint. These colors
have uniformity of tone and no glaring contrasts.
Fresco has two disadvantages: first, it is almost
impossible to move a fresco, and second, the painting
subject to the disasters that may happen to the wall of
which it has become a part.
The Sistine Chapel in Rome is magnificently
decorated with paintings by Michelangelo. The series of
frescoes remain as one of the world's greatest
achievements in art. During the 17th, 18th and 19th
centuries, the interest and fresco painting declined, but
the 20th century has seen a renewed interest in mural
paintings done in this medium.
Acrylic. The newest medium and one that is
used widely by painters today is acrylic. These are
synthetic paint using acrylic emulsion as binder. They
combine the transparency and quick-drying qualities of
watercolor and are as flexible as oil. They are
completely insoluble when dry and can be used almost
on any surface. They also do not tend to crack, and
turned yellow with age.
Filipino painters have produced many paintings
using acrylic as a medium. Some of the more recent
ones are Mario Parial’s “Sisa", "Anting-Anting" of
Rodolfo Paras -Perez and "Blue Odyssey" of Jose Joya.
Some Famous Filipino Painters
Fernando Amorsolo
He was a portraitist and a painter of rural
Philippine landscapes. In all his paintings, his
nationalistic fervor was evident. His paintings often
portrayed traditional Filipino culture, customs, fiestas
and occupation. He use natural light in his paintings. He
painted outdoors to be able to catch the effect of light
on objects through the use of color. He developed the
backlighting technique that brilliantly depicted the
luminous golden glove the sun's rays on a subject. This
technique became his artistic trademark and his
greatest contribution to Philippine painting.
Fabian dela Rosa
He was noted for being an outstanding painter
of women's portrait. He was also best remembered for
painting landscapes and everyday scenes with women
depicted as simple yet regal and doing daily activities
such as weaving, chatting, going to church, planting rice
in the fields and washing clothes. His skill and
portraiture has rarely been equalled except perhaps by
Fernando Amorsolo.
Carlos "Botong" Francisco
He single-handedly brought back the art of
mural painting in the Philippines. He was in the
forefront of modernist art in the country. He was best
known for his historical epics. One of his favorite
subjects is fisher folks. The images of his women
subjects came from mythology, history, legends,
customs and the contemporary life.
His greatest works include the "Blood
Compact", “First Mass at Limasawa”, "The Martyrdom
of Rizal", and "The Invasion of Limahong".
Jose Joya
He was a Filipino abstract painter. He pioneered
abstract expressionism in the Philippines. His canvases
were characterized by "dynamic spontaneity" and
"quick gestures" of action painting. Known as an
abstract expressionist, he adapted the values of kinetic
energy and spontaneity in painting, mastering the art of
the gestured painting where paint is applied using
broad brush strokes. His works are influenced by the
tropical landscapes of the Philippine Islands.
Ang Kiukok
He first attend prominence in the Philippine
Arts scene in the 1960s. He fused influences from
cubism, surrealism and expressionism. Some classified
his style as figurative expressionism. He favored
subjects as fighting cocks, rabid dogs and people
enraptured by rage are bound in chairs. The intensity of
his work stood in contrast to his personality, described
as placid and affable.
Juan Luna
In 1884, his masterpiece, "Spoliarium", won first
prize at the national exposition of fine arts in Madrid.
His other masterpieces are the "Death of Cleopatra"
and the "Blood Compact".
Vicente Manansala
A Philippine cubist painter and illustrator. His
canvases were described as masterpieces that brought
the cultures of the barrio and city together. His
"Madonna of the Slums" is a portrayal of a mother and
a child from the countryside who become urban shanty
residence once in the city. His "Jeepney", combined the
elements of provincial folks culture with the congestion
of the city. His works include the murals of the "Stations
of the Cross" in the church of the Parish of the Holy
Sacrifice in the University of the Philippines.
Hernando R. Ocampo
He was credited for a new mode of abstraction
that exemplifies Philippine flora and fauna and portrays
sunshine, stars and rains. Using movement and bold
colors, H. R. Ocampo utilized fantasy & science fiction as
the basis for his works. His art is described to be
abstract composition of biological forms that seemed to
oscillate, quiver, inflamed and multiply like mutations.
Damian Domingo
He was active in the early part of the 19th
century as painter of miniature portraits and religious
images. He was known for his miniature portraits on
ivory and oil portraits on canvas. He was likely the first
in Asia to use the western principles of foreground,
middle ground and background perspectives among
other artistic techniques. He became one of the most
sought-after artists of his time.
Mauro Malang Santos
He is a self-taught painter who began his career
as a comic strip illustrator. He paints freely and
unencumbered in gouache and oil pastel, on large or
small canvases and on paper. His paintings have been
said to celebrate the Philippine landscape, its people
and traditions in happy fiesta colors . He was a well
awarded artist . Among the awards he received are:
TOYM ( Ten Outstanding Young Men) 1963, Gawad CCP,
Artist of the Year (Society of Philippines Illustrators and
Cartoonist) and Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan from
the City of Manila. Women are his favorite subjects and
also Philippine landscapes where nipa huts and shanties
take on equality among squalor. His colors are generally
bright and vivid.
Benedicto 'Bencab' Cabrera
He is a pioneer among Filipino painters. His
skillful and soulful depiction of social issues, most
especially those most relevant to Filipinos, is believed
by many to be the foundation of his success. Because of
his involvement with social commentary and the topics
of repression and freedom and creating art as a social
issue, Bencab has painted a wide variety of subjects.
Sculpture
In choosing a subject for sculpture, the most
important thing to consider is the material. The
substances available for sculpture are limitless. Some of
the earliest sculptures were made of bone or wood.
Modern sculptures use a variety of materials for their
work. Different materials required different methods of
handling. Stone and wood do not lend themselves to
the same subject freedom as clay. A soft medium as clay
will lend itself to modeling technique that uses
squeezing and shaping and continuously adding to it as
the work goes on. A hard medium like stone and wood
requires the process of cutting and taking away from
the block. Modelling allows for expansion of gesture
while carving is confined to the limits of the piece of
wood or stone. It must be remembered that both the
material and the method used are necessary for good
sculpture.
There are two major sculpture processes used:
subtractive and additive. The carving of stone and
wood is an example of the subtractive process. It is a
process in which the unwanted material is cut away.
The construction of a figure by putting together bits of
clay, or by welding together parts of metal is an
example of the additive process. The final result is
produced by putting together smaller segments of the
material.
Stone and wood are the two major mediums used to
make sculpture by the subtractive process. Other
mediums such as soap, insulating brick and plaster of
Paris have also been used. The sculptor’s idea in the
additive process is expressed by joining or combining
together small pieces of materials. These materials may
be plastic and texture like moist clay which is molded
and then subjected to intense heat to produce a
ceramic known as terra cotta or maybe cast in metal or
artificial stone. The materials may also be rigid or semi-
rigid such as metal wires, rods and plates which are
combined by soldering or welding.
Utilization of available materials often
influences sculptural design and execution. This allows
for a pattern that is distinctive and identifiable. In the
Philippines, we can find many local materials which
have been limited because of the seeming preference
for mediums that are foreign. Bamboo, adobe, wood,
coral and marble have not been as widely utilized in
comparison to cement, imported granite, and more
recently, plastic and tesserae.
Sculpture and general may be divided into two
types: relief and free-standing. The first refers to figures
which are attached to a ground like the relief of "Stela
of Akhenaten" and the sculpture executed by Ed
Castrillo for the Polytechnic University of the
Philippines. A free-standing figure can be seen from all
sides by the up oblation. It was made by Guillermo
Tolentino in 1949. It is made of bronze and stone.
Stone and bronze. The media most commonly
used for sculpture are stone and metal. Stone is
durable, resistant to the elements, fire and other
hazards. On the other hand, it is heavy and breaks
easily. Marble is the most beautiful stones. It has always
been the favorite material in Greece and Italy where it
is plentiful. Because of its hardness, it is more or less
permanent. It has a high gloss when polished. The
famous "Pieta" of Michelangelo in the Vatican City is
made of marble. The head of "Ptolemy I" is also made
of marble.
Of the metals, the most commonly used
traditionally was bronze. The bronze may be solid in
small statues. Most large bronze statues are hollow
because using a solid metal would make the statue very
heavy and expensive. There is also the tendency for it to
crack when cooled. One disadvantage of the medium is
the difficulty and intricacy in casting bronze. Another
drawback is that bronze statues may be melted for
other purposes. Its rich color and smooth texture make
it one of the most beautiful of all the media for
sculpture. It is also relatively light and the figure can
support itself in many positions that would be
impossible on stone. In addition to bronze, a variety of
other metals is you such as forged iron, welded steel
and duraluminum.
Wood. The advantage of wood is that it is
cheap, readily available, and easy to cut. It also polishes
well and has a smooth shiny surface and beautiful color.
It is relatively light and can be made easily into a variety
of shapes. The grain of wood that can be seen, adds to
its beauty. The carved pulpit of the San Agustin Church
in Intramuros is an example of Philippine wood carving
at its best.
Wood carving as folk art is popular in the towns
of Paete and Pakil in Laguna and in Betis, Pampanga.
The wood carvers of Paete are known for having
perfected the art of carving "santos" from native
hardwood.
The main drawback in using wood is that it is
limited in size and burns easily. Wooden sculptures are
known to discolor and decay easily in the Philippine
climate.
Ivory. Unlike wooden sculpture, a large number
of old ivory statues have survived to the present time.
The survival is due to the intrinsic value of the material.
Ivory lends itself to technical mastery. It is also popular
to ordinary craftspeople. Many statues of saints in
Philippine churches and homes have heads and arms
made of ivory. Ivory though, lacks the vigor of wooden
statues. Like wood, it also cracks. Ivory, like terra cotta,
is seldom used today. A comb, carved on both sides
with religious scenes and made of ivory.
Terra Cotta. Very few materials are as
responsive to a sculptor's hand and tools as is plastic
clay. It yields to even the slightest pressure and can be
worked and reworked until the artist has achieved what
he wants to do. Unfired clay is a fragile material and
sculpture in this medium would have a short life. For a
more durable work in play, the sculpture can fire the
original in a kiln.
The result is usually referred to as terra cotta,
which literally means "cooked earth". It is a moderately
coarse clay product fired at comparatively low
temperature. It is usually painted and coated with
heavy glaze. Terra cotta breaks & chips easily. It is not a
strong material and it cannot stand great strain or
weight. Terra cotta nevertheless is a beautiful and
versatile medium.
Other materials. The list of materials available to the
modern sculpture has become longer. The metals
aluminum, chromium, and steel, plastic, chemically
treated clay and stone forecasting in liquid form are
now being used. Plastic is less expensive for use as a
casting material than metals and less fragile in many
ways. The beauty of plastic and its lightness makes it
preferable to other materials.
Architecture
Architecture is an art. It is the art of designing
and constructing a building. It is also by its definition
functional. One of the primary purposes of architecture
is to fulfill a need that led to its creation. Since the
needs of different periods in history varied, different
architectural styles evolved.
To identify the style in architecture is a complex
undertaking. The style must accommodate and express
the function of the structure. It was also address the
future, providing for adaptability and the capacity to
survive the loss of his original function. It must also be
able to provide for functions which are unknown at the
moment of construction.
The materials used in a building and the
methods which are used in assembling them are among
the factors contributing to architectural style. A wide
variety of materials are available to the architect these
days. Availability of materials is often also an important
factor in architecture. Durability and beauty are also
other factors often considered in the choice of
materials.
Stone and wood have long been used in
architecture. Brick has also been in use from very early
times. Concrete was known and extensively used as
early as the Roman period. Other materials like glass
and plastic materials are also used by architects today.
The type of construction to be employed also
determines the choice of materials to be used. These
may be one of the following: post-and-lintel, arch, and
cantilever.
The post-and-lintel is the earliest of the three. It
consists of two vertical post for support (post) and a
horizontal one (lintel). A better known example of post-
and-lintel construction is the Parthenon in Athens,
Greece. It was built about 454-438 B.C. as a temple of
the Greek Goddesses Athena . It has become
synonymous with perfection in art. The post-and-lintel
is generally used for wooden buildings.
The arch is dominant in roman architecture. It is
an architectural form built from pieces of wood called
voussoirs with joints between them and are arranged in
a semicircle. All materials in an arch are in compression.
Since stone can stand great pressure and is durable, this
method is typically for stone construction. The dome is
an extension of the principle of the arch. It is a roof
resembling an inverted cup or hemisphere, formed by
rounded arches or volts arising from around or many-
sided base.
The cantilever is any structural part projecting
horizontally and anchored at one end only. This method
of construction needs a beam with the great tensile
strength that can be securely fastened at the supported
end. Still has great tensile strength, and does not crack
or break easily. Therefore, the cantilever is utilize
largely in buildings with steel as a medium. Wood also
suited to cantilever construction because of its strength,
but its use is limited since it has the tendency to warp,
sag and rot.
The cantilever is used in the construction of
skyscrapers which depends for their support upon a
steel skeleton.
The most common materials used in
architecture are stone, wood, concrete and steel.
Wood is the common building material today.
Its advantages are its abundance, relative durability and
high tensile compression strength. However, it is easily
destroyed by moisture, insects and fire. A new material,
plywood, has greatly improve the structural possibilities
of wood. In relation to its weight, plywood which
comes in thin sheets, is probably stronger than any
known material.
Stone is the material used in most of the great
architecture of the world where permanence is desired.
Concrete is a building material made of sand and gravel
mixed with cement. Like stone, it has high compressive
strength. It doesn't easily crumble or breakdown when
subjected to heavy weights. It does not erupted or
corrode and is fire resistant. For stronger structures,
ferro-concrete or reinforced concrete is used. It is
concrete reinforced with steel.
Steel is still in great demand today. It is a tough
alloy of iron in variable amounts. It is malleable under
proper conditions and greatly hardened by sudden
cooling. It has tensile strength. The use of structural
steel makes it possible for the architect to build many of
the present-day structures without worrying about the
problem of space and the weight of other materials. It
has also made possible the building of the high-rise
structures which are very popular these days.