TOPIC 13 REVISION

http://ebooks.dynamic-learning.co.uk/prod_content/extracted_books/9781471809248/OEBPS/a_ch13.htm
What is meant by

Free Oscillations the only external force acting on it is the restoring force. Since there are no forces to
dissipate energy, the oscillations continue with constant amplitude and the total energy
remains constant. Simple harmonic oscillations are free oscillations.
Amplitude, A or x0 the maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from its equilibrium position. A
scalar quantity. SI unit metres (m).
Period, the time taken for 1 oscillation of the vibrating system.
T = 1/f SI unit second (s).
T = 2π ÷ ꙍ
Frequency, the number of oscillations per unit time. SI units are hertz, Hz.
f = 1/T In SHM, angular frequency may be used.
f = ꙍ/2π
Natural frequency The frequency at which an object will vibrate when it is allowed to do so freely. (ie with
no external forces acting on it)
Resonance occurs when the natural frequency of a vibrating object is equal to the forced
frequency of vibration, the amplitude of oscillation becomes maximum at resonsnce.
Angular frequency, A measurement related to the frequency, f of the oscillation, units are radians per
ꙍ = 2πf second. Don’t be tempted to use s-1 or Hz for ꙍ, as these are the units of frequency, f.
ꙍ is the angular speed of the rotating radius in the reference circle that accompanies the
simple harmonic motion.
Phase difference, ϕ A measure of how much one wave is out of step with another. A phase difference of 90 0
or π/2 radians corresponds to ¼ of a cycle. It is important to state whether the wave in
question leads or lags the reference wave. In phase implies a phase angle of zero, out of
phase means ϕ is not zero. Antiphase means a phase angle of 1800 or π radians.

Wave A leads wave B by phase angle ϕ, so Wave B lags wave A by phase angle ϕ.

Do not confuse lead and lag. Because the horizontal axis is time, wave A is at a
maximum before wave B,.

Damped Frictional and other resistive forces cause the energy of the oscillator to be dissipated,
oscillations and this energy is converted eventually into thermal energy. The amplitude of the
oscillation decreases as energy is lost to the surroundings,
Forced oscillations An object is made to vibrate by imposing a periodic force on it, the frequency of vibration
is called the forced frequency of vibration

13.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillations (https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/chapter/the-simple-pendulum/)

Definition: Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

An object performs SHM if its acceleration is

 always directed towards a fixed point (the equilibrium position)

and

 directly proportional to its displacement from that fixed point

Particle P performs simple harmonic oscillations of amplitude A about the equilibrium position at x = 0

displacement x to the right

.x=-A x=0 P x=+A

Hence the acceleration, a of the object is directed towards the point x = 0, to the left given by

. a x and in the opposite direction to x

Introducing constant of proportionality - ꙍ2 (note ꙍ2 is always positive, even if ꙍ is negative, units of ꙍ2 are s-2)

. a = - ꙍ2 x

This is the equation that defines SHM.

If an oscillating system can be shown to have

an acceleration the satisfies this equation,

then we can say the oscillations are simple harmonic.

It can be shown, either by integration of a = - ꙍ2 x, or by using the reference circle, that solutions to this equation
produce equations for the velocity of particle P, t seconds after passing through the equilibrium position is given by

v = v0 cos ꙍt

where v0 is the maximum velocity of the particle v0 = x02 as it passes through the equilibrium position.

(remember v=rꙍ from circular motion?)

And the displacement t seconds after passing through the equilibrium position is

x = x0 sin ꙍt

where x0 is the maximum value of x, x0 = amplitude A.

Using cos2 ꙍt + sin2 ꙍt = 1 > cos ꙍt = √ 1−sin2 ꙍt

we can show that v = ± ꙍ x 2o−x 2

√ .
The reference circle – link between circular motion and simple harmonic motion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0p7vDIgqjU&t=1s

Particle performs uniform circular motion with angular speed ꙍ.

X0

X0
X0

At time t=0 the particle is at the equilibrium After time t, the particle has displacement x
position. Its displacement is x =0. from its equilibrium position.

x = x0 sin ꙍt

By differentiation, the velocity at time t is given by v = x0ꙍ cos ꙍt and since v0 = x0ꙍ then v = v0 cos ꙍt

Variation of velocity with displacement

v = ± ꙍ x 2o−x 2
√ circle ellipse
How displacement x varies with time

How velocity v and acceleration a vary with time

The gradient of the displacement-time graph represents the velocity of the particle,

And the gradient of the velocity-time graph represents the acceleration of the particle:

Experimental investigation:

A mass on a spring oscillates above a motion sensor that is connected to a computer, causing a trace to appear on the computer.

The graph of displacement against time is approximately a sine (or cosine) curve. A sinusoidal displacement–time graph is a
characteristic of simple harmonic motion (s.h.m.). Oscillators which move in s.h.m. are called harmonic oscillators.
The simple pendulum
A simple pendulum is an object with a small mass, the pendulum bob,
suspended from a light wire or string of length L.

The period of the pendulum of length l is

L
T ≈2π
√ g
where g is the gravitational field strength

Derivation: displace the pendulum by a small amount, s to the right, so its angular displacement = θ.

The two forces act on the pendulum bob: the tension in the string and the weight force w = mg.

Resolve the weight into two perpendicular components,

one along the tangent, mg sin θ, the other radially outwards, mg cos θ, this second component is equal to the
tension in the string and in the opposite direction.

Hence the resultant force acting on the bob of mass m is just mg sin θ directed back towards the equilibrium
position, in the opposite direction to the displacement vector s.

If θ is in radians, then θ = s/L, and for small angles < 10 0, then θ ≈ sin θ if the angle is in radians.

So the restoring force mg sin θ acting to the left, towards the equilibrium position, becomes ≈ -mg θ = -mg s/L.

The – sign indicates that the vector displacement s and the restoring force are in opposite directions.

Using Newton’s second law gives mg (s/L) ≈ - ma

a ≈ - (g/L) s

comparing this with the general equation for acceleration in SHM when the displacement from the equilibrium
position is x, a = - ꙍ2 x

g
we can see that ꙍ2 = g/L and hence ꙍ=±
√ L
where ꙍ is the angular frequency (= 2π f)

2π L
The period of oscillation will be given by T ≈
ꙍ
≈2π
g √
L
T ≈2π
√ g
This equation is an approximation and is only valid for small angles of oscillation

Mass on a spring
https://ds055uzetaobb.cloudfront.net/image_optimizer/34a9bad1c4321087959c59703b6a690659bc6bce.gif

Mass m oscillates on spring of constant k about its equilibrium position O.

When m is displaced to the right by amount x, the restoring force is
F = k x to the left,
using F = ma,
Then k x = - m a the negative sign indicates that vectors a and x are
in opposite directions.

k
The gives a = - [k/m] x, comparing this with a = - ꙍ2 x , then ꙍ2 = k/m and ꙍ =
√ m

m
Hence the period T = 2π / ꙍ or T = 2π
√ k

To linearise this graph plot T against √m, the gradient would be 2π/√k; or plot T2 against m, giving a gradient of 4π2/k

Both graphs should pass through the origin.

Other examples of SHM

1 Test tube performs vertical oscillations in water; 2 liquid in a U tube performs oscillations;

3 marble on a watch glass; 4 object falling through a hole drilled through the centre of the earth

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Mechanics/earthole.html

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion Oscillations

 Variation of energy with displacement:

Kinetic Energy

Displacement is given by x = x0sinꙍt and velocity is given by: v = v0cosꙍt = x0ꙍcosꙍt

Since sin2ꙍt + cos2ꙍt = 1 then x2/x02 + v2/x02ꙍ2 = 1

Which leads to v2 = x02ꙍ2 - x2ꙍ2

and so v = ± ꙍ √( x02 - x2)

thus the kinetic energy of mass m performing s.h.m. becomes

E k = ½ mv2

E k = ½ m ꙍ2 (x02 - x2)

A graph of kinetic energy Ek against displacement x from the equilibrium position is a parabola with a y intercept of
½ m ꙍ2x02, this is the total energy of the oscillating system.

Potential Energy

For a mass m on a spring of spring constant k N m -1

the elastic potential energy stored in the spring when
it is extended by amount x is
E potential = ½ k x2

for the mass on a spring ꙍ = √(k/m) and hence k = ꙍ2 m

E potential = ½ k x2 = ½ ꙍ2 m x2

A graph of potential energy E p against displacement x is a parabola passing through the origin.

Total Energy
These graphs show how total energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy vary with displacement from the equilibrium
position 0 during simple harmonic motion. The amplitude of
oscillation is x0.

E total = E kinetic + E potential

E total = ½ m ꙍ2 (x02 - x2) + ½ m ꙍ2 x2

E total = ½ m ꙍ2 x02
 Variation of energy with time:

Kinetic Energy E k = ½ mv2 E k = ½ m v02 cos2 ꙍt E k = ½ m ꙍ2 x02 cos2 ꙍt

Potential Energy E p = ½ m ꙍ2 x 2 E p = ½ m ꙍ2 x0 2 sin2 ꙍt

Total Energy Et =Ek+Ep

= ½ m ꙍ2 x02 cos2 ꙍt + ½ m ꙍ2 x0 2 sin2 ꙍt

= ½ m ꙍ2 x0 2 (cos2 ꙍt + sin2 ꙍt)

Et = ½ m ꙍ2 x0 2

1 A particle of mass 60 g oscillates in simple harmonic motion with angular frequency 6.3 rad s −1 and amplitude 15 mm.

Calculate

    (a)  the total energy,

    (b)  the kinetic and potential energies at half-amplitude (at displacement x = ± 7.5 mm).

2 A particle of mass 0.40 kg oscillates in simple harmonic motion with frequency 5.0 Hz and amplitude 12 cm.
Calculate, for the particle at displacement 10 cm:

    (a)  the kinetic energy

    (b)  the potential energy
    (c)  the total energy.

Answers: 1 a) E t = 2.7 x10-4 J; b) E k = 2.0 x 10-4 J, E p = 0.7 x 10-4 J. Note E t = E k + E p as expected.

Practical examples of damped oscillations

A particle undergoes free oscillations when the only external force acting on it is the restoring force. Since there are
no forces to dissipate energy, the oscillations continue with constant amplitude and the total energy remains
constant. Simple harmonic oscillations are examples of free oscillations.

Damping: In real situations frictional and other resistive forces cause the energy of the oscillator to be dissipated,
and this energy is converted eventually into thermal energy. Such oscillations are called damped oscillations. The
total energy of the oscillator decreases with time.

Light damping: The damping is said to be light when the amplitude of the oscillations decreases gradually with time.
The decrease in amplitude is exponential with time. The period of the oscillation is slightly greater than that of the
corresponding free oscillation.

Heavy damping causes the oscillations to die away more quickly.

Further damping produces

Critical damping: the displacement decreases to zero in the shortest time, without any oscillation

Examples of critical damping: Instruments such as speedometers are

critically damped so when a car accelerates, the speedometer quickly
changes and it doesn’t oscillate and confuse the driver.

Shock absorbers on a car suspension critically damp the suspension of

the vehicle and so resist the setting up of vibration which could make
control difficult or cause damage.

Over damping
The displacement decreases to zero in a longer time than for critical damping.

Example is a door damper. How slowly the door swings shut without any
oscillation depends on how strong the damper is. In most cases, the damper
used on a door is a heavy damper, it slowly closes the door with no oscillation
(meaning the door doesn’t swing back and forth).
.
 Forced Oscillations and resonance.

When a vibrating body undergoes free (undamped) oscillations, it vibrates at its natural frequency. Examples include
stationary waves on strings. The natural frequency of such a system is the frequency of the first mode of vibration;
the fundamental frequency. A practical example is a guitar string, plucked at its centre, which oscillates at a
particular frequency.
Vibrating objects may have periodic forces acting on them. These periodic forces will make the object vibrate at
the frequency of the applied force, rather than at the natural frequency of the system. The object is then said to be
undergoing forced vibrations.
Resonance curve.

The vibrator provides the forcing (driving) frequency and has a constant amplitude of vibration.
As the frequency of the vibrator is increased from zero, the mass begins to oscillate. The amplitude of the oscillations
begins small, but it increases with increasing frequency. When the driving frequency equals the natural frequency of
oscillation of the mass–spring system, the amplitude of the oscillations reaches a maximum. If the driving frequency
is increased further, the amplitude of oscillation of the mass decreases.

Resonance: Resonance occurs when the natural frequency of vibration of an object is equal to the driving frequency,
producing a maximum amplitude of vibration.

Useful examples of resonance: quartz crystals to produce ultra sound; quartz crystals in a wrist watch; LCR tuning
circuit in a radio receiver; Magnetic Resonance Imaging in medical applications, microwave tuning circuits

Effects of damping on the resonance curve.

The effect of damping on the amplitude of forced oscillations can be investigated by attaching a light but stiff card to
the mass. Movement of the card produces air resistance and thus damping of the oscillations. The degree depends
on the area of the card. It can be seen that, as the degree of damping increases:
•  the amplitude of oscillation at all frequencies is reduced
•  the frequency at maximum amplitude shifts gradually towards lower frequencies
•  the peak becomes flatter.
Barton’s pendulums This demonstrates resonance and the effects of
damping. It comprises a set of light pendulums,
made (for example) from paper cones, and a more
massive pendulum (the driver), all supported on a
taut string. The lighter pendulums have different
lengths, but one has the same length as the driver.
This has the same natural frequency as the driver
and will, therefore, vibrate with the largest
amplitude of all the pendulums

Tacoma Narrows bridge collapse

A huge scale example of resonance was the failure of the suspension bridge over the Tacoma Narrows in Washington
State, USA. The collapsed due to the aeroelastic flutter that was caused by high-speed winds that matched with the
natural frequency of the structure, causing the bridge to oscillate with increasing amplitude. Strong winds set up
twisting vibrations and the amplitude of vibration increased due to resonance, eventually the bridge collapsed.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw

Galloping Gertie Tacoma Narrows bridge collapse – an engineering analysis

https://www.simscale.com/blog/2018/07/tacoma-narrows-bridge-collapse/

Marching soldiers are cautioned to break stride on a bridge, so they don’t all
match the bridge's natural frequency of vibration. In April 1831, a brigade of
soldiers marched in step across the Broughton Suspension Bridge, England. The
bridge broke apart beneath the soldiers, throwing dozens of men into the water.
The British Army sent new orders: Soldiers crossing a long bridge must "break
stride," or not march in unison, to stop such a situation from occurring again.
https://www.livescience.com/34608-break-stride-frequency-of-vibration.html