Signal conditioning systems

• Modifying the transducer signal into a usable format for the final stage
• includes amplification, attenuation, addition, comparison , modulation, demodulation,
sampling, filtering etc)

Operational amplifiers configurations:

• Inverting amplifiers:

𝑍
𝑣0 = − ( 𝑍𝑓 ) 𝑣𝑖
𝑖

• Non inverting amplifiers:

𝑅2
𝑣0 = (1 + )𝑣
𝑅1 𝑖
 • Differential amplifiers:

𝑅 𝑅
Selecting the resistors such that 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 gives
2 4

𝑅2
𝑣0 = (𝑣 − 𝑣1 )
𝑅1 2

Instrumentation amplifiers:

• Primarily intended for amplification of voltage signals from the transducer with
accurate gain values
• Required to amplify low level signals superimposed with common mode voltages

Difference mode & Common mode:

In differential amplifier if both inputs are equal then output voltage is zero(differential
mode) in case of ideal opamp but not in case of practical opamps. The output voltage
depends not only on the differential but also on the average voltage of input signals
called common mode signal.
CMRR=gain in differential mode/gain in common mode
Higher the value of CMRR , better is the opamp(Differential gain should
be high and common mode gain should be ideally zero)
 The important features of instrumentation amplifiers are
1. High gain accuracy
2. Low drift(deviation from desired value)
3. High CMRR(Common mode rejection ratio)
4. High input impedance
5. High linearity
6. High noise rejection capability

• There are specially designed opamps to meet the above requirements. AD521,AD524,
AD620, AD624 by Analog devices, LM363xx by National Semiconductors are some of
them.
• The instrumentation amplifier is an improved version of the basic differential amplifier as
shown in fig below. Here high CMRR is realized by connecting two non inverting
configurations with op-amps1(OA1) and 2(OA2), and having a common feedback
resistor R1.

• The opamps have differential input voltage as zero (voltage across + and – terminal of
each opamp is zero, hence differential input is zero). For v1 =v2 that is under common
mode condition(input signal is common to both inputs), the voltage across R1 will be
zero. As no current flows thro R1 and R2, OA1 and OA2 act as voltage follower.

• However if v1 not equal to v2, current flows in R1 And R2. Therefore this circuit has
differential gain and CMMR more compared to opamps.
 • By superposition theorem considering OA3,

𝑅4 𝑅4 𝑅4
𝑣0 = − 𝑣02 + (1 + ) 𝑣01
𝑅3 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 𝑅3

𝑅
𝑣0 = 𝑅4 (𝑣01 − 𝑣02 ) ……………(1)
3

Since no current flows into opamps, the current I thro R1

𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝐼=
𝑅1
𝑣1 −𝑣2
𝑣01 = 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝑣1 = ( 𝑅 )𝑅2 + 𝑣1 ……..(2)
1

𝑣1 −𝑣2
𝑣02 = −𝐼𝑅2 + 𝑣2 = −( )𝑅2 + 𝑣2 …………(3)
𝑅1
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) gives,

𝑅4 𝑅2
𝑣0 = (2 + 1) (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝑅3 𝑅1

• The dual input stage of OA1 and OA2 is seen to provide a differential gain of
𝑅
2 𝑅2 + 1 while having common mode gain of unity only.
1
𝑅
• Thus there is improvement in CMMR by factor of 2 𝑅2 + 1. A trimming resistor included
1
to improve CMMR.
• Common used instrumentation amplifiers are AD521, 524, 620,624 by National
Semiconductors.

Bridge circuits(Balanced and Unbalanced bridges):

Classified as

1. DC type
2. AC type

Another classification is

1. Null balance type

2. Deflection type

Classification also based on

 1. Current sensitive type(D is virtually short circuited with current Id flowing througt it)
2. Voltage sensitive type(Detector D is virtually open with output voltage Vd across it)

• For null balance operation, 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2

• Since no current flows through the voltmeter in case of voltage sensitive type and no
current flows through the galvanometer in case of current sensitive type in null balance
operation
𝑒𝑖
𝐼1 = 𝐼3 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅3
𝑒𝑖
𝐼2 = 𝐼4 =
𝑅2 + 𝑅4

• Thus balance eq. is as 𝑅1 𝑅4 = 𝑅2 𝑅3 ……………….(1)

𝑅2 𝑅3
• For measuring the required resistance 𝑅4 = 𝑅1

Unbalanced mode(voltage sensitive):

When bridge is used in unbalanced mode or deflection mode 𝐼1 ≠ 𝐼3 , neither 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2

However in voltage sensitive condition, current through the voltmeter is negligible, so

𝑒𝑖
𝐼1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅3
𝑒𝑖
𝐼2 =
𝑅2 + 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅2
So bridge output 𝑒0 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 𝑒𝑖 [𝑅 −𝑅 ] ………………..(2)
1 +𝑅3 2 +𝑅4

If initially 𝑒0 =0 at null balance condition and if R4 changes by a small amount ∆𝑅4 , then
 [𝑅1 (𝑅4 + ∆𝑅4 ) − 𝑅2 𝑅3 ]𝑒𝑖
𝑒0 + ∆𝑒0 =
[(𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )(𝑅2 + 𝑅4 + ∆𝑅4 )]

Dividing numerator and denominator by 𝑅1 𝑅4 ,

∆𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
[1 + 𝑅 4 − 𝑅2𝑅3 ] 𝑒𝑖
4 1 4
𝑒0 + ∆𝑒0 =
𝑅3 ∆𝑅4 𝑅2
[1 + 𝑅 ] [1 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 ]
1 4 4

If 𝑒0 is zero and applying balance condition of (1),

∆𝑅
[ 𝑅 4 ] 𝑒𝑖
4
∆𝑒0 =
∆𝑅4 ∆𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅3
[2 + + + + ]
𝑅4 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅1

For best operating conditions of bridge, if all bridge arm resistances are equal to R initially, so
that change ∆𝑅 in R produces ∆𝑒0 in the output, then

∆𝑅
[ 𝑅 ] 𝑒𝑖
∆𝑒0 =
∆𝑅
[4 + 2 𝑅 ]

∆𝑅
Assuming 2 ≪ 4 simplies to
𝑅

𝑒𝑖 ∆𝑅
∆𝑒0 = ( ) ( )
4 𝑅
As R is a constant, the output is linearly varying with ∆𝑅
∆𝑒0 𝑒
The bridge sensitivity gives = 4𝑅𝑖 which is a linear relationship.
∆𝑅

Unbalanced mode (current sensitive):

• For current sensitive condition the small meter resistance Rm is taken into consideration
and the source resistance is assumed to be zero, so that the equivalent circuit is given by
the Fig. The bridge as equivalent resistance R0. Converting the circuit to a Thevenin form
looking into output terminals b and d.
 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅0 = 𝑅 1+𝑅3 + 𝑅 2+𝑅4 ……………(1)
1 3 2 4

The equivalent source voltage 𝑒0 is also obtained by Thevenins,

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑖 [𝑅 −𝑅 ] ……………….(2)
1 +𝑅3 2 +𝑅4

Then the current through the meter is given by,

𝑒0
𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅 ……………….(3)
0 +𝑅𝑚

Substituting (1) and (2) in (3) gives

[𝑅1 𝑅4 − 𝑅2 𝑅3 ]𝑒𝑖
𝑖𝑚 =
𝑅1 𝑅3 (𝑅2 + 𝑅4 ) + 𝑅2 𝑅4 (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) + 𝑅𝑚 (𝑅2 + 𝑅4 )(𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )

Initially all the resistances are equal, and if the change in resistance R4 is ∆𝑅,

[𝑅(𝑅 + ∆𝑅) − 𝑅 2 ]𝑒𝑖

∆𝑖𝑚 = 2
𝑅 (2𝑅 + ∆𝑅) + 2𝑅 2 (𝑅 + ∆𝑅) + 2𝑅𝑚 𝑅(2𝑅 + ∆𝑅)

By R2
 ∆𝑅
∆𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑒𝑖
∆𝑅
4𝑅 + 4𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅 (2𝑅𝑚 + 3𝑅)

∆𝑅
Assuming that ≪ 1,
𝑅

∆𝑅
∆𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅 𝑒𝑖
4(𝑅 + 𝑅𝑚 )

The voltage output under loaded condition is,

∆𝑅 ∆𝑅
𝑅𝑚 𝑅 𝑒𝑖
∆𝑒𝐿 = 𝑅𝑚 ∆𝑖𝑚 = = 𝑅 𝑒𝑖
4(𝑅 + 𝑅𝑚 ) 4(1 + 𝑅 )
𝑅𝑚

then open circuit voltage is obtained by 𝑅𝑚 = ∞ in the above eq.

∆𝑅
∆𝑒0 = ( ) 𝑒𝑖
4𝑅
Ratio of voltage under loaded and no load is

∆𝑒𝐿 1
=
∆𝑒0 1 + 𝑅
𝑅 𝑚

Shows that ∆𝑒𝐿 = ∆𝑒0 when 𝑅𝑚 → ∞

Bridge linearizing using Opamp(Active bridge as linearizer):

This circuit is a feedback bridge with an Opamp inserted. This can be used to linearise reponse
characteristics of nonlinear sensors like RTD(Resistive temperature detector), is an analog
technique.

RTD are used in industries for scientific temp. measurement (example Pt platinum).They rely on
the fundamental Temp. resistance property of this noble metal.
The resistance temp property is

𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2 ) Thus RTD has second order nonlinearity. This can be corrected digitally.
• Fig. shows that the temp coefficient decreases with temperature and produces a bow in
middle.
• Fig. shows an exciting current derived from amplified output voltage. This current is in
effect a controlled amount of positive feedback. The use of positive feedback may result
in instability. But the amount is small enough for instability condition.
 • Implementation using two wired one opamp configuration shown in fig.4 for RTD
linearization.
• R1 provides a primary excitation current from Stable voltage Vref.
• R5 provides a temp. varying component of excitation current from output of A1(positive
feedback).
• R2,R3 and R4 are required to set the amplifier gain and offset to produce the desired
output voltage.

Precision Rectifiers (Active rectifier):

• Major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below cut in voltage
𝑉𝛾 (0.6V)
• A circuit that acts like an ideal diode can be designed by placing a diode in the feedback
loop of Opamp as in Fig.

𝑉
• When the input 𝑣𝑖 > 𝐴 𝛾 , ( 𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛~104 ) , 𝑣𝑜𝐴 the output of opamp
𝑂𝐿
exceed cut in and D conducts. Thus the circuit acts like voltage follower for input 𝑣𝑖 >
𝑉𝛾 0.6
( = 60𝜇𝑉) and the output 𝑣0 follows the input voltage during the positive half
𝐴𝑂𝐿 104
cycle.
 𝑉
• When 𝑣𝑖 is negative or 𝑣𝑖 < 𝐴 𝛾 , the diode D is off and no current is delivered to load.
𝑂𝐿

• This circuit is called precision diode capable of rectifying input signals of order of
millivolt. Applications include Half wave, fullwave rectifier,clipper clamper etc.

Half Wave Rectifier:

• An inverting opamp can be converted into an ideal half wave rectifier by adding two
diodes as in Fig.

• When vi is positive the , D1 conducts, causing voA to go negative because of inverting

nature of amplifier. Hence D2 is reverse biased and output vo is zero as in fig.
• When vi is negative D1 is off and VoA is positive and caused D2 to conduct. The circuit
is an inverter now and vo is positive.
• The opamp in this circuit must have high speed since it alternate between open and
closed loop operation. As input passes thro zero the output voA must change value from
0.6V to -0.6V as quickly as possible in order to switch over the conduction from one
diode to another.
• Limitation of this circuit is the slew rate of the opamp.

Full Wave Rectifier(Absolute value circuit):

For positive input (vi>0) ,D1 is ON and D2 OFF. Both A1 and A2 act as inverter as
shown Hence 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑖
• For negative input (vi<0),D1 OFF and D2 ON.
• To write the input output relation, let output voltage of A1 be v.
• Since the differential input to A2 is zero, the inverting input terminal to A2 is also at
voltage v.
Applying KCL to node a,
𝑣𝑖 𝑣 𝑣
+ + =0
𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅
2
𝑣 = − 𝑣𝑖
3
Thus the equivalent circuit of Fig.c is a non inverting amplifier as shown in Fig.d,

The output vo is ,

𝑅 2
𝑣𝑜 = (1 + ) (− 𝑣𝑖 ) = −𝑣𝑖
2𝑅 3
Log Amplifiers:

• If one would like have direct db display on digital voltmeter and spectrum analyser, log
amplifier perform this function.
• Log amplifiers can be used to compress the dynamic range of a signal.

• As in fig. a transistor with grounded base is placed in feedback path.

• Since collector is held at virtual ground and base also grounded, the transistor voltage
current relationship becomes that of a diode and is given by,
𝑞𝑉𝐸
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)

Here 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≈ 10−13 𝐴

𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. (𝐾)

Since for grounded base transistor, 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐸 ,

𝑞𝑉𝐸
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)

𝐼𝑐 𝑞𝑉𝐸
= (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝐼𝑆
𝑞𝑉𝐸 𝐼𝑐
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = + 1
𝐼𝑆
𝑞𝑉𝐸 𝐼𝑐
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ≈ , (𝑎𝑠 𝐼𝑐 ≫ 𝐼𝑠 )
𝐼𝑆
Taking natural log on both sides,
𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑐
𝑉𝐸 = ln( )
𝑞 𝐼𝑆
 From fig. it is seen that
𝑉
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑅 𝑖 , 𝑉𝐸 = −𝑉𝑂
1

𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑂 = − ln( )
𝑞 𝑅1 𝐼𝑆
Thus the output is proportional to log. of input voltage.

Isolation amplifiers (Isolator):

• Amplifier where the input circuit is isolated from output.

• Recommended for Applications related to medical equipments, for patient monitoring
and instrumentation systems.
• In an isolation amplifier there is no possibility of dc current flow between the input ,
output and power supply stages.
1. Transformer coupling
• The simplest isolation is through transformer coupling

Fig. shows transformer coupling after the input signal is converted to ac signal. Similarly
dc output is again converted to ac signal for feedback.
• When high CMMR with low drift is desired , this system may be used.

2. Electro optical coupling:

• Coupling by means of photodiode and LED(optocoupler)
• The photodiode is mounted inside the package along with LED so that electrical signals
converted to light signals in LED are received by photodiode. In this method electrical
isolation is by optical coupling.
 Scheme shown in fig. where a voltage to current amplifier is used to drive the LED and a
𝐼
current to voltage converter develops output voltage. The current gain 𝐼 𝑖 is normally
𝑂
between 0.1 and 0.5. Bandwidth of coupler up to 1MHz.

Charge amplifiers:

• The measurement of charge on the plates of capacitor can be done by finding the
potential difference between them, treating capacitance as constant.
• The charge may leak through its own equivalent resistance, hence measurement should
be effected before any fall takes place.
• Also measurement can be erroneous due to loading effect and lead connections used.
• Piezoelectric crystals develop charges across their opposites faces when subjected to
mechanical stress and the charge leaks away through its equivalent shunt resistance, even
through mech. stress is held constant.
• Thus for measurement of slowing varying stresses, an amplifier suitably designed to
develop output voltage proportional to charge is essential. The bandwidth of amplifier
should extend to very low freq.(0.01Hz)
• The piezoelectric crystal may be treated as charge generator with charge q(t) given by,
•
∆𝑥(𝑡)
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑓 𝐹𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐾𝑑
𝑋0

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 ,

∆𝑥(𝑡)
𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛,
𝑋0
∆𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑋0 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
 𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑑 ∆𝑥(𝑡)
Therefore 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑖 𝑋0
• One of the plates of capacitor is subjected to vibration at desired frequency. The circuit is
shown in fig.

𝐶𝑖 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑅𝑠ℎ = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝐶𝑓 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

𝐴 = 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝

𝐶𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑅𝑐 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝐶𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑝

𝐶1 = 𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑎

Adding the currents at inverting terminal of opamp,

𝑣− (1+𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 )
(𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣− )𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 = (𝑣− − 𝑣𝑜 )𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑓 +
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑠ℎ
And 𝑣𝑜 = −(𝑣− )𝐴
𝑣𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) −𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝐴
=
𝑣𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑠ℎ (𝐴𝐶𝑓 + 𝐶1 )

As 𝐴𝐶𝑓 is very large in comparison to 𝐶1 ,

𝑣𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) −𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝐴

=
𝑣𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑠ℎ (𝐴𝐶𝑓 )

If 𝐶𝑓 and A are chosen such that 𝜔𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝐶𝑓 ≫ 1, the IO relation becomes,

𝑣𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝐶𝑖
= − = 𝐴𝑖
𝑣𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 𝐶𝑓

Phase Sensitive Detectors:

• Used for detection and measurement of amplitude and phase of a periodic signal with
respect to another reference signal of same frequency.
• Ability to reduce noise and thus improve signal to noise ratio.

• The reference signal is a square wave driving the switch towards contactor1 during
positive half cycle and to contactor 2 in negative half cycle.
• The input sinusoidal signal is amplified to reasonable amplitude and applied to switching
system.
• The reference and input signal are of same frequency.
• When the input signal is in phase with reference (𝜃 = 0° ) , the output of adder consists
of full wave rectified signal. The average value is read on meter and is maximum.
• When 𝜃 = 90° , the reading is zero as in fig.b. above.
• When 𝜃 = 180° , the reading reaches negative maximum as in above fig.
• The low pass filter removes the ac ripples and presents the dc component voltage for
indication.
2
• The output reading shown to be 𝜋 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, Vmax is that of input signal, the amplitude
of reference is one.
Switched capacitance circuits:

Noise problem in instrumentation and its minimization: