UNIT 1

2.1.2 Understand the features and purposes of network communication protocols:

Access point: An Access Point (AP) is any connection (wireless or wired) that allows a device to
connect to a network.
Hot spot: A hotspot is a physical location (area) where people may obtain Internet access, typically
using Wi-Fi (and often free of charge).
Network communication protocols are follows:

1. Wireless –Wi-Fi
What is Wi-Fi?
Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity. It is a technology that uses radio waves to provide network
connectivity. Wi-Fi signals use radio frequencies in the 2.4 gigahertz (GHz) and 5 GHz wavebands.
How Wi-Fi Works

A Wi-Fi network makes use of radio waves to transmit information across a network. To connect WiFi,
a device must have a wireless NIC (network interface controller) which can communicate with a
wireless access point (WAP).

Each node/device has a radio transceiver, which allows it to connect to a wireless access point (WAP).
WAPs can be physically connected by wire to a network switch, or wirelessly to other WAPs.

Advantages of Wi-Fi:

1. Cheap set-up costs - one wireless access point can be used to connect a large number of devices.
2. Easy to connect/add new devices without new hardware.
3. Mobility : devices can be moved/portable ,access the network from anywhere within the range
4. It allows to set up LANs without wires. Cables do not need to be purchased
5. Data is transferred faster and greater download speed so better for streaming.

Disadvantages of wi-fi:

1. Slower Bandwidth : Much lower bandwidth than wired connections.

2. Poor Security : The wireless connection may not be as secured as a wired connection anyone
within range can use it unless kept secure with a security password or key.
3. Interference : Can be affected by walls, electronic equipment, distance from router and number
of computers or other devices connected.( Wireless interference occurs when something disrupts
or weakens the Wi-Fi signal coming from the wireless router)
4. Weather: Wi-fi signal can be affected by adverse weather conditions.

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 Sample Question:
You have a games console in your bedroom and a video streaming device in your lounge. You use
both devices to watch movies. The Wireless Access Point is located in the lounge. You have found
that you are able to stream movies at a far higher quality in the lounge than in your bedroom. Why is
this?
The distance from the device and WAP increases, the signal strength will decrease. This will lower
the bandwidth. Objects such as walls and doors will reduce the signal strength. The number of
devices increases within the range, could reduce the signal strength and interfere with the signal.
2. Bluetooth®
Bluetooth is personal area network (PAN). It creates a 10-meter (33-foot) radius wireless network. It is
very secure and has the possibility to connect to up to 8 devices at the same time. Bluetooth works using
radio wave technology through the 2.4 to 2.485GHz transmission bands.
Common uses of bluetooth are sharing data files between mobile phones, or sending audio to bluetooth
speakers. It operates over a short range (typically between 10-100m). The range can be affected by
obstacles (e.g., furniture, walls etc.), but devices do not need to have a direct line of sight to connect.
Advantages of bluetooth:
 Low cost to set up
 Uses relatively little power compared to other types of wireless connection
 You can easily set up bluetooth networks with other bluetooth enabled devices
Disadvantages of bluetooth:
 Short range
 Low level of security
 Low data transmission rate

Difference between Bluetooth and Wifi

Bluetooth and Wifi provide wireless communication and uses radio signals for doing so. The main
difference between Bluetooth and Wifi is :
Bluetooth is essentially used to connect short-range devices for sharing data while Wifi provides high-
speed internet access.
Another difference between Bluetooth and Wifi is that limited number of devices (max 8 devices) have
provision to connect with other devices in Bluetooth. On the other hand, Wifi provides access to more
number of devices (upto 255 devices).

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Bluetooth is used when speed is not our concern and low bandwidth is allocated to it. Wifi provides high
bandwidth as the speed of internet is an important factor.

3. ZigBee®
ZigBee is the wireless technology for the short range, low-power digital radio communication.. It is a
technological standard created for control and sensor the network. Compared to Wi-Fi and blutooth,
Zigbee use very little power and a low data transfer rate. Low cost and longer battery life is its main
advantages. ZigBee operates on the IEEE 802.15.4 specification and is used to create networks that
require a low data transfer rate, energy efficiency and secure networking.
ZigBee Architecture
This consists of coordinator, router and end devices. Every ZigBee network consists of at least one
coordinator which act as the bridge of the network.
Cordinator is responsible for transferring and storing information, allow routers and end devices to join
the network .
Router assist routing data.
An end device has limited functionality communicate with
its parent node such that battery power is saved.

ZigBee has the following characteristics:

I. Low battery consumption. A ZigBee end device should operate for months or even years without
needing its battery replaced.
II. Low cost.

III. Low data rate. The maximum data rate for a ZigBee device is 250Kbps.
IV. Easy to implement.

State advantages for ZigBee rather than Wi-Fi to connect devices in home.
1. Simple to set up
2. Easily expandable
3. Uses less power and longer battery life normally 3-5 years
Explain disadvantages of using ZigBee rather than Wi-Fi to connect devices in home.
1. Limited range/about 10 metres coverage may need several routers instead of one WAP / may not
be able to reach some areas of the house.
2. ZigBee’s data transfer speed is lower than WiFi’s, it’s maximum speed is just 250kbps, much
lower than the lowest speed WiFi offers.
3. Less secure than Wi-Fi because keys are known to have been compromised.

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4. Relatively new technology. So limited types of device available and limited range of device can
be used .
5. It is not secure like WiFi based secured system.
4.Cellular – Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications (3G/4G)

Global system for mobile communications (GSM) was developed by the Groupe Special
Mobile. GSM was firs devised as a cellular system in a specific 900MHz band called the
primary band. The main advantages of GSM are international roaming (in harmony with ISDN
principles assuring inter-working between ISDN and GSM) and features like privacy and
encryption, frequency hopping, discontinuous transmission and short message service. Other
facilities include call forwarding, barring, waiting, hold and teleconferencing. A subscriber
identity module (SIM) is required to activate and operate a GSM terminal.

3G( third generation mobile communication):- Introduced commercially in 2001 Web

browsing, email, video downloading, picture sharing and other Smartphone technology were
introduced in the third generation.

4G

4G is the short name for fourth-generation wireless technology. 4G network requires a mobile
device to be able to exchange data at 100Mbit/Sec. A 3G network, on the other hand, can offer
data speeds as slow as 3.84 Mbit/Sec.

Purpose of 4G is to provide high speed , high quality and high capacity to users while
improving security and lower the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and internet over
IP.

5.Infrared

Infrared wireless is the use of wireless technology in devices or systems that convey data
through infrared (IR) radiation. Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate
via short –range wireless signal.

Infrared light is used to operate many devices in the home. Examples are car locking systems;
computer's mouse, keyboard, and printers; home entertainment systems , remote controls for

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televisions, ; and toys. The devices work by transmitting the infrared signal as bursts of

nonvisible light, which is captured and processed at the receiving end of the device.

6.ETHERNET
Ethernet network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a local area network (LAN).
How Ethernet Works
A computer network interface card (NIC) is installed in each computer, and is assigned to a unique
address. An Ethernet cable runs from each NIC to the central switch or hub. The switch and hub act as
a relay though they have significant differences in the manner in which they handle network traffic –
receiving and directing packets of data across the LAN. Thus, Ethernet networking creates a
communications system that allows sharing of data and resources including printers, fax machines and
scanners.

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2.2.1 Understand the characteristics of different network transmission media

Transmission media may be classified as

 Guided Media (Wired )
1.Copper – Twisted Pair Cable 2. Optical Fiber 3. Powerline
 Unguided Media (Wireless)
1. Microwave 2. Radio wave 3. Satellite 4. Light

Comparison of wired and wireless networks

Wired Wireless
Bandwidth Very high bandwidth up to 100Gbps Far lower bandwidth.
Installtion Setting up is more difficult. Cables Easy. Need only wireless access point
have to be run all over the site
Cost High cost for cables Cheap
Security Security is Good Poor. Anyone within the range can see the
network and connect to use
Interfernce There will be no interference of signal Signals can be affected by walls and other
on cables electronic devices. It is also affects
distance from wireless access point and
more number of computers used the same
wireless connection.
Mobility Not very mobile. User has to connect Very mobile. User can use it from
the cable with wall socket and contact anywhere on the site
is lost when unplugged it.

Guided media

Guided transmission media are more commonly known as the wired communication or bounded
transmission media. The electromagnetic signals travel between the communicating devices through a
physical medium/conductor. As the medium for transmission is a physical conductor, it also provides
direction to the signal. But there are physical limitations of the conductor in the guided media. Like the
length of the conductor, its installation cost, its maintenance, etc.
The guided media is categorized further into three categories that are twisted-pair cable, fiber-optic
cable and powerline.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a single
media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for ground reference. It
is capable of carrying a signal over long distances without amplification. The twisting of wires reduces

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crosstalk which is the bleeding of a signal from one wire to another. The twisted pair cable is flexible
and easy to install. But it has low bandwidth and provide less protection from interference.

2. Fiber Optics
Optical fiber which is made of glass or plastic, and it transmits signals in the form of light. The optical
fibre is noise resistance, has less signal attenuation and has a higher bandwidth in comparison to twisted
pair cable. Fiber-optic cable is free from electromagnetic and radio interference, very secure and can
transmit data at high speeds without errors. But it also has some drawbacks like; it is very expensive, it
requires a lot of installation and maintenance charge as any defect in the cable can diffuse light and alter
the signals. As the optical fiber is made of glass, it is very fragile.

Many fast broadband connections use fiber optic cable instead of copper. What are two reasons why
fiber optic cable is the preferred choice?
 Fiber optic cables transmit data through light so do not suffer from electrical interference.
 They are able to transmit data at a higher bandwidth. Faster transmission speeds possible
 More secure so more difficult to hack
 Data can be transmitted over very large distances without any loss of signal quality

State two drawbacks of upgrading to fibre-optic cables.

 Initial installation cost is higher // Cable / hardware is more expensive to buy per metre
 Specialists / trained personnel are needed to install / maintain
 Fibres can break when bent

3. Power Lines

PowerLine networking is based on the concept of “no new wires”. Basically it uses the existing
electrical wiring in your house to create a home network. Power Line communication (PLC) uses
power cables to transmit data signals. The big advantage of PowerLine networks is the ease of
installation.

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 Advantages of a Powerline Connection

The main advantage of powerline is its convenience, as it eliminates the need to run cables and relies on
the existing wiring for a plug-and-play network that's up and running in a matter of minutes. Another
advantage is its reach—it extends your network to the farthest outlets of your home, where a typical
router may be unable to broadcast its signal. Additionally, it is a more secure connection because it sends
signals using the copper wiring of your home, which can't be hacked.

UNGUIDED MEDIA (WIRELESS)

The unguided media is also called wireless communication. It does not require any physical medium
to transmit electromagnetic signals. In unguided media, the electromagnetic signals are broadcasted
through air to everyone. These signals are available to one who has the device capable of receiving those
signal.
Different wireless communication are:1. Microwave 2. Radio wave 3. Satellite 4. Light
1.Microwave communication
The microwaves are transmitted in a straight line and hence require the line-of-sight transmission. The
distance covered by the microwave signal depend on the height of the two antenna. More the taller are
antennas longer is the distance covered by the signal. In this a transmitter (antenna) and receiver
(antenna) of a microwave system are mounted on very high towers and both should be visible to each
other (line of sight). High-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This is why receiving antennas
cannot be placed inside buildings. The microwave has a frequency higher than the radio waves.
Microwave are used for telephone communication mobile phones, television distribution, etc.

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Advantages
1. Microwave transmission does not require the expense of laying cables
2. It can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time.
3. Since no cables are to be laid down so it offers ease of communication over difficult terrains like hilly
areas.
Disadvantages
1. Signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and so require amplification. To overcome this
problem, repeaters are used at regular intervals (25-30 kms). The data signals are received, amplified
and then retransmitted. This makes it a very expensive mode of communication
2. Installation and maintenance of microwave links turns out be a very expensive affair.
3. The transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorms etc.
2. Radio wave communication
It is a technique where data is transmitted using radio waves through the air. Each radio signal uses a
different frequency and this differentiates it from others. The transmitter takes some message, encodes
it and then transmits it with radio wave. The receiver on the other hand receives the radio waves and
decodes it in to message. Both the transmitter and the receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the
radio signal. The most commonly used standard of radio transmission are Wi-Fi, blutooth, GSM for
mobile phones.
Benefits of radio wave transmission
1. Better mobility: It enables you to access the server from anywhere
2. Cost savings:. Infrastructure costs much lower (transmitter, receiver, antenna, power)
3. Flexibility: As radio wave wireless frequency penetrates the walls, it is easy to install anywhere based
on choice
4. Easy Installation
5. they can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in communication both indoor and
outdoor
Drawback

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 1. Less secure:The signals can be easily hacked and hence it will hamper privacy
2. Speed is less compared to wired network.
3. Clouds, fog, smoke, lightning have effect on this.
4. Interference. Can be “jammed” or interfered with easily, especially when received signal strength is
low.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RADIO WAVES AND MICROWAVES

 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radiowaves.
 Waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are normally called microwaves.

3.Satellite communicationThe concept of satellite based network is to transmit and receive signal from
ground stations. A satellite is a device which revolves around the earth either for collecting useful
information or for helping transfer of information.

APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

Satellite internet, military uses, navigation, mobile satellite technologies, Satellite Television etc.

Advantages of Satellite
1. The Coverage area is very high than that of terrestrial systems.
2. The transmission cost is independent of the coverage area.
3. Higher bandwidths are possible.
Disadvantages of Satellite
1. Launching satellites into orbits is a costly process.
2. The bandwidths are gradually used up.
3. High propagation delay for satellite systems than the conventional terrestrial systems.
4. LIGHT

Infrared light used over short distances. This requires clear line of sight between devices.

• Used in PDAs, cell phones, notebook computers, wireless keyboards, and mice
• Pulses of infrared light represent 1s and 0s of binary transmission
– Speeds up to 4 Mbps

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Li-Fi (short for light fidelity) is defined as an optical wireless broadband access technology that uses the
visible and infrared light spectrum to provide bi-directional (transmit and receive) capability.. LiFi is
high speed, bidirectional, and fully networked wireless communication of data using light. LiFi
constitute of several lightbulbs that form a wireless network.
Application: under water communication, security, hospital, military etc.
Drawbck: Light cannot go through walls

2.2.2 Understand a variety of network metrics:

1.Bandwidth:- It is maximum amount of data transferred through a communication medium per

second. It is commonly measured in bits/second.
2. Throughput:- Actual amount of data passing through media.Is a measure of how fast we can
send data through a network.
3. Packet loss It reflects the number of packets lost per 100 packets sent by a host
4. Latency Latency is the time required to transmit a packet across a network
5. Jitter Jitter variation in packet delay at the receiver of the information
6. Error rate Error rate the number of corrupted bits expressed as a percentage or fraction of
the total sent

7. Scalability Scalability is the capability of a network to handle a growing amount of work.

NETWORK STANDARDS AND PROTOCOLS

a) Voice over internet protocol (VOIP)

Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) is a method used to talk to people using the internet. Many
companies offer free VoIP services, including Skype, Apple Facetime and Google Hangouts.

How does it work?

With VoIP, analog voice calls from microphone are converted into packets of data. The packets
travel like any other type of data, such as e-mail, over the internet. The person receiving the call
must also have VoIP application running in order to listen.
Advantages of VOIP include −
 Low cost
 Portability
 No extra cables
 Flexibility
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  Video conferencing
Disadvantages

1. VOIP does not work if your internet connection is down.

2. Normal voice can become garbled or distorted because of latency, transmission errors or
high number of online users
3. Both ends have to have the right software and hardware to speak to one another
4. Even when fully working, it is not as high a quality of voice as a normal telephone line.

b) SIP (Session initiation protocol)

Session Initiation Protocol, (SIP), is a protocol used to initiate, maintain, and terminate
multimedia communication sessions . The session may be audio, video , text or combination of
these. SIP protocols support the signaling and control of voice, video, and messaging
applications. This allows people around the world to communicate over the internet using their
computers and mobile devices.
Application
Which protocol will be used to transmit a video conference?
SIP (Session initiation protocol)is used to transmit a video conferencing .
Working of SIP
SIP is the text based signaling protocol which set up IP communication. All communication
starts with text based signaling. First sender sent a text signal to receiver. After getting signal
receiver sent back acceptance signal and establish a connection between two devices. Then
starts the conversation. Finally, it transmits end signal to terminate the conversation.
Benefits of SIP
1. SIP offering video call, instant messaging, audio call and SMS all for a low cost and
sometimes no cost to the user.
2. Mobility services can be routed wherever a user is such as home, office or a WiFi enable
mobile device.
3. Give the flexibility in adding to or removing SIP trunk without hardware changes

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