+

Chapter 2 William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture
 Computer Evolution 9th Edition
and Performance (Part 1)
Chapter 2
Computer Evolution and Performance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Present an overview of the evolution of computer

technology from early digital computers to the latest
microprocessors.
• Understand the key performance issues that relate to
computer design.
• Explain the reasons for the move to multicore
organization, and understand the trade-off between
cache and processor resources on a single chip.
• Distinguish among multicore, MIC (Many Integrated
Core), and GPGPU organizations.
+
• Present an overview of the evolution of the x86
architecture.
• Define embedded systems and list some of the
requirements and constraints that various embedded
systems must meet.
• Summarize some of the issues in computer performance
assessment.
+History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
 ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

 Designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania

 Started in 1943 – completed in 1946
 Used until 1955
 By John Mauchly and John Eckert

 World’s first general purpose electronic digital computer

 Army’s Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) needed a way to supply
trajectory tables for new weapons accurately and within a
reasonable time frame
 Was not finished in time to be used in the war effort

 Its first task was to perform a series of calculations that were

used to help determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb

 Continued to operate under BRL management until 1955

when it was disassembled

Jhon Mauchly (1907-1980) and

Jhon Presper Eckert (1919-1995)
 ENIAC - Details
 Decimal (not binary)

 20 accumulators of 10
digits

 Programmed manually by
switches

 18,000 vacuum tubes

 30 tons

 15,000 square feet

 140 kW power consumption

 5,000 additions per second

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
calculator), the world’s first general-purpose electronic
computer. J. presper Eckert, Jhon Mauchly - Moore
School, Pennsylvania University.
ENIAC

Major
Memory drawback
consisted
was the need
Occupied of 20
Contained Capable
1500 Decimal accumulators,
more of for manual
140 kW each
Weighed square rather
than Power 5000 programming
30 feet than capable
18,000 consumptio additions by setting
tons of binary of
vacuum n per switches
floor machine holding
tubes second and
space a
10 digit plugging/
number unplugging
cables
 Primeros computadores electrónicos
• En 1944, Jhon von Neumann fué llamado al proyecto ENIAC.
• El grupo quería mejorar la forma en que se introducían los programas y discutía
la posibilidad de almacenar los programas como números.
• Jhon von Neumann ayudó a cristalizar las ideas y escribió un memorandum
donde proponía un computador de programa almacenado llamado EDVAC
(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer).
• Herman Goldstine distribuyó el documento con el nombre de Von Neumann y
olvidó incluir a Eckert y Mauchly.
• El memorandum ha servido de base para el término Computador de von
Neumann.
• Algunos pioneros en el campo de los computadores piensan que el término da
demasiado crédito a Von Neumann, quién redactó las ideas, y muy poco a los
ingenieros Eckert y Mauchly quienes trabajaron en las máquinas.
• En 1947, Eckert y Mauchly dejaron la Moore School, lo que ocasionó un retrazo
en el proyecto EDVAC, el cual terminó en 1952.
+
John von Neumann
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer)

 First publication of the idea was in 1945

 Stored program concept

 Attributed to ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician
John von Neumann
 Program represented in a form suitable for storing in memory
alongside the data

 IAS computer
 Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers
 Completed in 1952
John von Neumann
John von Neumann (registrado al nacer como Neumann János
Lajos) (Budapest, Imperio austrohúngaro, 28 de diciembre de 1903
Washington, D.C., Estados Unidos, 8 de febrero de 1957) fue un
matemático húngaro-estadounidense que realizó contribuciones
fundamentales en física cuántica, análisis funcional, teoría de
conjuntos, teoría de juegos, ciencias de la computación, economía,
análisis numérico, cibernética, hidrodinámica, estadística y muchos
otros campos. Es considerado como uno de los más importantes
matemáticos de la historia moderna.
Fuente Archivo: JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif
Fuente: http://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archivo:JohnvonNeumann-
LosAlamos.gif
Structure of von Neumann Machine
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic-
Logic
Unit (CA)
M ain I /O
M emory Equip-
(M ) ment
(I , O)

Program
Control
Unit (CC)

Figure 2.1 Structure of the I AS Computer

+
IAS Memory Formats
 Both data and instructions are
 The memory of the IAS stored there
consists of 1000 storage
locations (called words) of  Numbers are represented in
binary form and each instruction
40 bits each is a binary code

0 1 39

sign bit (a) Number word

left instruction right instruction

0 8 20 28 39

opcode address opcode address

(b) I nstruction word

Figure 2.2 I AS M emory Formats

+ Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)

AC MQ

I nput-
Arithmetic-logic output
circuits
equipment

Structure M BR

of I nstructions
and data

IAS
Computer
I BR PC

M ain
memory
IR M AR
M

Control
Control
circuits
signals Addresses

Program control unit

Figure 2.3 Expanded Structur e of I AS Computer

+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from
register (MAR) or read into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

register (IBR) word in memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

Program counter (PC) from memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
multiplier quotient (MQ) operations
+

IAS
Operations
+

Table 2.1

The IAS
Instruction
Set

Table 2.1 The IAS Instruction Set

+
Commercial Computers
UNIVAC
 1947 – Eckert and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation to manufacture computers commercially

 UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

 First successful commercial computer
 Was intended for both scientific and commercial applications
 Commissioned by the US Bureau of Census for 1950 calculations

 The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation became part of the

UNIVAC division of the Sperry-Rand Corporation

 UNIVAC II – delivered in the late 1950’s

 Had greater memory capacity and higher performance

 Backward compatible
Primeros computadores electrónicos - Desarrollos comerciales

UNIVAC I, the first commercial computer in the United States. It

correctly predicted the outcome of the 1952 presidential election, but its
initial forecast was withheld from broadcast because experts doubted the
use of such early results.
 Primeros computadores electrónicos - Desarrollos comerciales

La UNIVAC II (UNIVersal Automatic Computer II, Computadora Automática

Universal II) fue una mejora de la UNIVAC I que UNIVAC entregó por
primera vez en 1958. Las mejoras aportadas en esta versión fueron una
ampliación de memoria de 2.000 palabras a 10.000, utilización de
transistores en algunas partes del circuito, aunque la mayor parte seguía
estando construida por tubos de vacío. La UNIVAC II era plenamente
compatible con la UNIVAC I, tanto en las instrucciones del programa como
las estructuras de datos.
 Primeros computadores electrónicos
• En 1946, Maurice Wilkes, de la Cambridge University, visitó Moore School.
• Al regresar a Cambridge, Wilkes decidió iniciar el proyecto llamado EDSAC (Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Calculator), el cual fué culminado en 1949, y se constituyó como el primer
computador de programa almacenado a escala completa.
• Julian Bigelow construyó el IAS, 10 veces más rápida que el ENIAC (1024 palabras de 40 bits).

Left to right: Julian Bigelow, Herman The IAS computer was named for the Institute for
Goldstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, and Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., where it was
John von Neumann at Princeton Institute developed. Work on the IAS was begun in 1946
for Advanced Study. and completed in 1952.
 IBM Mark I
The IBM Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator (ASCC ), called
Mark I by Harvard University’s staff,
was a general purpose electro-
mechanical computer that was used in
the war effort during the last part of
World War II.

The original concept was presented to

IBM by Howard Aiken in November
1937. After a feasibility study by IBM’s
engineers, Thomas Watson Sr.
personally approve the project and its
funding in February 1939.

One of the first programs to run on the

Mark I was ini- tiated on 29 March
1944[5] by John von Neumann, who
worked on the Manhattan project at the
time, and needed to determine whether
implosion was a viable choice to
detonate the atomic bomb that would
be used a year later.

The Mark I was officially retired, after 15

years of service, in 1959.
+
 Was the major manufacturer of
punched-card processing
equipment

 Delivered its first electronic

stored-program computer (701)
in 1953
 Intended primarily for
scientific applications IBM
 Introduced 702 product in 1955
 Hardware features made it
suitable to business
applications

 Series of 700/7000 computers

established IBM as the
overwhelmingly dominant
computer manufacturer
IBM
Members of the IBM 700/7000 Series
An IBM 7094 Configuration

Announced January 15, 1962 and withdrawn July 14, 1969.

Compatible with the IBM 7090, the advanced solid-state IBM 7094 offered substantial increases in internal
operating speeds and functional capacities to match growing scientific workloads in the 1960s. The powerful
IBM 7094 had 1.4 to 2.4 times the internal processing speed, depending upon the individual application.

New expanded functions provided with the IBM 7094 were: double-precision floating-point operations,
seven index registers, and new index-complementing instructions.
+ History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors

 Smaller  When was the first transistor

 Cheaper
 Dissipates less heat
than a vacuum tube
 Is a solid state device
made from silicon
invented?
Modern-day electronics began with the
invention in (December 23) 1947 of the transfer
resistor - the bi-polar transistor- by Shockley,
Brattain and Bardeen at Bell Laboratories

 It was not until the late

1950’s that fully
transistorized
computers were
commercially available
John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain at
Bell Labs, 1948.
  Computer Generations

The Underlying Technologies

Year Technology Relative Perform/Unit Cost
1951 Vacuum Tube 1
1965 Transistor 35
1975 Integrated Circuit (IC) 900
1995 Very Large Scale IC (VLSI) 2,400,000
2005 Submicron VLSI 6,200,000,000
+
Second Generation Computers

 Introduced:
 Appearance of the Digital
 More complex arithmetic
Equipment Corporation (DEC)
and logic units and control
units in 1957
 The use of high-level
 PDP-1 was DEC’s first
programming languages
computer
 Provision of system software
which provided the ability  This began the mini-computer
to:
phenomenon that would
 load programs become so prominent in the
 move data to peripherals third generation
and libraries
 perform common
computations
 Table 2.3
Example
Members of the
IBM 700/7000 Series

Table 2.3 Example Members of the IBM 700/7000 Series

 M ag tape
units
CPU
Card
punch
Data
channel

IBM
Line
printer

7094
Card
reader

M ulti-
plexor
Data
channel
Drum
Configuration
Disk

Data
Disk
channel

Hyper-
tapes

M emory Data Teleprocessing

channel equipment

Figure 2.5 An I BM 7094 Configuration