CHAPTER 4

SHEAR STRENGTH

3.1 Understand Shear Strength Of Soil

One of the most important engineering properties of soil is its shearing strength, or its ability to resist
sliding along internal surfaces within a given mass. Shear strength is the property that materially
influences the bearing capacity of a foundation soil.

The basic principle is similar in many respects to an object resting on a table. For example, imagine a
brick resting on a table top as shown in Figure 3.1.

The brick is in equilibrium under its own

weight and the equal and opposite reaction
force is provided by the table. Now imagine a
horizontal force is applied to the brick near the
table top. If this horizontal force is small, the
brick will remain at rest, and the applied
horizontal force will be balanced by an equal
and opposite force.

This resisting force is developed as a result of

the roughness characteristics of the bottom of
the brick and the table surface. If the applied
horizontal force is gradually increased, the
resisting force will also increase, always being
equal in magnitude to the applied force. When
the applied force equals or exceeds the
resistance, the brick will slide across the table
top. The slippage is a shear failure.

The applied shear strength is the maximum

shear resistance that the materials are capable
of developing. Shear strength consists of two
parts. The first part is the friction between
particles (physical property). The second part
is called cohesion, or no-load shear strength
due to a chemical bond between particles.

Figure 3.1 A brick on table top

3.1.1 Parameters of soil shear strength

There are Two (2) parameters of shear strength:
a) Friction angle, φ
b) Cohesion , c

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a) Friction angle, φ

The shear strength of a granular soil, such as sands, gravels and some silts, is closely analogous to
the frictional resistance of solids in contact, as described above and shown in Figure 3.1. The
relationship between the normal stress acting on a plane in the soil and its shearing strength can be
expressed by the following equation, in terms of stress:

τf = σ tan φ

Where: τf = the shearing stress at failure, or the shear strength

σ = normal stress acting on the failure plane
φ = friction angle

The internal friction of a given soil mass is related to the sliding friction between individual soil
grains and the interlocking of soil particles. Shear strength attributable to friction requires a normal
force (σ), and the soil material must exhibit friction characteristics, such as multiple contact areas. In
dense soils, the individual soil grains can interlock, much like the teeth of two highly irregular gears.

For sliding to occur, the individual grains must be lifted over one another against the normal stress
(σ). Therefore, the force required to overcome particle interlock is proportional to the normal stress,
just the same as sliding friction is proportional to normal stress. In soil mechanics, φ is designated
the angle of internal friction, because it represents the sum of sliding friction plus interlocking. The
angle of internal friction (φ) is a function of density, roundness or angularity, and particle size.

b) Cohesion , c

Cohesion is analogous to two sheets of flypaper with their sticky sides in contact. Considerable force
is required to slide one over the other, even though no normal stress is applied. Cohesion is the
molecular bonding or attraction between soil particles. It is a function of clay mineralogy, moisture
content, particle orientation (soil structure), and density. Cohesion is associated with fine grain
materials such as clays and some silts.

3.1.2 The Shear Strength of Soil And It’s Usage

Shear strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that a
soil can sustain. The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil. If the
soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse. The shear strength of soil depends on the effective
stress, the drainage conditions, and the density of the particles, the rate of strain, and the direction of
the strain.
Engineers must understand the nature of shearing resistance in order to analyse soil stability problems
such as;

 Bearing capacity
 Slope stability
 Lateral earth pressure on earth-retaining

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  structures
 Pavement

Coulomb Equation for Shear Strength

The equation for shear strength as a linear function of total stress is called the Coulomb equation
because it was first proposed by C.A. Coulomb in 1773.

τf = c + σ tan φ (equation 3.1)

In terms of effective stress:

τf = c + (σ - u) tan φ (equation 3.2)

where: τf = shear strength

c = cohesion
σ = total stress acting on the failure plane
φ = friction angle
u = pore water pressure

Equations 3.1 and 3.2 are two of the most widely used equations in geotechnical engineering,
since they approximately describe the shear strength of any soil under drained conditions.

3.2 Mohr - Coulomb criteria for failure of soil.

3.2.1 Coulomb Method

Coulomb model describing the frictional resistance is not a fixed value but varies with the normal
stress exerted on the shear plane. Coulomb introduce soil shear strength (τf) at a point of particular
plane is a linear function of the normal stress (σ) on the plane at the same point.

Soil

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 F( maks) = N tan ø …. equation 1

If area of failure (A) , normal stress for the plane :

 n = N/A ..... equation 2

And the value of shear stress :

f = F(maks) / A ........ equation 3

 From equation (1), (2) and (3), so that :

f =  n tan 

If the procedure were repeated by using a different values of force (N), then the value of normal stress
(n) and shear stress (f ) varying obtained. Plot the normal stress (n) against shear stress (f) will
generate a relationship between n with f as shown in Figure 3.2.

C
n
Figure 3.2 : Shear failure envelope (n
against f )

C
The failure envelope is a curved line which
represents shear stress on failure plane as a
linear function of normal stress. It can be written as

τ f =c+ σ n tan ∅

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Where τ f is maximum shear stress that soil can carry without failure under normal stress. This
formula can be represented in the form of graph as shown in Figure 3.2. The preceding equation is
called the Mohr – Coulomb failure criteria.

This theory states that “material fails because of a critical combination of normal and shear stresses
alone”. Material fails essentially by shear. The critical shear stress causing failure depends upon
properties of material as well as normal stresses on plane. The ultimate strength of the material is
determined by the stresses on the potential failure plane.
The shear failure was first defined by Coulomb (1776).

The Mohr-coulomb failure criteria simply states that “in saturated soil, the total normal stress at a
point is sum of effective stresses and pore water pressure. It is written as:

τ f =c '+ σ ' tan ∅ '

In saturated soil, the total normal stress at a point is the sum of the effective stress (σ’) and pore water
pressure (u), or :

σ =σ ' +u
The effective stress σ’ is carried by the soil solids. The Mohr – Coulomb failure criteria expressed in
term of effective stress, will be the form

τ f =c '+ σ ' tan ∅ '

Where: c’ = cohesion ∅ ' = friction angle, based on effective stress.

3.2.2 Mohr Method

A sample of soil is loaded with a major stresses shown in Figure 3.3. 1 is the major stress is 3 is a
minor stress.

1

Figure 3.3 : Soil sample

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Mohr circle diagram are plotted as shown as below. Assumed at the beginning stage of loading, stress
condition of the soil are represented by the circle ABC. Then, the value of major stress (1) are
increasing constantly while the value of minor stress (3) maintained until the sample is failed. During
1 is increasing, Mohr circle diameter grows up to be A’B’C', until the sample failed.

Figure3.4 : Mohr Circle

Figure 3.5 show the failure of soil sample and mohr circle was plotted in figure 3.6. If the soil sample
was failure on the surface EF and shear stress act during the failure are normal stress and shear stress.
If the value of normal stress and shear stress was plotted in Mohr Circle at point T. Angle of TQC’ =
2Ɵ and Ɵ is an angle between plane of failure and major stress. From Mohr Cirlce :

1   3
f Sin
= 2 (equation a)

1   3 1   3
 Cos 2
f 2 2
= (equation b)

If tangen line was draw through point T, so the straight line RTS will cross with the axis shear stress (
f
) at point R. Tangent of the line is tan ø . ø is an angle from tangent and major stress. The
equation for the straight line RTS are :

f f
= c + tan  (equation c)

Relation between ø and Ɵ are shown as :


 = 2 + 45o (equation d)
f
A

By replace the value of Ɵ with ø and the value from the equation (a) and equation (b) to equation
(c), :
B
B’

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C
  1   3 =   1   3  sin   2c kos (equation e)
Or

1 =  3 tan 2  45 o   / 2  2c tan( 45 o   / 2)
(equation f)

Equation (e) and (f) was known as mohr criteria of failure. The combination criteria of Mohr and
Coulomb known as Mohr – Coulomb criteria for failure of the soil.

Figure 3.5 : Soil sample during failure

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 Figure 3.6 : Mohr Circle during failure

3.2. State The Criteria For Failure

a) Granular Soil

Granular soil or non-cohesive soil also known as friction dry soil or fully saturated. The value of
c = 0 and some friction between soil particles, ø. Figure 3.7 below show Mohr – Coulomb failure
criteria.

b) Cohesion Soil

Cohesion soil is clayed soil with friction angle, ø = 0 and shear was obtained by friction between
soil particles. The line of failure is horizontal line parallel to normal stress. like gravel, sand, or
silt (coarse grained soil) with little or no clay content, exhibit no effective cohesion (c = 0) and
high effective friction angle. Granular soils crumble easily when dry.

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 c) Granular – Cohesion Soil

Granular – cohesion soil such as clayed sand or silty sand which has characteristic of
cohesion and friction. This type of soil has a characteristic of Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.
Shear strength of the soil depends on a few factors. For sandy sand, the factors can influent
shear strength are soil particle, shape, grade of the soil and soil particle itself. Compacted
sand have shear strength more than loose sand. Shear strength of clay are influent by shape
and soil particle, mineral contain, water content and chemical reaction on the soil.

3.3 Shear strength Test

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The shear strength parameters of a soil are determine with 4 types of tests:
1. Shear Box Test
2. Unconfined Compression Test
3. Tri – axial Test
4. Vane Shear Test
5. Point Load Test

a) Shear Box Test

Direct shear test is quick and inexpensive. Shortcoming is that it fails the soil on a designated
plane which may not be the weakest one. Used to determine the shear strength of both cohesive as
well as non-cohesive soils.

The test equipment consists of a metal box in which the soil specimen is placed. The box is split
horizontally into two halves. Vertical force (normal stress) is applied through a metal plates.
Shear force is applied by moving one half of the box relative to the other to cause failure in the
soil specimen

Figure 3.7: Direct Shear Test

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Direct Shear Test (Procedure)

1. Measure inner side or diameter of shear box and find the area
2. Make sure top and bottom halves of shear box are in contact and fixed together.
3. Weigh out 150 g of sand.
4. Place the soil in three layers in the mould using the funnel. Compact the soil with 20 blows per
layer.
5. Place cover on top of sand
6. Place shear box in machine.
7. Apply normal force. The weights to use for the three runs are 2 kg, 4 kg, and 6 kg if the load is
applied through a lever arm, or 10 kg, 20 kg, and 30 kg, if the load is applied directly.
8. Start the motor with selected speed (0.1 in/min) so that the rate of shearing is at a selected
constant rate.
9. Take the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage readings.
Record the readings on the data sheet.
10. Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the horizontal
displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.

(Note: Lever arm loading ratio 1:10) (2kg weight = 20 kg)

b) Unconfined Compression Test

The unconfined compression test is used to measure the shearing resistance of cohesive soils
which may be undisturbed or remolded specimens. An axial load is applied using either strain-
control or stress-control condition. The unconfined compressive strength is defined as the
maximum unit stress obtained within the first 20% strain.

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c) Tri – axial Test

In this test, a soil

specimen about 36 mm (1.4 in.) in diameter and 78 mm (3 in.) long is generally used.  The specimen
is encased in a thin rubber membrane placed inside a plastic cylindrical chamber.

The specimen is subjected to a confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the chamber.   To
cause shear failure in the specimen, one must apply axial stress through a vertical loading ram
(deviator stress). 

The axial load applied by the loading ram corresponding to a given axial deformation is measured by
a proving ring or load cell attached to the ram. Connections to measure drainage into or out of the
specimen, or to measure pressure in the pore water (as per the test conditions), are also provided. 

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The following three standard types of tri-axial tests are generally conducted:
1. Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)
2. Consolidated-undrained test (CU test) 
3. Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

Consolidated-drained test or drained test (CD test)

 The CD is also known as the slow test or S-Test because it may take a few days for the
completion of the test.
 It is not practical to carry out this test on clay due to cell leakage problem and the completion of
the test would be too slow. There is less concern on the sample disturbance because soil structure
is almost remolded near the failure plane.
 Note that at all times during the CD test, the pore water pressure, u is essentially zero. This means
that the total stresses in the drained test are always equal to the effective stress.
 No excess pore pressure throughout the test.
 Very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore pressure.
 gives c’ and ’
 Use c’ and ’ for analysing fully drained situations (e.g., long term stability, very slow loading)

Consolidated-undrained test (CU test) 

 The CU is also known as the rapid test or R-Test.

 In practice, to ensure 100% saturation, which is necessary for good measurements of the pore
water pressure, a back pressure is applied to the pore water.
 For a clay specimen, rate of loading should be slow enough so that the Du is same in the whole
specimen.
 This may not be practical for field testing.
 Pore pressure develops during shear
 Gives c’ and ’
 Use c’ and ’ (faster than CD)

Unconsolidated-undrained test or undrained test (UU test)

 The unconsolidated undrained tri-axial test is also known as the quick test or Q-Test because the
sample is loaded to failure in about 10 to 20 minutes.
 The sample must be 100% saturated so that even when confining pressure is applied, no
consolidation can occur.
 pore pressure develops during shear
 analyse in terms of   gives cu and u
 very quick test
 Use cu and u for analysing undrained situations (e.g., short term stability, quick loading)

Advantages of Tri-axial Test

 The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
 The specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane
 There is complete control over the drainage.
 Pore pressure changes and the volumetric changes can be measured directly.

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 The state of stress at all intermediate stages up to failure is known. The Mohr circle can be drawn
at any stage of shear.
 This test is suitable for accurate research work and the apparatus adaptable to special
requirements such as extension test and tests for different stress paths.

Disadvantages of Tri-axial Test

 The apparatus is elaborate, bulky and costly.

 The drained test takes place a longer period in comparison with a direct shear test.
 It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the specimen at larger strains, as the
assumption that the specimen remains cylindrical does not hold good.
 The strain conditions in the specimen are not uniform due to frictional restraint produced by the
loading cap and the pedestal disc. This leads to the formation of the dead zones at each end of the
specimen.
 The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic, whereas in the field, the consolidation is
generally anisotropic.

d) Point Load Test (PLT)

The Point Load Test, also known as the Point Load Strength Index Test, is used to calculate the
rock strength index of a rock specimen. From the rock strength index, other rock parameters, such as
the uniaxial compressive strength, can be estimated. This test is very economical due to the simplicity
of the apparatus and the minimal amount of required materials to execute. It is an excellent alternative
for the uniaxial compression test because it does not require significant specimen preparation or
extensive testing, thus it is not time-consuming and results are seen relatively quickly. Data collected
from the point load test can then be used to make quicker and more informed decisions during
exploration phases in a very cost-effective and time-efficient method.

A point load testing apparatus, such as the one depicted, is ideal for quick testing in the field.
They are typically portable and wireless, thus allowing the user to perform multiple tests without the
need of outlets or an external energy source. These testing systems often are able to perform other
tests in addition to the point load test.

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EXERCISE

1. An unconsolidated undrained test is conducted for a soil sample. The result is shown as follows.
Determine the parameter of shear strength.

Sample Minor normal stress Deviator stress

’3 ( kN/ m2) Δ = ’1 - ’3
A 15 41
B 91 184
C 176 292

Answer
Test No. Minor Normal stress(kN/m2) Major Normal stress(kN/m2)
1
2
3

2. A series of drained tri-axial tests were carried out on specimens of sand prepared at the same
porosity and the following results were obtained at failure. With raw data on the table,
determine the value of the angle of shearing resistance ’ .

STRESS UNIT A B C D

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 All-round pressure,
kN/m2 100 200 400 800
(Normal stress, minor)
Principal stress
kN/m2 452 908 1810 3624
difference,

Answer

STRESS UNIT A B C D
All-round pressure,
kN/m2 100 200 400 800
(Normal stress, minor)
All-round pressure,
kN/m2
(Normal stress, major)

3. A tri- axis test were conducted to undisturbed soil samples and the result is shown below. Given a
standard calibration factor is 1.4 N per section. Each sample has a diameter and length of each is
37.5 mm and 75 mm. Determine the value cohesion and the friction angle of the soil.

Dial Gauge Reading

Sample Minor normal stress (kN/m2)
(section)

1 50 66
2 150 106
3 250 147

Answer

Sample Minor normal stress (kN/m2) Major normal stress (kN/m2)

1 50
2 150
3 250

4. The table 3.1 shows the results of four drained direct shear tests on a normally consolidated clay :

Sample size : d, diameter of sample = 60mm, h,height of sample= 30mm

Test No. Normal force (N) Shear force at failure (N)

1 282.00 130.5
2 421.35 181.35
3 494.00 224.30
4 561.50 244.30
Table 3.1 : Results of direct shear tests

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Draw a graph for shear stress at failure against normal stress. Determine the angle of friction, Ø from
the graph.

Answer

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