MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

Module 1: Mathematical Logic and Statement Calculus

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad

Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
Vellore Institute of Technology
Vellore

srvprasad.bh@gmail.com
srvprasad.bh@vit.ac.in
 Theory of Inference for Statement Calculus
1

I The main function of logic is to provide rules of inference, or principles of reasoning.

I The theory associated with such rules is known as inference theory because it is
concerned with the inferring of a conclusion from certain premises.
I When a conclusion is derived from a set of premises by using the accepted rules of
reasoning, then such a process of derivation is called deduction or a formal proof.
I In formal proof, every rule of inference that is used at any stage in the derivation is
acknowledged.
I In mathematical literature, the proofs given are generally informal in the sense that
many steps in the derivation are either omitted or considered to be understood.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Theory of Inference for Statement Calculus
2

I Important difference between the reasoning used in any general discussion and that
used in mathematics is that the premises used are believed to be true:
I either from experience or from faith
I If proper rules are followed, then one excepts the conclusion to be true.
I In mathematics, one is solely concerned with the conclusion which is obtained by
following the rules of logic.
I This conclusion, called a theorem, can be inferred from a set of premises, called the
axioms of the theory.
I The truth value plays no part in the theory.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Theory of Inference for Statement Calculus
3

I The rules of inference are criteria for determining the validity of an argument.
I These rules are stated in terms of the forms of the statements (premises and
conclusions) involved rather than in terms of actual statements or their truth values.
I Thus, the rules will be given in terms of statement formulas rather than in terms of
any specific statements.
I In any argument, a conclusion is admitted to be true provided that the premises,
(assumptions, axioms, hypotheses) are accepted as true and the reasoning used in
deriving the conclusion from the premises follows certain accepted rules of logical
inference.
I Such an argument is called Sound.
I In any argument, we are always concerned with its soundness.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Theory of Inference for Statement Calculus
4

I In logic we concentrate our attention on the study of the rules of inference by which
conclusions are derived from the premises.
I Any conclusion which is arrived at by following these rules is called a valid
conclusion, and the argument is called a valid argument.
I The actual truth values of the premises do not play any part in the determination of
the validity of the argument.
I In other words, in logic we are concerned with the validity but not necessarily with
the soundness of an argument.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Validity using Truth Tables
5

I Let A and B be two statement formulas.

I We say that “B logically follows from A” or “B is valid conclusion (consequence) of
the premises A” iff A → B is a tautology, that is A ⇒ B.
I We can extend the above for a set of premises.
I If {H1 , H2 , . . . , HM } is a set of premises then a conclusion C follows logically iff

H1 ∧ H2 ∧ . . . ∧ Hm ⇒ C (1)

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Validity using Truth Tables
6

We can prove that whether a conclusion logically follows (or simply follows) from the
given premises by constructing the truth tables as follows:
I Let P1 , P2 , . . . , Pm be all the atomic variables appearing in the premises H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn
and the conclusion C.
I Enter all possible combinations of truth values that are assigned to P1 , P2 , . . . , Pm and
all the truth values of H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn and C in a table.
I Look for rows in which H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn have the value Y.
I If, for every such row, C also has the value Y, then (1) holds.
I Alternatively, we may look for the rows in which C has the value F.
I If, in every such row, at least one of the values of H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn is F, then (1) also
holds.
We call the above method as a “truth table technique” for the determination of the
validity of a conclusion.
Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory
 Truth Table Technique
Example 7

Example
Determine whether the conclusion C follows logically from the premises H1 and H2 .
(a) H1 : P → Q H2 : P C:Q
(b) H1 : P → Q H2 : ¬P C:Q
(c) H1 : P → Q H2 : ¬(P ∧ Q) C : ¬P
(d) H1 : ¬P H2 : P ↔ Q C : ¬(P ∧ Q)
(e) H1 : P → Q H2 : Q C:P

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Truth Table Technique
Example - Solution 8

Truth Table
P Q P→Q ¬P ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q) P↔Q
T T T F F F T
T F F F T T F
F T T T F T F
F F T T T T T

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Truth Table Technique
Example - Solution 8

Truth Table
P Q P→Q ¬P ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q) P↔Q
T T T F F F T
T F F F T T F
F T T T F T F
F F T T T T T

Observe that for (a) H1 : P → Q; H2 : P; C : Q, the first row is the only row in which both
the premises have the T value. The conclusion also has the value T in that row. Hence it is
valid.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Truth Table Technique
Example - Solution 8

Truth Table
P Q P→Q ¬P ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q) P↔Q
T T T F F F T
T F F F T T F
F T T T F T F
F F T T T T T

In (b) H1 : P → Q; H2 : ¬P; C : Q, observe that the premises are true in the third and
fourth row. But, the conclusion Q is true only in the third row, but not in the fourth. Hence
it is not valid.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Truth Table Technique
Example - Solution 8

Truth Table
P Q P→Q ¬P ¬Q ¬(P ∧ Q) P↔Q
T T T F F F T
T F F F T T F
F T T T F T F
F F T T T T T

Similarly, we can prove that the conclusions in (c) H1 : P → Q; H2 : ¬(P ∧ Q); C : ¬P and
(d) H1 : ¬P; H2 : P ↔ Q; C : ¬(P ∧ Q) are valid but not the conclusion in (e) H1 : P → Q;
H2 : Q; C : P

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Remark
9

The conclusion P in (e) does not follow logically from the premises P → Q and Q, no
matter which statement in English are translated as P and Q or what the truth value of the
conclusion P may be. To illustrate this, consider the argument: H1 : If Canada is a country,
then New York is a city. (P → Q)
H2 : New York is a city. (Q)
Conclusion C : Canada is a country. (P)

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Remark
9

The conclusion P in (e) does not follow logically from the premises P → Q and Q, no
matter which statement in English are translated as P and Q or what the truth value of the
conclusion P may be. To illustrate this, consider the argument: H1 : If Canada is a country,
then New York is a city. (P → Q)
H2 : New York is a city. (Q)
Conclusion C : Canada is a country. (P)

Note that both the premises and the conclusion have the truth value T. However, the
conclusion does not follow logically from the premises.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

 Remark
9

The conclusion P in (e) does not follow logically from the premises P → Q and Q, no
matter which statement in English are translated as P and Q or what the truth value of the
conclusion P may be. To illustrate this, consider the argument: H1 : If Canada is a country,
then New York is a city. (P → Q)
H2 : New York is a city. (Q)
Conclusion C : Canada is a country. (P)

Note that both the premises and the conclusion have the truth value T. However, the
conclusion does not follow logically from the premises.

This example emphasises that we are not much concerned with the conclusion’s being
true or false as we are determining whether the conclusion follows from the premises,
i.e., whether the argument is valid or invalid.

Dr. B.S.R.V. Prasad | MAT1014 - Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory