DS 602 Structural Design Pavement Foundation Layers (Revision)

DS.
602
Structural design of pavement foundation layers
Rev. Status Created by Date Approved by Date
A Final D.Farnham/J.Howe 07.02.12 D.Waters 27.03.12
B Final D.Farnham 04.04.12 D.Waters 10.04.12
C Final D.Farnham 01.11.12 M.Hill 07.11.12
D Final D.Farnham 07.02.13 D.Waters 08.02.13
E Final D.Farnham 02.05.13 D.Waters 08.05.13
F Final D.Farnham 11.12.13 M.Hill 31.01.14
G Draft G Lake 11.07.17 D Foden 18.07.19
Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 1

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................... 3 5 Structural soils .................................. 13

5.1 Use requirements................................ 13
2 General requirements ...................... 3
5.1.1 Potential materials .................................. 13
2.1 Basic design method for foundations .. 3
5.1.2 Permitted material options for different
2.2 Validating foundation layers ................. 6 circumstances ......................................... 13
2.3 Site investigation reports and associated 5.2 Design requirements ........................... 14
other plans and reports ……………….. 7
2.4 Frost susceptible soils ......................... 7 6 Hydraulically bound mixtures
2.5 Sub drainage measures ...................... 7 (HBM) and concretes ........................ 14
2.5.1 Use requirements.............................. 7 6.1 Use requirements................................ 14
2.5.2 Design requirements ......................... 8 6.1.1 Potential materials .................................. 14
2.6 Capping layer and preparing 6.1.2 Permitted material options for different
circumstances ......................................... 15
subgrades ............................................ 9
2.7 Geotextiles ........................................... 10 6.2 Design requirements …….................... 16
2.8 Extent of pavement constructions 7 Geo-cellular unit (GCU)
and Guidance on arranging assemblies ........................................ 17
foundations into zones…..................... 10
7.1 Use requirements................................ 17
3 Normal graded unbound granular 7.1.1 Potential materials .................................. 17
mixtures ........................................... 11 7.1.2 Permitted material options for different
3.1 Use requirements................................ 11 circumstances ......................................... 18
3.1.1 Potential materials ................................. 11 7.2 Design requirements............................ 18
circumstances ......................................... 11 8 Geo-confinement systems................ 19
4 Open graded unbound granular 8.1 Use requirements................................ 19
mixtures ........................................... 12 8.1.1 Potential materials .................................. 19
4.1 Use requirements................................ 12 8.1.2 Permitted material options for different

circumstances ......................................... 19
circumstances ........................................ 12 8.2 Design requirements ….......................... 20
4.2 Design requirements ........................... 13 Appendix A – Background …................. 20

1 Introduction class. When carrying out major
improvement or refurbishment to existing
a. This standard explains design pavements then the adequacy of existing
requirements for the foundation layers of sub-drainage measures must be
pavements, comprising the subbase and checked. If they are likely to have
(where necessary) capping layer become blocked or blinded then existing
(sometimes known as the subgrade sub- drainage lines, layers and any
improvement layer). It also addresses associated geotextiles must be replaced
how to treat underlying subgrades and else (if missing in the first place)
related sub-drainage measures. It introduced. Any existing bound
applies to all types of pavements (e.g. foundation layers should normally be
carriageway, footway, footpath and Cycle perforated if they are retained. In new
Track). Its purpose is to explain general streets and spaces, subsoil drainage
requirements for the design of all must be introduced if there is a possibility
pavement foundations, to provide of ground water levels rising to within
information on particular design systems 600mm of pavement formation levels.
and materials, and to explain when given
design systems and materials may or 2 General requirements
must be used.
2.1 Basic design method for foundations
b. See standard DS.501 about the design
and construction of tree pits under a. Except where ‘b’ applies, foundations
streets. should be designed in accordance with
c. See standard DS.601 about the design the following design methods.
and construction of pavement upper i. For pavements with unbound
layers including bases, laying courses, precast concrete flag and natural
binder courses surface courses and stone slab surfaced pavements
associated inter-layers.  Foundation layer thicknesses for
d. See the Southwark Highways unbound precast concrete flag and
Specification for further details about natural stone slab surfaced
materials noted in parenthesis, e.g. [H- pavements should be determined
CBGMB-B/R-C20]. This provides a quick using the design method in BS 7533-
reference look-up list for relevant 8:2003 by selecting the greater
Southwark Highway Specification thickness obtained by comparing
Clauses. Figure 1 of that standard and the
relevant other figure as Table 1.
e. Site investigations must be undertaken Upper face Example of Relevant BS 7533-
as the basis for design to determine the area of typical nominal 8:2003 figure to use
design subgrade stiffness modulus and flag/slab unit dimensions for comparison with
to discount the otherwise standard (mm) (see (mm) Figure 1 of the
note 1) Length Width same standard
requirement for sub- drainage. If
≤90000 300 300 Figure 3
constructions include geo-cellular unit >90000 but 400 400 Figure 2
assembles or works over basements ≤270000 450 450
then Design Reports must be produced 450 600
in keeping with Eurocode requirements >270000 but 600 600 Figure 2 (values
and referenced in Pavement Design ≤ 450000 600 750 may be reduced by
20%, see note 2)
Statements accompanying design
>450000 600 900 Figure 2 (values
approval submission. may be reduced by
35%, see note 2)
f. In new streets and spaces, a drainage NOTE
blanket and/or filter drains should always 1) If random length/gauge units are used then this value
be provided at formation level unless it should be based upon the smallest expected unit size.
can be demonstrated that the subgrade 2) Minimum layer thickness ≥ 100mm.
Table 1. BS 7533-8:2003 figure to be used for subgrade over-
is more permeable than the subbase and stressing analysis
ground water levels are suitably low. The
drainage blanket may be left out if  Except if a geo-cellular system
capping is required and is of a suitable assembly as section 7 of the main

design standard is used to the  Requirements about which materials
subbase (in which case analytical may be used in different
design is required, see section 2.4 of circumstances can be found in the
the main design standard). main design standard.
 Materials for the foundation should be
iv. For bituminous mixture surfaced
as permitted in the main design
carriageway and commercial
standard. As per section 2.3, if
Vehicle Crossing pavements
materials different to those permitted
• Highways Agency ‘Design Manual for
as BS 7533-8:2003 are required then
they should be used to a thickness Roads and Bridges’, HD 25/94.
Thicknesses should be determined
that provides equivalent performance.
from Standard Design graphs.
ii. For all other types of modular unit • Highways Agency ‘‘Design Manual for
surfaced pavement Roads and Bridges’, HD 25/06.
 The relevant part of BS 7533 (see Restricted Designs using:
standard DS.601). However, see - Class 3 foundations should be
section 2.7 about the potential need used if [B-Ba2E] or [B-Ba1E]
for capping layers. EME2 base courses are used.
- Class 2 foundations should be
iii. For bituminous mixture surfaced used in all instances other than the
footway and cycleway pavements above unless level 1 departure is
(excluding at commercial Vehicle agreed. See also however ‘b’.
Crossings
 Foundation layer thicknesses for v. For self-binding gravel surfaces to
bituminous mixture surfaced footway existing paved areas that have been
pavements (other than at commercial disturbed by tree roots
Vehicle Crossings) should provide  If the equilibrium CBR at formation
equivalent structural performance to level is:
the values stated in Table 2 for the o ≥ 3.5% then a [X-G2] geo-grid
chosen materials. should be installed over the
formation as an interlayer (see note
Design CBR Pavement area (as Table 2 in DS.601)
of subgrade Heavy Overrun Light Overrun
1). Table 5 confirms the subbase
(see notes 1) (see note 2) thickness that should be installed
Required thickness of [U-Type 1A] over this assuming that standard
subbase (millimetres) (see note 3) materials that are permitted as per
≥5 150 150 the main design standard are used.
> 2.5 but < 5 200 A filter compatibility check should
≤ 2.5 (see 250 200 always be carried out to confirm
note 4)
NOTE
that the grading of the surface
1) See also ’2.7d’ of the main design standard for course aggregate is compatible
further requirements for subgrades with low CBRs, with the subbase aggregate and
including the potential need for geotextile filter inter- that it will not migrate through. If the
layers.
2) The values in this Table are not suitable for use aggregates are not compatible then
where planned commercial vehicle overrun of footways a further 30mm layer of a mutually
will occur. If this is the case then the entire footway compatibly blinding material may
(including its foundations layers) should be designed to need to be used between them. [L-
carriageway standards. QZ2/6] open graded quartz bedding
3) If other materials than [U-Type 1A] normal graded
unbound granular mixtures are used for subbase then grit is likely to be effective in the
this must be to a thickness that provides equivalent majority of circumstances though
structural performance. See section 2.3 of the main this should nevertheless be
design standard for further discussion. confirmed by checking. Geotextile
4) The Highway Authority reserves the right to require
capping to be used if footways have equilibrium CBR
separators should not be used to
values ≤ 2.5. Depending upon the exact proposed prevent migration as they will
capping materials and thickness, it may then permit a create a slip plane.
reduced subbase thickness of 150mm. See section 2.7. o < 3.5% then the design of the
for further information about capping
subbase will be determined on a
Table 2 Required subbase thicknesses for bituminous mixture case specific basis with approving
surfaced footway and cycleway pavements.

officers. Capping is likely to be saturated Introducing un-filled
required. weep joints between kerb units at
o Special care must be taken to lay the edge of carriageway may be
both the subbase (both at top and appropriate if other solutions
bottom) to falls towards a drainage cannot be identified, though sub-
outlet as the structural integrity of drains may need to be retrofitted in
the self-binding gravel surface will some circumstances.
be undermined if it becomes
Subbase Use Equilibrium Will the subbase material be installed within a cellar
material requirements CBR value at confinement system as section (see note 1)
formation No Yes
level Type of cellular confinement system
(see note 1)
[XCF-200] [XCF-150] [XCF-100] [XCF-75]
Required thickness of subbase (mm) (see notes 2-3)
[U-Type 1A/F] To be used in all <2.5% Requirements to be agreed on a case specific basis
normal graded circumstances with approving officers
unbound other than the
≥2.5% but < 3.0% 290 N/A 180 220 240
granular mixture below (see note 4)
as section 3 of
the main design ≥3.0% but < 4.0% 230 N/A N/A 160 175
standard
≥4.0% but < 5.0% 200 N/A N/A 125 150
≥5.0% but < 10.0% 190 N/A N/A 110 130
≥10.0% 150 N/A N/A N/A 130
[U-Type 3/20] To be used if <2.5% Requirements to be agreed on a case specific basis

open graded existing soft with approving officers
unbound granular landscaped areas >2.5% but < 3.0% N/A 420 453 485 500
mixture as section are being paved (see note 4)
4 of the main
design standard over. May be used ≥3.0% but < 4.0% 370 400 440 450
in other
circumstances by ≥4.0% but < 5.0% 345 380 410 426
level 1 departure.
[U-SMS] structural Drainage issues ≥5.0% 250 280 310 330
soil as section 5 of must be carefully
the main design
considered and
standard (see note
5) addressed
NOTES
1. See section 8 of the main design standard for further information about cellular confinement systems. Generally the
suffix in the type designation code indicates the thickness of the system (for instance 200mm for [XCF-200]. A cellular
confinement system must always be used if [U-Type 3/20] open graded unbound granular mixtures are used for the
subbase (though see note 2 below). If the thickness of the system is less than the required depth of the subgrade then
the top of it should always be flush with that of the subbase.
2. Even if the surface level of the pavement around a tree is raised (which may be permitted as per standard DS.501 in
some circumstances) it will not be possible to maintain the subbase construction all the way up to the existing trunk
flare. As this is approached the thickness of the subbase will need to be gradually reduced and the cellular
confinement system ultimately discontinued. When to do so is a matter of judgement for the designer and supervising
Council officers. This will largely be informed by the surface bulge that will likely occur owing to laying over the existing
and future structural root plate (though the cellular construction can be cut back in future if necessary). However,
when the thickness of [U-Type 1A/F] that can be laid is< 75mm or of [U-Type 3/20] < 50mm then the subbase should
generally be discontinued and an increased thickness of self-binding-gravel surface us ed.
3. If a blinding a 30mm blinding layer is provided between the subbase and the surface course then the required
thickness of subbase may be reduced by 25mm (but not 30mm).
4. For equilibrium CBR values < 3.0% then, as per section 2.7 of the main design standard, a geotextile filter interlayer
must also be provided at formation level.
5. If [U-SMS] structural soil is used then, as discus sed in section 5 of the main design standard, it must always be
covered with 110mm of [U-Type 3/20]. This can be subtracted from the overall thickness of subbase required.
Table 3 - Subbase design requirements for retro-fitted self-binding-gravel surfaces over existing footway areas that have been disturbed by
tree roots

NOTE 1: This geo-grid interlayer will help NOTE 1: Broadly, standard DS.601 permits
reduce the impact of future root disturbance simple material equivalence and condition
beneath it by ensuring that the pavement lifts factors to be used in most instances. The
smoothly such that the surface ‘rolls’ with the main exceptions to this are:
heave. A cellular confinement system alone will (a) Foundations to bituminous mixture
not achieve this. surfaced pavements serving as main
carriageway running lanes; and
NOTE 2: Generally, whilst pruning fine (b) The two instances given in ‘2.1b.i-
absorbing roots and narrow lateral roots is likely 2.1b.ii’.
to be permitted, cutting of larger woody lateral
roots having a diameter greater than 25mm NOTE 2: The short and long term structural
and, particularly, anything within the structural performance of geo-cellular unit products will
root plate will not. Shaving of lateral roots close vary significantly. Testing is vital to determine
to the surface is generally to be avoided since appropriate design values for analytical
trees will grow thick reaction wood in response purposes.
to this to seal the wound/weak point. This may
cause pavement heave, so doing more harm NOTE 3: In some instances using geo-cellular
than good. unit assembly subbase replacement rafts may
allow the thickness of the pavement upper
NOTE 3: In addition to other requirements, the layers to be reduced. However, this will
layer thickness for a given material should not depend upon the structural capacity of the
be less than the minimum required as per any product that is proposed.
British or European Standard. See in particular
BS 594987:2007 for bituminous mixtures, BS c. For sections of main carriageway running
EN 13877-2 for pavement quality concrete, BS lane pavement of a given type (e.g.
EN 8500 for lean concretes, and BS EN 14227 bituminous mixture surfaced, precast
for hydraulically bound mixtures. Note that in all concrete block surfaced etc.) the design of
instances the primary determinant of minimum foundations should not vary between or
thickness is typically the normal maximum within junctions. As such, the foundation
particle size for any component aggregate. For design, materials and layer thickness
unbound granular mixtures, the minimum layer selected for a length of a given type of
thickness for a given material should not be pavement should be based upon the worst
less than 2.4 times the normal maximum case conditions encountered.
particle size for the mixture grading and should
not be less than 100mm unless a level 1 2.2 Validating foundation layers
departure is agreed. This applies equally to
materials that are used to pavement upper a. Immediately prior to overlaying a new or
layers as standard DS.601. adjusted subbase with upper pavement
layers, it should be checked for compaction
b. If an alternative foundation material to be density and wheelpath deformation in
used to those recommended in ‘a‘ above, accordance with Southwark Highway
then the thickness of that alternative Specification Clause 896. Density
material should be adjusted to provide measurement will normally be carried out
equivalent structural performance. This using a nuclear density gauge. However,
should be determined as standard DS.601, this is not appropriate for coarse
section 2.8 (see note 1) save for in the aggregates with a normal maximum
following circumstances: particle size of >32mm. In such instances a
i. If geo-cellular unit assemblies as section sand or water replacement test will be
7 are incorporated into foundations: required instead.
See section 7.2. and 2.2 about
additional validation requirements. b. In addition, if a pavement;
ii. If geo-confinement systems as section 8 i. Forms part of a main carriageway
running lane, is bituminous mixture
are incorporated into foundations for
surfaced and has foundations that
thickness reduction purposes:
have been designed using analytical or
See section 8.2. See also section, 2.2
Performance Design; and/or
about additional validation requirements.
ii. Includes a geo-cellular unit assembly

as within its foundations; and/or created, or where more complex
iii.Includes a geo-confinement system as constructions (like under- pavement
within foundations; and/or surface water reservoirs or rooting
iv. Spans a basement then, immediately zones), then a Geo-Environmental
prior to overlaying the subbase with and Geo-Technical Site Investigation
upper pavement courses, it should be Report as BS 5930 and BS 10175 is
checked for subgrade and subbase required.).
surface modulus as Southwark iii. Geo-Technical Design Reports
Highway Specification Clauses 890- If it is proposed that a pavement
896. include any geo-cellular unit assembly
or is constructed over any basement
2.3 Site investigation reports and then a Geo-Technical Design Report is
associated other plans and reports required to validate the design
proposals against the design
a. Depending upon the scale of works, site parameters provided in the earlier
investigation reports may be needed to Geo-Technical Site Investigation
form the basis for design proposals.. The Reports.
following provides a brief summary for
guidance. iv. Tree Survey (TS), Arboriculture
Implications Assessment (AIA),
i. Basic site investigation information for
simple refurbishment of existing Arboriculture Methods Statement
streets (AMS) and Tree Protection Plan (TPP)
If existing streets and spaces are only These various studies and plans aim to
being resurfaced and no fundamental minimise the impact of development
change in the levels of traffic is works on existing trees (the most
anticipated, then: significant cause of damage to trees
• Records of visual inspection of during construction is compaction of
pavement surfaces for defects. soil to root limiting levels). Further
• Assessments of subgrade information about them is provided in
stiffness modulus/CBR from standard DS.501.
regularly cores or trial pits to
NOTE: See standard DS.501 for important
inform foundation layer
requirements about providing detailed sub-
thicknesses and the potential
surface utility location surveys to support
need for capping layer and/or
proposals included in Applications for Town &
sub-drainage.
Country Planning Consent to plant trees in
• Condition surveys of existing
existing Highways.
retained pavement materials from
regularly spaced cores or trial
2.4 Frost susceptible soils
pits.
• Any as built information from a. All materials within 450mm of the ultimate
previous schemes/constructions. surface of the pavement should not be-frost
• Information about existing susceptible. This includes the subgrade.
Statutory Undertakers apparatus The value may be reduced to 350mm by
and Highway drainage apparatus level 1 departure. If must be demonstrated
within the highway and horizontal to the satisfaction of approving officers that
radar location surveys (see note). the mean annual frost index is less than
• Basement surveys. 50. Materials are classified as non-frost
• Other Desk Study information susceptible if the mean heave is ≤ 15mm
(e.g. well records, geological when tested in accordance with BS 812-
maps, historic maps, 124.
speleological society maps,
aquifer protection maps, etc.). 2.5 Sub drainage measures
ii. Geo-Technical and Geo-
Environmental Site Investigation 2.5.1 Use requirements
Report
a. Within new streets and spaces, sub-
If new streets or spaces are being
drainage measures as described in DMRB
HD 25 (see note 1) should be provided to heavy or free draining the subgrade
pavements of all types, including modular material is (see note). The lines might
unit surfaced pavements (see note 2). The be comprised of fin drains, narrow
proposed measures should be explained in perforated pipe drains, cellular units or
submitted Pavement Design Statements a number of other methods.
Permeable carrier pipes should
NOTE 1: Normally this will consist of a 150- typically be of a double wall design,
220mm thick granular drainage blanket at having a corrugated load-bearing outer
formation level (the bottom of the subbase or and a smooth inner for increased
capping layer) with associated carrier drainage hydraulic and load bearing
lines. This may be omitted if sub-soil drainage performance. These should normally
is provided to the sub-grade. be located just beneath the level of the
subgrade to provide added
NOTE 2: An exception is pavements that
redundancy.
include under-pavement surface water
iii. Encapsulating drainage blankets and
infiltration reservoirs in their foundations.
carrier drainage lines with geotextile
b. Within existing streets and spaces, the filters should be avoided where
adequacy of existing sub-drainage to any possible as these are likely to be
pavements that are being improved or blinded over time. Granular filter
refurbished should be reviewed and surrounds are preferred. Where this
addressed in Pavement Design Statements can be achieved then carrier drainage
lines should be roddable so that the
NOTE: Unless there are particular known inevitable eventual build-up of fines
drainage issue affecting the performance of a can be removed. Care should be taken
pavement then introducing sub-drains may not to set inverts to keep these lines self-
be necessary if only simple like-for-like cleansing so reducing the need for
resurfacing is being proposed. rodding.
iv. Sub-drainage systems should pass via
c. Sub-soil drainage should always be a catch pit manhole, silt trap or other
introduced if: approved solids filter chamber before
i. The subgrade stiffness is < 30MPA out falling into public sewers.
(CBR < 2.5%). v. The ultimate outfalls from carrier
ii. The seasonal high ground water level drainage lines should typically be into
is within 600mm of pavement the highway drainage system.
formation level or if capping layer is However if necessary inverts cannot
provided then it will be the top of that be achieved then outfalls to
instead. soakaways within soft landscaped
iii. No granular drainage blanket is areas may be permitted.
provided beneath the subbase. vi. If sub-soil drainage is provided to the
subgrade to improve its stability then it
should be located ≥ 600mm beneath
2.5.2 Design requirements the top of the subgrade. The spacing
a. Details of sub-drainage design of drain lines should be appropriate to
requirements for both subbase and how free draining the subgrade
subgrade can be found in standard material is. If soils are relatively free
DS.705. The following serves as guidance draining, spacing can be wider than for
only: less free draining soils (see note).
i. Drainage for the subbase and sub-soil NOTE: This is because water will move laterally
drainage for the subgrade (if required) in the soil to saturation before it will begin to
should be kept separate. flow under gravity into drains. In heavy, fine
ii. Carrier drainage lines should be used grained soils (e.g. clays or loamy clays) drain
to remove water from the drainage lines should be placed at approximately 3m
blanket. If no drainage blanket is used centres, increasing to 10m centres in lighter
then the number of these may need to sandy soils.
be increased. Thereafter the spacing
of the lines will depend upon how
2.6 Capping layer and preparing subgrades requirements apply in respect to using
imported fill for capping or subgrade
a. If the existing stiffness modulus of a improvement (see notes).
subgrade is < 30MPa (CBR < 2.5%) then i. New streets and spaces
one of the following three improvement Using imported fill material (see note)
options should be used. These are stated requires level 2 departure. It must be
in order of preference. Using lower demonstrated to the satisfaction of
preference options requires level 2 approving officers that using materials
departure. It must be demonstrated to the from site is either impractical given
satisfaction of approving officers that higher constraints on site or less sustainable
preference options have been considered on balance than alternatives.
and discounted. ii. Existing streets and spaces,
i. Cement and/or lime stabilisation of the If the area of works within the Highway
existing subgrade through in-situ is > 250m 2 then using imported fill
treatment as Southwark Highway material requires level 2 departure
Specification Clauses 613, 614, 615 or (see note). It must be demonstrated to
643 (see also ‘d’ about using geotextile the satisfaction of approving officers
separators to soft subgrades). that using materials from site is either
Notwithstanding this, the improved impractical given constraints on site or
subgrade should be assumed to have less sustainable than alternatives
a stiffness modulus of 30MPa (CBR However, if the area of works is ≤
2.5%) for the purposes of subsequent 250m 2 then using imported materials
pavement design requires only level 1 departure.
ii. Removing the subgrade and replacing
it with unbound or stabilised granular NOTE 1: Imported fills are as distinct from fills
fill material. Notwithstanding the quality that have been won from the site. If existing site
of the new material, it should be won materials found are unsuitable, then it may
assumed to have a stiffness modulus be possible to render them acceptable by
of 30MPa (CBR 2.5%) for the processing. That processing may take place
purposes of subsequent pavement either on site or off of it.
design.
iii. Improving the existing subgrade by NOTE 2: Imported fills include Class 6E (used
introducing sub-soil drainage. A to make Class 9A cement stabilised capping),
method of monitoring must also be Class 6F4 and Class 6F5.
proposed. The resulting CBR value to
be used for subsequent pavement d. If the subgrade bearing capacity is:
design purposes will be agreed with i. <3% then, unless otherwise instructed
approving officers. by approving officers, a geotextile filter
inter-layer should be used between the
b. If the existing subgrade stiffness modulus subgrade and the subbase (or capping
is ≥ 30MPa (CBR ≥2.5%) and capping is layer where present) (see note 1).
proposed (rather than an increased ii. ≥3 but ≤5.5% and an open graded
thickness subbase) then this may be unbound granular mixture subbase as
composed of any of the following classes sections 4 or 5 is used over this then -
as Southwark Highway Specification series unless instructed otherwise by
600 clauses (though see ‘c’ below about approving officers – for all carriageway
using imported fill). pavements a ≥ 50mm thick filter layer
i. Class 6A composed of Class 6S selected
ii. Class 6B granular fill should be provided
iii. Class 6C between the two (see notes 2 and 3).
iv. Class 6D This may be left out if using a
v. Class 6F1, Class 6F2, Class 6F3, geotextile filter interlayer is otherwise
Class 6F4, Class 6F5 permitted or required.
vi. Class 9A, Class 9B, Class 9C, Class
NOTE 1: The above applies even if
9D, Class 9E.
improvements to the subgrade are being
c. Notwithstanding ‘a’ and ‘b’, the following carried out. If the subgrade has been stabilised

in-situ (so that it is not possible to access the c. Any pavement containing geotextiles
unimproved subgrade below) then the should be registered on the National
geotextile should be located immediately on top Streets Gazetteer as having ‘special
of the stabilised material. engineering constraints’. Information about
the nature of the construction should be
NOTE 2: This is intended to prevent cohesive provided as ‘additional streets data’ within
particles from the subgrade contaminating the the gazetteer and copies of as-built
open graded subbase mixture. Whilst it might information retained so that this can be
seem sensible to provide a slightly increased provided to Statutory Undertakers upon
thickness of sacrificial subbase (and assume request.
that the additional thickness will become
contaminated) research shows that the 2.8 Extent of pavement constructions and
pumping action of water will continue to spread guidance on arranging foundations into
contamination up through the pavement. zones
NOTE 3: Subject to grading compatibility, the a. The carriageway pavement should
filter layer may not be necessary if a Class 6F normally extend beneath the footing of the
capping layer or drainage blanket is provided edge carriageway restraint (e.g. the kerb).
beneath the subbase. Unless a lateral retaining structure is
NOTE 4: Designers should protect subgrades provided, the sides of the construction
should be set to repose slopes at a
and foundation layers from potential trafficking
maximum gradient of 1:1 (else the layers
during construction.
should be similarly stepped with the
2.7 Geotextiles carriageway subbase extending a minimum
of 150mm beyond the limit of the kerb
a. The Southwark Highway Specification footing).
includes material, installation and checking
b. Within streets and spaces, the materials
specifications for various types of geotextile
separators, filters, membranes and used to foundation layers are likely to vary
protection fleeces. Refer to the SSDM/SER due to inherited constraints. Important
factors will include: the location of utilities
Engineering Materials palette for a quick
and trees; sub grade conditions; levels of
lookup list.
vehicle trafficking; the presence of
b. Using geotextiles will complicate basements and other vulnerable structures.
maintenance and reinstatement it requires
c. ‘Simple’ designs using a uniform
level 1 departure.
foundation comprised of a single material
NOTE 1: Legitimate uses of geotextiles are over the entire width of the pavement is
likely to include: unlikely to be practical. Consequently
• As encapsulating layers around under- subbases may consist of a series of
pavement infiltration or attenuation materials within distinct zones. This might
reservoirs. include for example:
• As encapsulating layers around under- i. A corridor at the rear of the footway
pavement geo-cellular unit ‘soil vault’ composed of conventional [U-Type 1]
assemblies for street trees. unbound granular mixture to
• To filter or separate weak subgrades. accommodate utilities and provide
structural buffering of adjoining
NOTE 2: This preference for avoiding properties.
geotextiles extends to sub-drainage blankets ii. A corridor in the centre or the front of
and filter drains also as, in the event of these the footway composed of [U-SMS]
being blinded, excavation to restore structural soil to serve as an under-
permeability can be difficult in urban areas pavement rooting zone for street trees.
given their likely buried depth. It also extends to iii. A corridor at the front of the footway (or
use beneath the laying courses of modular in the carriageway under Inset Parking
pavements (including those with pervious block Bays) composed of an empty [G-GW1]
surfaces) since geotextiles can introduce a and [G-GW2] geo-cellular unit
sheer/slip plane. assembly to serve as an under-

pavement surface water infiltration or reservoir for infiltration or attenuation
attenuation reservoir. Occasional storage of surface water run-off.
transverse gaps of conventional
unbound granular materials should be Bituminous mixture surfaced pavements
provided between specialist c. For new and existing carriageway
constructions for utilities to pass pavements, any of the normal graded
through from the carriageway. unbound granular mixtures as section 3.1.1
iv. A corridor under the main carriageway may be used subject to the:
running lanes composed of normal i. Restrictions on using unbound
graded unbound granular material granular mixtures stated in the version
(e.g. [U-Type 1A]). of DMRB HD 25.
ii. Upper trafficking thresholds in Table 4.
3 Normal graded unbound granular
Material Upper use limit (million standard
mixtures axles over design life)
[U-Type 1A] None
3.1 Use requirements
[U-Type 1A/F]
[U-Type 1B] 1.3msa
3.1.1 Potential materials
[U-Type 1B/F]
a. Normal graded unbound granular mixtures [U-Type 2A] 5msa
that may be used to pavement foundation [U-Type 2B] 1.3msa
layers where permitted in section 3.1.2 Table 4. Trafficking limits for using different types of normal
graded unbound granular mixture to pavement subbases
include the following materials from the
Southwark Highway Specification. NOTE: HD 25/94 and HD25/06 include slightly
• [U-Type 1A] different restrictions in respect to using
• [U-Type 1A/F] unbound granular materials beneath Rigid-
• [U-Type 1B] Composite and Rigid Pavements.
• [U-Type 1B/F]
• [U-Type 2A] d. For new and existing footway and cycleway
• [U-Type 2B] pavements, any of the materials as section
3.1.1 may be used.
NOTE 1: The sub-designations A and B reflect
different levels of asphalt content in the Modular unit surfaced pavements
mixtures. However, other than where using e. For flag and slab surfaced pavements, if
gravel is permitted (for which see ‘b’ below) all the upper face plans area of an individual
mixtures are required to have a crushed and modular unit is ≥0.12m 2 then:
broken faces category of C90/3. i. In new streets and spaces either [U-
Type 1A] or [U-Type 1A/F] may be
NOTE 2: The sub designation F reflects a used (see note).
requirement for a low fines content (≤ 3% ii. In existing streets and spaces then any
passing by mass). of the materials as section 3.1.1 may
be used, subject to the trafficking limits
3.1.2 Permitted material options for stated in Table 1.
different circumstances
General NOTE: If such pavements are being designed
a. As per Southwark Highway Specification, with unbound surfaces (e.g. as section 3 of
crushed gravel aggregate should not be standard DS.601) then - if regular high pressure
used in any normal graded unbound water cleaning of the surface is likely - [U-Type
granular mixtures. 1A/F] or [U- Type 1B/F] should be used.
Examples of locations where this may be the
b. None of the materials as section 3.1.1 may case include market streets. Specifying the
be used to a pavement foundation if either: subbase as such means that the modest
i. The pavement surface is designed to quantities of surface water that will inevitably
be fully pervious to surface water (e.g. penetrate via joints can drain through the
with a pervious block, pervious asphalt pavement (rather than remaining trapped in the
or other pervious surface). laying course).
ii. The foundation will serve as a f. For precast concrete block, natural stone

sett and clay paver surfaced pavements Southwark Description Requirements for using
Highway material to upper
and smaller flag and slab surfaced
Specification subbase
pavements (see note 1) only [U-Type 1A/F] A [C-NF- No-fines Preferred. To be used
or [U-Type 1B/F] may be used (see note 2). C15] concrete unless agreed otherwise.
However, using [U-Type 1B/F] is subject to Voids content to be
the trafficking limits stated in Table 1. specified on a case
specific basis (see notes
NOTE 1: Smaller flag or slab units are those 1-3)
B [U-Type Normal Use requires level 1
where the surface area of the upper face of 1A/F] graded departure. It must be
individual units is < 0.12m 2. unbound demonstrated to the
granular satisfaction of approving
NOTE 2: The requirement to use lower-fines mixture as officers that only modest
[Type 1A/F] or [Type 1B/F] mixtures means that section 3. unintended surface water
the subbase will be modestly free draining. ingress is likely to occur
(e.g. via the joints
between modular surface
Self-binding gravel surfaced pavements
units)
g. [U-Type 1A/F] may be used as a subbase C [C-WL3] Wet lean Use requires level 1
material to a self-binding gravel surface [H-CBGM- concretes departure. It must be
that is installed to an existing paved area B/R-C10] and demonstrated to the
that has been disturbed by trees. Other [H-CBGM- cement satisfaction of approving
B/G-C10] bound officers why both Options
options as section 3.1.1 may not.
granular (A) and (B) above are
materials inappropriate. See also
4 Open graded unbound granular (CBGMs) notes 1 and 4
mixtures D None. Upper 100-150mm Within footways and other
of open graded base non-carriageway areas,
4.1 Use requirements course strengthened by subject to level 1
geo-confinement system departure use may be
4.1.1 Permitted material options for as section 8 permitted as part of a ‘no-
different circumstances dig’ solution over the
rooting zones of street
trees (see note 5).
Pavements with under-pavement surface water May not be used to
infiltration/attenuation reservoirs carriageway pavement.
a. Either [U-Type 3/40] or [U-Type 3/20] may However Design Pilot
be used as part of a subbase surface water dispensations may be
agreed in Workstage A3
infiltration or attenuation reservoir. It must
*Briefing* to explore this
be demonstrated that introducing a geo- (see note 6)
cellular unit assembly reservoir is NOTES
inappropriate. 1) See section 6.2 for further general design requirements
about concretes and hydraulically bound mixtures.
2) See section 6 for general information about no-fines
NOTE: Beneath pavements that are trafficked
concrete, including how voids content influences both
by even a small number of commercial permeability and (along with a number of other factors )
vehicles, where no separate bound base strength.
course is to be provided then the granular 3) Where this material is used then a filter compatibility
reservoir normally requires stabilisation or check should always be carried out to check that laying
course materials will not migrate through. See standard
protection with another bound material. This DS.601 for further information.
effectively serves as the missing base course. 4) As this material is impermeable then - in order to allow
for dispersal of any surface water ingress – some method
b. Any pavement containing a granular of perforation will be required. See section 2.8 of standard
reservoir of [U-Type 3/40 or [U-Type 3/20] DS.601 for further information.
should be registered on the National 5) This is only likely to be feasible where underground
utilities and other services are located at sufficient depth
Streets Gazetteer as having ‘special and the overlying surface and laying course is fully
engineering constraints’. pervious. Where these layers are not pervious, roots may
track to the surface in search of access to air and
Conventional pavements moisture. This may lead to disruption of the laying course
c. Both bituminous mixture and modular unit and significant pavement heave.
surfaced pavements that include bound .
base courses to their upper layers may use Table 5. Protective upper subbase overlay options for
[U-Type 3/40] or [U-Type 3/20] to their conventional unbound flag or slab surface pavements w ith an
subbase. open graded unbound granular mixture subbase.

d. For unbound flag or slab surfaced Sand may not be used beneath Highway
pavements (see note) [U-Type 3/40] and pavements (though it may occasionally
[U-Type 3/20] may only be used for the have valid uses as a mineral subsoil
subbase if a ≥ 110mm thickness of some within unpaved soft landscaped areas
other stiff material (effectively a base and under-pavement ‘soil vaults’).
course) is introduced to the upper part of - ‘Stockholm planting bed’ soil and rock
the subbase as a protective overlay. Table mixtures.
5 explains permitted options for this 5.1.2 Permitted material options for different
overlay. circumstances
e. Within new streets and spaces, level 1 General
departure is required to use [U-Type 3/40] a. [U-SMS] structural soil should not be used
or [U-Type 3/20] to the subbases of
as a subbase surface water attenuation or
footways (and other non-carriageway infiltration reservoir material (see note 1).
pavements). It must be demonstrated that However a Design Pilot to explore this may
adequate provision for rooting of trees be agreed or instructed.
within the pavement has been made using
other materials and methods. NOTE 1: Some use beneath pervious surfaces
may be acceptable providing: (a) these are set
Self binding gravel surfaced pavements to falls to shed the majority of surface water to
f. [U-Type 3/20] may be used as a subbase conventional collector gullies; and (b) water
material to a new self binding gravel from surrounding pavements/surfaces is not
surfaced pavement that is installed over being intentionally directed towards them.
existing tree roots within an existing
unpaved area (effectively a no-dig b. Any pavement containing [U-SMS]
construction). structural soil should be registered on the
4.2 Design requirements National Streets Gazetteer as having
‘special engineering constraints’.
a. Open graded unbound granular mixtures
may need to be covered or encapsulated Footway and cycleway pavements
by a geotextile filter membrane to prevent c. For bituminous mixture surfaced
migration of particles from the layers pavements, [U-SMS] structural soil may be
above. However, this should be avoided used as a subbase material directly
wherever possible by considering filter beneath the base course.
criteria and specifying appropriately graded d. For modular unit surfaced pavements,
laying course materials. requirements for using [U-SMS] structural
soil are as follows:
b. See ‘2.6d’ about introducing filter inter-
i. Unbound flag and slab surface
layers to prevent contamination by
pavements (see note 1)
cohesive particles if open graded unbound
granular mixtures are installed over weak [U-SMS] structural soil may be used a
subbase material. However, a
subgrades.
minimum 110mm thick protective layer
of one of the materials as Table 2
5 Structural soils
should be provided over it (see note 2).
5.1 Use requirements ii. Unbound precast concrete block and
clay paver surfaces
5.1.1 Potential materials [U-SMS] structural soil may be used a
subbase material so long as either:
a. Structural soils: [U-SMS] may be used to
foundation layers where permitted as • ≥ 110mm thick base course
section 5.1.2 . [U-SMS] is a fully load composed of a material permitted
bearing structural soil similar to CU as section 5 of standard DS.601.
Structural Soil. It is not the same thing as • ≥ 110mm thick protective layer of
either: one of the materials as Table 2 is
- ‘Amsterdam Tree Sand’ (sometimes provided over it (see note 2). Note
known as ‘Metro Soil’). Amsterdam Tree however that the second option

may not replace a formal base provided its depth should be ≥ 625mm.
course if one is required to the
pavement upper layers. NOTE: Though this is likely to exceed structural
iii. All other types of modular unit surfaced requirements, it is the minimum depth
pavement recommended by manufacturers in order for it
[U-SMS] structural soil may be used as to succeed as a growing media for trees.
a subbase material directly beneath Lesser depth may be acceptable to limited
the bound upper layer base course. areas when working around obstructions or to
slopes at the edge of the pavement.
NOTE 1: Such pavements do not require a
bound base course to their upper layers. See b. The pH of the material and nutrient levels
section 3 of standard DS.601 for further will need to be specified on a case by case
information.
basis to suit proposed tree species.
NOTE 2: This requirement is made for much Interpretative testing of the proposed
the same reason as why protective layers are mixtures will need to be undertaken by a
required over the open graded unbound Soil Testing Laboratory. Subject to the
granular mixture subbases discussed in section recommendations of a Soil Scientist in that
4 (both materials being very similar in terms of test, the mixture may need to be amended
mixture design and stiffness. to better suit the needs of the proposed
trees.
e. [U-SMS] may be used as a subbase
c. [U-SMS] structural soil subbase layers may
material to a new self-binding gravel
need to be covered or encapsulated by a
surfaced pavement that is installed over
existing tree roots to an existing unpaved geotextile filter membrane to prevent
area (effectively a no-dig construction). migration of particles from the layers
However, above. However, this should be avoided
i. ≥ 110mm thick interlayer of [U-Type wherever possible by considering filter
3/20] must be provided between it and criteria and specifying appropriately graded
the surface course. laying course materials.
ii. It must be installed with associated
geo-confinement systems d. If the upper layer pavement construction
over a [U-SMS] structural soil subbase is
Carriageway pavements not fully pervious (see note) then some
f. [U-SMS] structural soil may only be used other method of allowing air and moisture
for subbases of sections of carriageway to access the subbase will need to be
pavement if all the following apply. provided. Failing this soil biology within the
i. The street in question has a 20mph mixture may die, compromising its
speed limit or forms part of a 20mph effectiveness as a growing medium for
zone. street trees.
ii. The structural soil is located under an
Inset Parking Bay or other similar area NOTE: See standard DS.601 about situations
protected from general over-run by where pervious upper layer constructions are
vehicles moving at speeds > 15mph. likely to be permitted. Broadly, using pervious
However, it may not be used under block surfaces is currently restricted to Inset
loading bays or other areas that may Parking Bays that have under pavement rooting
be used by large numbers of zones for street trees extending beneath them.
commercial vehicles.
iii. The pavement includes a bound base 6 Hydraulically bound mixtures (HBM)
course to its upper layers. and concretes
iv. (If the pavement has a bituminous
mixture surface) it uses a Flexible or 6.1 Use requirements
Flexible-Composite upper layer
construction. 6.1.1 Potential materials
5.2 Design requirements a. HBMs that may be used to pavement

foundation layers where permitted in section
a. Wherever [U-SMS] structural soil is 6.1.2 include the following materials from the
Southwark Highway Specification.
i. Cement Bound Granular Materials • [C-WL3]
(CBGMs) • [C-WL2]
• [H-CBGM-A/G-C4] • [C-WL4]
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C4] ii. No fines concretes
• [H-CBGM-A/R-C4] • [C-NF-C15]
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C6] • [C-NF-C20]
• [H-CBGM-A/G-C6]
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C6] NOTE 1: Though [C-WL4] wet lean concrete
• [H-CBGM-A/R-C6] provides a higher strength and performance
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C10] than typically necessary for subbase layers, it
• [H-CBGM-A/G-C10] has been included here due to its occasional
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C10] use to the subbases of modular footway
• [H-CBGM-A/R-C10] pavements with unbound surfaces that do not
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C15] include a separate base course. It may also
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C4] occasionally be required if early trafficking is
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C20] necessary.
ii. Other Hydraulically Bound Materials NOTE 2: [C-NF-C15] and [C-NF-C20] are
(HBMs) porous ‘no-fines’ concrete mixes. Their voids
• [H-SC840-C4]
content must be specified on a case specific
• [H-SC840-C10]
basis. This will partly determine their strength.
• [H-SC840-C6]
Though used primarily to the base courses of
NOTE 1: For CBGMs, if the initial grading code modular pavements (as standard DS.601) they
in the type reference is followed by an R (as in have been included here since subbases to
[CBGM-B/R-CX]) it denotes the need for the unbound flag and slab surfaced pavements
mixture to use crushed rock aggregate and sometimes require cement bound materials to
have a coefficient of thermal expansion <10 x be used. Being very different to the other
10-6 per °C. If the grading code is followed by a concretes and HBMs specified here in
G (as in [CBGM-A/G-CX] then this denotes that performance, their actual strength is likely to be
gravel aggregate is used. significantly less than the C15 and C20
compressive strength classes indicated in the
NOTE 2: For both CBGMs, other HBMs and no- type reference codes.
fines concretes (for which see ‘b’) the C figure
at the end of the type designation code (as in 6.1.2 Permitted material options for
[H-SC840-C6]) denotes the compressive different circumstances
strength class of the mixture.
Bituminous mixture surfaced pavements
NOTE 3: Though they typically provide a higher a. For new and existing carriageway
strength and performance than necessary for pavements, requirements for using the
subbase layers, [H-CBGM-B/R-C15] and [H- materials in section 6.1.1 to subbase layers
CBGM-B/R-C20] CBGMs have been included are as follows.
here due to their occasional use to the i. Pavement with fully Flexible or
subbases of modular footway pavements with Flexible-Composite upper layers
unbound surfaces that do not include a Using any of the materials as section
separate base course. They may also 6.1.1 requires level 1 departure (see
occasionally be required if early trafficking is note 1). It must be demonstrated that
necessary or beneath CRCB/CRCR or CRCP some special engineering constraint
rigid pavements exists that prevents any of the
unbound granular mixtures as sections
NOTE 4: [H-SC840-CX] is soil cement. 3-5 from being used. Normally this will
only be owing to limited cover or - in
b. Concretes that may be used to pavement
the case of existing pavements - the
foundation layers where permitted as
existing presence of such materials in
section 6.1.2 include the following materials
such a way as to be incompatible with
from the Southwark Highway Specification.
co-use of unbound granular mixtures.
i. Wet lean concretes
• [C-WL1] Neither of the no-fines concretes may
be used.
ii. Pavements with EME2 base courses to
their upper layers NOTE: Normally only the following materials of
One of the following CBGMs or HBMs weaker strength class will be permitted: [H-
should be used: CBGM- A-C10], [H-CBGM-B-C10] or [C-WL1].
• [H-CBGM-A/G-C10]
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C10] Modular unit surfaced pavements
• [H-CBGM-A/R-C10] c. For modular unit surfaced pavements,
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C20] using unbound granular mixture subbases
Using other stronger grades of CBGM as sections 3-5 should be strongly
or HBM as section 6.1.1 requires level preferred. Given this, except where it is
1 departure. Some special engineering expressly permitted in other design
constraint else a requirement as standards or SSDM/TDR detail drawings,
DMRB HD 26 will need to be using any of the concretes, CBGMs or
demonstrated. other HBMs as section 6.1.1 requires level
iii. Pavements with Rigid or Rigid- 2 departure (though see ‘4.1.2d’ and
Composite upper layers ‘5.1.2d’ about potential use as protective
One of the following CBGMs or HBMs overlays to open graded unbound granular
should be used to at least the upper mixture subbases as sections 4 or 5).
150mm of the subbase (note 2):
• [H-CBGM-A/G-C10] NOTE: Normally only the following materials of
• [H-CBGM-B/R-C10] weaker strength class will be permitted: [H-
• [H-CBGM-A/R-C10] CBGM- A-C10], [H-CBGM-B-C10], [C-WL1] and
• [H-SC840-C10] [C-NF-C15].
• [H-CBGM-B/G-C10]
Self-binding gravel surfaced pavements
• [C-WL2]
Using other stronger grades of CBGM d. None of the materials as section 6.1.1 may
be used beneath self-binding gravel
or HBM as section 6.1.1 requires level
surfaces. If any are encountered when
1 departure. Some special engineering
retro-fitting such a surface then they must
constraint else a requirement as
be removed.
DMRB HD 26 will need to be
demonstrated.
6.2 Design requirements
NOTE 1: Normally only materials with a C4 or a. If [C-NF-C20] or [C-NF-C15] no-fines
C6 compressive strength class will be concretes are used beneath unbound
permitted. Other higher strength grades will granular laying courses to modular
generally only be acceptable for small projects pavements, then a filter compatibility check
where early trafficking is unavoidable. as section 2.12 of standard DS.601 should
be carried out to check that laying course
NOTE 2: This reflects DMRB HD 25 materials will not migrate through the voids
requirements that a cemented subbase should in the mixture. Where compatible materials
be provided to pavements with such upper layer cannot be sourced then - subject to the
constructions. requirements of that standard - it is likely to
be necessary to introduce a geotextile filter.
b. For new and existing footway and cycleway
Using geotextiles and/or granular filter
pavements, using any of the materials as
layers may also be necessary where no-
section 6.1.1 to subbases requires level 1
fines concrete immediately abuts
departure (see note). It must be
subgrades and other soils.
demonstrated that some special
engineering constraint exists that prevents b. If [C-NF-C20] or [C-NF-C15] no-fines
any of the unbound granular mixtures as concrete is specified then the voids content
sections 3-5 from being used. Normally this will be agreed on a case specific basis with
will only be permitted on account of limited approving officers (see note).
cover or (in the case of existing
pavements) the existing presence of such NOTE: Unless the pavement upper layers are
bound materials in such a way as to be to be intentionally pervious, a voids content of
incompatible with co-use of unbound 12-16% is likely to be appropriate. Though
granular mixtures. much greater voids content are possible (and
this improves material sustainability and used to create surface water attenuation or
reduces linear expansion and contraction) this infiltration reservoirs beneath pavements. They
should generally be avoided as it will increase can be used to create anything from single unit
the likelihood of laying course migration. depth vertical or horizontal rafts, hollow multi-
Mechanical strength will also decrease in sided tanks constructed from multiple rafts, or
inverse proportion to voids. multi-layer tanks formed from full unit
assemblies. Assemblies are normally
c. Prior to trafficking, all concretes and encapsulated by geotextiles to prevent
hydraulically bound mixtures used to contamination, ingress or mingling with or by
pavement courses (including where used to surrounding soils or engineering fill. Unlike
upper structural layers as standard many geo-cellular products they can be used to
DS.601) should achieve the early strength comparatively shallow depth beneath
requirements of Highways Agency ‘Design pavements, though they still typically require a
Manual for Roads and Bridges’, HD 27/04 minimum overlaying construction of around
paragraphs 3.8-3.11. 300mm if the layers above are unbound.
d. If early trafficking of concrete, CBGM of Depending upon the loads likely to be imposed,
other HBM materials is necessary then - as lesser depth might be achievable if other forms
of upper layer pavement construction are used
per Southwark Highway Specification sub-
(e.g. pavement quality concrete base courses
Clause 813.17 - a minimum of 50% by
mass of aggregate in the mixture must ii. Under-pavement ‘soil vault’ systems to
have a crushed and broken faces category provide secondary rooting zones for
of C90/3. trees
• [G-GT1]
NOTE: In the case of CBGMs this is most easily
achieved by using a mixture option with NOTE 2: [GT1] assemblies consist of large
crushed rock aggregate (e.g. [CBGM-B/R-CX] hollow frame units with empty side faces. These
with R denoting the crushed rock) since, as per are approximately 1200mm long by 600mm
relevant British Standards, crushed rock is wide by 400mm high. The large open sides to
always assumed to have a C90/3 category. the units provide substantial space to
accommodate tree roots and underground
e. See standard DS.601 about the potential utilities. They are designed so that columns of
need to pre-crack and seal subbases units can be created by stacking the frames one
composed of concrete, CBGM or other on top of the other, up to a maximum of 3 units.
HBMs. This structure, composed of multiple columns,
can be filled with soil. Thereafter, a strong rigid
7 Geo-cellular unit (GCU) assemblies grid plate is added on top of each column to
support the pavement layers that will be added
7.1 Use requirements later. Normally the sides are encapsulated with
7.1.1 Potential materials a flexible geo-grid or other geotextile to prevent
soils and neighbouring engineering materials
a. GCU items that may be used to create from contaminating one another. An important
assemblies where permitted in section difference to [G-GW1] units is in respect to the
7.1.2 include the following materials from method of interlock. Whilst [G-GW1] units are
the Southwark Highway Specification. designed to interlock tightly with neighbouring
i. Under-pavement surface water units to all sides to create a stiff composite
infiltration/attenuation reservoir structure, [G-GT1] units interlock only with the
systems units above and below them in their individual
• [G-GW1] columns. The columns themselves are
designed to be independent. This has some
NOTE1: [GW1] units are shallow, rectangular advantage, in an emergency (such as a leaking
shaped grid-sided boxes with internal supports. water main) the pavement can be quickly
They are approximately 350mm wide x 700mm excavated with heavy machinery without
long x 150mm deep. The units lock tightly disturbing neighbouring columns. Like [G-GW1]
together using both side and top connector pins assemblies, some depth of cover is required
to create extremely stiff composite over the top of the assembly, but this is
constructions that resist sheer. They are mainly relatively shallow compared with other systems

and will depend upon the material used. rooting zones for street trees, or surface
However, designers should note that the water infiltration/ attenuation reservoirs.
system typically needs to be constructed on top Hollow water tanks formed by assembling
of a further 100-150mm thick layer of unbound single unit thick vertical and horizontal rafts
granular mixture for it to be effective in load of units (with a significant void space in the
bearing terms. middle) may not be used.
iii. Ancillary units for general purposes b. Under carriageway pavements then,
• [G-GW2] subject to geo-technical design and
• [G-GW3] validation, [G-GT1] and [G- GW1]
assemblies that are two to three units deep
NOTE 3: [G-GW2] and [G-GW3] units are may be used to construct under-pavement
identical to the [G-GW1] units described above ‘soil vaults’ or surface water
other than that they include special inserts infiltration/attenuation reservoirs, but only
within the internal void space of each unit. For where:
[G-GW2] units the insert is a floating i. The street is:
geosynthetic bio-matt that can be used to • Subject to a 20mph speed limit or
provide secondary bio-treatment of any is located in a 20mph zone.
hydrocarbons that may pass into the system • Not a Classified Road (an A or B
from surface water that is allowed to enter. For Road).
[G- GW3] units the insert is an absorbent foam ii. The level of projected commercial
filling. This can be used to create hydraulic vehicle trafficking over the design life
breaks where reservoirs are constructed on of the pavement does not exceed that
slopes (e.g. slowing flowing water down but for Road Category 3B as Table 3 of
letting it ultimately pass through) or to absorb standard DS.601; and
water that might otherwise drain away for latter iii. The [G-GT1] units are located under
conveyance to adjoining soils. Whilst mainly Inset Parking Bays or other areas of
designed to be used with [G-GW1] systems, the carriageway that are protected
these units can also be beneficially used in from general overrun from vehicles
association with [G-GT1] rooting zone moving at speeds in excess of 15mph.
assemblies. For instance, if surface water is These areas must also be surfaced in
directed to pits, [G-GW2] units can provide pre- a material that clearly distinguishes
treatment of this to remove hydrocarbons that them from the main carriageway
might damage some trees. Even in the most running lanes. However, they may not
basic tree-pit designs, [G-GW3] units can prove be located under loading bays or other
beneficial in helping retain moisture that would locations likely to be used by large
otherwise naturally drain out of the soil – so numbers of commercial vehicles.
helping to meet the rooting zone volume
requirements that are explained in standard Additional potential uses
DS.501 more efficiently. e. Subject to level 1 departure, any of the
GCU items from section 7.1.1 may be used
b. Any pavement containing GCUs should be for additional purposes to those above.
registered on the National Streets Potential examples include:
Gazetteer as having ‘special engineering i. As part of ‘no-dig’ pavement
constraints’. constructions.
ii. As drainage blankets at formation level
7.1.2 Permitted material options for (or similar sub-drainage features).
different circumstances iii. As retaining walls to conventional tree
Under pavement rooting zones and surface pit constructions (albeit walls that
water attenuation reservoirs might contain further soil and or
ventilation paths).
a. Under footway and cycleway pavements
then, subject to geo-technical design and 7.2 Design requirements
validation, [G- GT1] and [G- GW1]
assemblies that are up to three units deep a. Being geotechnical structures, the design
may be used to construct under-pavement of any pavement incorporating a GCU
‘soil vaults’ serving as extended secondary assembly should be informed by a Ground
Investigation Study. The resulting design conditions and/or water levels and to
should take an analytical approach and be provide for future maintenance.
supported by a Geo-Technical Design
Report. 8 Geo-confinement systems
b. Unlike other subbase materials, the 8.1 Use requirements

required thickness of a GCU subbase
assembly will vary between products. 8.1.1 Potential materials
Appropriate depths for all parts of the
construction will need to be established as a. Geo-confinement systems for potential use
part of the analytical design. to pavement foundations where permitted
as section 8.1.2 include the following
c. If they are greater than a single unit deep, materials from the Southwark Highway
then GCU assemblies must be formed from Specification.
contiguous rafts of units stacked one on top i. Cellular confinement systems
of the other. Hollow tanks formed by • [XCF-75]
assembling multiple single-unit-thick • [XCF-200]
vertical and horizontal rafts of units to • [XCF-100]
create an effective box (with a significant • [XCF-300]
void space in the middle) should not be • [XCF-150]
used.
NOTE: All the above items are fundamentally
d. In existing streets and spaces, locating similar except for the thickness of the panel.
GCU assemblies where significant This is indicated by the final figure in the item
numbers of utilities will pass through them reference (e.g. [XCF-150] = 150mm thick).
should be avoided. In the case of surface
ii. Geo-grids
water infiltration and attenuation reservoirs, • [X-G1]
certain types of utilities may be • [X-G2]
fundamentally incompatible given the likely • [X-G1(C)]
presence of large volumes of water in the
construction from time to time. NOTE: [X-G1] is a heavy duty tri-axial geo-grid
for use where a robust separator or stabilising
NOTE 1: Generally, the above is likely to be of
geo- grid separator is required. [X-G1] is a
lesser concern in the case of under pavement
composite of the same and a further geotextile
rooting zones constructed out of [G-GT1]
filter or separator. The exact geotextile
assemblies. The individual units in this system
separator or filter will need to be specified on a
all have significant void spaces so as to
case specific basis. [X-G2] is a weaker bi-axial
accommodate the uninterrupted growth of tree
geo-grid for where a more flexible separator is
roots and passage of underground services.
required. It’s most common use is likely to be
NOTE 2: If pipes and drains pass through for encapsulating geo-cellular system rooting
assemblies then geo-technical design reports zones constructed out of [G-GT1] assemblies
will also need to consider the loads exerted on as discussed in section 7 for which [X-G1]
these. In the absence of the granular fill to all would provide too rigid.
sides usually found in pavement constructions,
pipes may distort unacceptably when significant 8.1.2 Permitted material options for different
topsoil backfill is located over them with an circumstances
assembly.
a. There are a wide range of circumstances in
e. GCU assemblies should not be trafficked which geo-confinement systems may be
by site plant during construction. required. Using any of the geo-confinement
systems as section 8.1.1 requires level 1
f. If GCU assemblies are used to create departure given the maintenance and
substantial under-pavement soil vaults or reinstatement complexities they can
infiltration/attenuation reservoirs then introduce.
regular access chambers must be provided
into the assembly to allow checking of soil b. Any pavement containing geo-confinement
panels should be registered on the National
Streets Gazetteer as having ‘special foundation. Any surface water that is
engineering constraints’. successful in penetrating the pavement
from the layers above needs to be
8.2 Design requirements dispersed. Similarly, the pavement
needs to be kept free from any ground
a. If using geo-confinement systems for water that might rise up from the
foundation layer strengthening/thickness subgrade. This might require either
reduction purposes then the permitted creating a ‘drainage blanket’ of very
reduction in layer thickness will be agreed porous fill at the bottom of the
based on research or empirical evidence foundation for surface water to
for the proposed product outlined in the disperse through, or introducing sub
Pavement Design Statement. drains.
b. Wherever geo-confinement systems are b. In recent years new design philosophies

proposed, designers should demonstrate have been introduced that add to the roles
regard in design information to build-ability, that foundations may be expected to
for instance by showing the location of perform. These have often required
anchors, cuts to individual panels, and changes to traditional design approaches.
joints between panels. This is particularly i. Surface water attenuation and
important for cellular confinement panels infiltration reservoirs
as these cannot be lapped with one Concerns to reduce flood risk,
another. recharge ground water and improve
water quality at source have led to the
development of subbase reservoirs
Appendix A – Background within pavement foundations for the
temporary storage of surface water.
1 General introduction to pavement These may serve either to:
foundations • temporarily detain (‘attenuate’)
surface water that has infiltrated
a. The lower foundation layers of a pavement through the pavement for later
construction perform several main roles. controlled release into conventional
i. Foundation for pavement upper layers drains (so slowing the passage of
They create a stable foundation over water into sewers).
the subgrade (the natural ground) on • allow surface water to gradually
which the upper pavement layers that soak into the subgrade
will perform the majority of load In either instance the foundation must
distributing functions can be be designed to hold this water in a way
constructed. This is almost always that will not undermine its stability.
necessary since the subgrade is The above challenges conventional
seldom sufficiently stiff in itself. pavement design in several respects.
Adequate compaction of materials and Firstly, it involves holding large
prevention of water saturation are both amounts of water within a pavement
very important to the success of the (whereas minimisation and rapid
foundation. dispersal were once key concerns).
ii. Support for construction traffic Secondly, it requires materials with
The foundations also serve to create a large void spaces within them to be
platform for construction traffic during used in order to provide the necessary
the laying of the upper pavement storage capacity (previously materials
layers. If not sufficiently stiff to were closely graded to minimise gaps
withstand this trafficking then the and maximise stiffness)
foundations and the subgrade beneath ii. Rooting zones for street trees
will distort, preventing them from
Concerns about the poor health,
performing their other important roles growth and survival rates of trees in
in-service.
urban streets have led to the
iii. Sub drainage path
development of specialist materials
Adequate drainage is critical to the and construction systems that allow
long term performance of the
rooting areas for trees to be extended through stabilisation with cement or
under trafficked pavements. Spatial lime. This can be ploughed into it
constraints in streets mean it is seldom whilst it remains in situ. Alternatively, a
possible to provide all the growing layer of unbound or bound fill can be
medium needed by a tree within a introduced over the existing subgrade.
large, open tree pit. If everyday soil It is most sustainable to utilise existing
was used as a pavement foundation materials found on site. Much lower
material then the high levels of quality and more loosely graded
compaction required for successful materials can be used than higher up
pavement design would make it in the structure as stresses will be
useless to any tree. Popular systems lower due to depth. However, where
include under-pavement ‘soil vaults’ the bearing strength of the existing
housed within special assemblies ground is very low (characterised by a
made of hollow plastic crates (geo- stiffness modulus of < 30MPa or a
cellular units) and specialist rock and CBR value of <2.5%) then covering it
soil mixtures (structural soils) that can with fill alone will not be sufficient.
be heavily compacted as per Instead the subgrade must be
conventional engineering practice. removed altogether and replaced. In
some instances it is possible to
c. When engineers discuss foundation layers improve the stiffness modulus above
they typically refer to two distinct pavement 30MPa by inserting sub-soil drainage
courses: deep in the subgrade so enabling
i. Subbase capping fill to be used.
This provides the platform for Unbound capping fill is also often used
constructing the pavement upper for regulating purposes (e.g. to make
layers. It is typically made of smaller up pavement levels using a cheap
and higher quality material than the material) else to provide a path for
capping layer beneath. Where a base dispersal of surface water or ground
course is present above, or if the water to keep this out of the main
subbase itself is bound, then this pavement construction above
material can be relatively low grade. A (sometimes referred to as a ‘drainage
further consideration is permeability of blanket’).
the material and voids content. Using
relatively permeable materials is the 2 Discussion on common foundation
most effective way of providing for the layer materials
downwards dispersal of any surface
water that succeeds in penetrating the 2.1 Normal graded unbound granular
pavement layers above. If the level of mixtures
permeability is high and the material
also has a high voids content then it a. Unbound granular mixtures are made up of
can serve as a surface water storage carefully selected, graded, aggregates.
reservoir as part of a sustainable Numerous qualities can affect the
Urban Drainage System (SuDs) performance of the mixture, from the
pavement construction source materials used, the shape and
ii. Capping (or subbase improvement) number of broken faces on the particles
layer (e.g. how flat, sharp or rounded they are) to
As discussed above, the purpose of a their chemical composition, resistance to
capping layer is to improve the bearing wear and susceptibility to frost. This will
strength of the subgrade (the ground dictate everything from the stiffness (elastic
over which the pavement is modulus) that a mixture can achieve to its
constructed) where this is found to be water permeability and resistance to
too poor to build on. chemical attack.
Capping can be achieved using a
variety of methods. The most b. Mixtures described as ‘normal graded’ are
sustainable is often to increase the those characterised by the absence of
bearing strength of the existing ground significant voids in the installed mix. This is
achieved by ensuring the grading of the
mixture (e.g. the proportion of particles of irrespective of whether the source material
different sizes) is relatively close and even is virgin, secondary or recycled, designers
with a decent amount of very fine particles. need to be aware that different constituent
If correctly specified then these mixtures materials may impart different qualities. For
can achieve reasonably high stiffness instance, mixtures with a high proportion of
values. Generally, he greater the upper end reclaimed crushed asphalt in the mixture
of the grading range for the mixture (e.g. are likely to drain slightly better having
the larger the maximum nominal particle lower fines. On the other hand, they are
size permitted) then the more effective it likely to be less stiff and may suffer from
will be at distributing loads. However, secondary compaction. Different types of
mixtures with larger aggregates make virgin rock will similarly vary in their
achieving surface tolerances at the top of qualities.
the layer difficult due to their ‘lumpiness’.
e. The majority of existing streets in
c. Though they contribute significantly to Southwark will be constructed with normal
stiffness the ‘fines’ within a mixture can graded unbound granular mixtures to their
create problems. They may be washed out foundations. Often these consist of variants
by any water that finds its way into the of mixtures specified by the Highways
pavement and this can undermine stability. Agency (the Highway Authority for the
These same displaced fines also clog nation’s motorways and other trunk roads
drainage elsewhere in the construction. outside of London). These have names
Alternatively, if not washed out they may such as ‘Type 1’ and ‘Type 2’ and are
prevent the downwards dispersal of any familiar to all Highway engineers, being
water that has succeeded in penetrating used extensively and therefore
the upper layers above. The trapped water manufactured up and down the country in
may then stand in those layers. This could considerable volumes to meet demand.
lead to damage to the pavement due to The names reflect different permitted
freezing and expansion of the water in cold mixture gradings, constituent materials and
weather and/or ‘pumping’ when the water is performance properties. Type 2 mixtures
pressurised in pores by passing traffic. are somewhat less stiff than Type 1
These problems are not necessarily a mixtures and consequently need to be
consequence of the mixture specification. used to increased thicknesses in order to
Typically the permitted grading ranges provide the same structural capacity.
within these are such that - by careful
2.2 Open graded unbound granular
manufacture - a relatively free draining
mixtures
material with little fines could be produced
(e.g. the mixture specification permits the a. Open graded unbound granular mixtures
fines content to be anywhere between 0- are distinguished from the ‘normal graded’
9%). However, reducing the amount of mixtures by the fact that the sizes of the
fines and other small particles within respective particles that make up the
mixtures is more costly. As such, unless mixture are more remote from one another.
the permitted fines content is explicitly The mixtures also include a significantly
reduced by the specifier, then suppliers will reduced proportion of very small particles
typically produce and provide mixtures with (‘fines’). This means there are more gaps
fines contents towards the upper end of the between particles in the installed mixture.
grading range (e.g. they have 9% fines As a result they drain very freely and have
content rather than 0%). much greater void space. The chances of
them becoming destabilised at a later date
d. Whilst mixtures have been traditionally
by the gradual washing out of ‘fines’ is
manufactured from crushed rock or gravel,
significantly reduced. However, the
engineers are increasingly encouraged to
absence of fines reduces the stiffness. To
accept those that use secondary and
compensate for this much greater attention
recycled materials such as crushed
must be paid to the shape of the particles.
concrete, glass, furnace slag and asphalt
They must have angular edges (rather than
planings. Providing these meet the same
rounded) and be close to square in shape
performance requirements as the virgin
(rather than flatter and more flake-like).
materials, this is encouraged. However,
This helps them generate greater frictional conventional modular surfaced pavements
interlock. Also, because they may be in that may be for lightly trafficked unbound
contact with water for long periods of time, flag and slab surfaced pavements).
the source material must be resistant to
chemical attack. In order to meet these 2.3 Structural soils
requirements, appropriate virgin crushed
rock aggregate is used rather than recycled a. Structural soils are proprietary unbound
secondary materials. granular mixtures in which open graded
aggregates form a compacted load baring
b. Because of their very free draining nature, skeleton that provides full support to the
these materials are often used to create pavement layers above. However, the
subbase surface water reservoirs as part of mixture also includes topsoil which is
infiltration or attenuation pavement suspended in the gaps in the aggregate
designs. They may also be used if there is skeleton. The skeleton prevents the soil
concern that there might be greater than from becoming over compacted. The top
usual unintended ingress of surface water soil normally accounts for approximately
into a conventional pavement. Using such 20% by dry weight of the mix. Save for
a material will allow this to drain through for when the aggregate is porous and able to
dispersal by sub- drains deeper in the absorb significant moisture, a tackifier
pavement construction. This avoids the risk agent (often a hydrogel) is typically used to
of water becoming trapped close to the prevent separation of the mix during
surface where it might then cause damage. transport, laying and compaction.
c. A further application for open graded b. Structural soils should not be confused with
mixtures is where pavements are tree sand (sometimes referred to
constructed over the existing rooting zones ‘Amsterdam Tree Sand’ or ‘Metro Sand’)
of trees where no altering of ground levels which is not a fully load bearing material.
can take place. They are then often used Tree sand may not be used as a foundation
as part of a ‘no-dig’ construction that material to pavements in Southwark. They
distributes loads whilst allowing air and also differ somewhat from similar rock and
moisture to continue to reach the soil soil mixtures that are used in ‘Stockholm
below. Planting Bed’ designs. The aggregate
component of Stockholm mixtures is
d. Because of their lesser stiffness, open typically much larger than in structural soil
graded unbound granular mixtures need to (so creating much greater void space for
be installed to a greater thickness than any soil and space for large root development)
of the ‘normal graded’ mixtures. However, whilst the soil component is washed in after
where they are installed to create surface placing the aggregate (rather than the two
water attenuation or infiltration reservoirs, being mixed together then placed as with
the depth required in order to provide structural soil). These factors raise quality
necessary storage capacity is often likely to control and structural validation concerns.
exceed that needed for structural reasons.
Where depth is an issue then geo- c. Unlike conventional normal graded and
confinement systems can be used to open graded unbound granular mixtures
reinforce them so increasing the stiffness structural soils provide a growing medium
achieved and reducing the necessary through which tree roots can successfully
depth. grow, gaining access to water and
essential elements without causing
e. When these materials are used to create pavement heave. Manufacturers also
granular subbase surface water reservoirs, suggest that the material can be used
it is normal practice in most instances for within under-pavement surface water
the upper 130-200mm to be hydraulically infiltration/attenuation reservoirs as part of
stabilised to protect it from sheer forces a SuDs pavement, having a water holding
generated by vehicles passing over the capacity of approximately 15-20% of their
pavement. Overlaying with a protective total volume when properly compacted and
layer maybe required when open graded roots have occupied pore space. However,
unbound mixtures are used to subbases of such claims should be treated cautiously
given the open graded nature of the mix, its alternatives. These include by-products of
high permeability (>60cm/hour) and other industrial processes, such as
consequent potential for blinding of pulverised fuel ash or blast furnace slag.
geotextiles resulting from migration of fines Where the binder in the HBM is cement
from the soil component. then the sub-term CBGM (cement bound
granular mixture) is often used. Whatever
d. The main alternative to structural soils for the binder used, HBM may be created by
providing adequate rooting conditions for importing and laying material from
trees beneath pavements is to create ‘soil elsewhere or by ‘hydraulically stabilising’
vaults’ from geo-cellular unit assemblies. existing materials found on site (e.g. by
Structural soil has a few advantages over ploughing the binder agent into them).
this. It is not a geo-technical structure. Even soils can be used for HBMs. Either
Safety and maintenance are therefore way, the strength of CBGMs and other
lesser concerns and design is significantly HBMs is not always the same. As stronger
simplified. Structural soils are similar to materials cost more, engineers specify the
conventional unbound granular subbase strength and other performance aspects to
mixtures and perhaps therefore at reduced meet the requirements for a particular
risk of accidental damage as a result of application. This may range from very low
reinstatement or other works (as well as to moderate. When specified at moderate
being more familiar to construction strengths and where quality aggregates are
workers). Lastly, structural soils are also used, CBGMs and other HBMs may be
much easier to install around underground suitable for use to pavement base courses
utilities and other obstructions that tend to forming part of the upper pavement levels
proliferate in existing streets and spaces. (but never surfaces). They are most likely
to be used within the foundation layers.
e. However, research shows that ‘soil vaults’
constructed from geo-cellular system b. CBGMs and other HBMs often create
assemblies obtain substantially superior confusion amongst engineers. This is due
results in respect to tree growth and health. to uncertainty about their relationship with
This is interesting since manufacturers CBMs – the acronym used for the material
suggest that the plant available water that was often specified in the past when a
holding content of structural soils should be cement bound material was required (and
too dissimilar to that of a good loamy sand remains so in many older design
or sandy loam soil (~7-9% by volume documents that have yet to be updated).
compared with ~9-11% for a loamy sand Broadly, CBM used to be specified in the
soil). The reason for the poorer main document that engineers refer to for
performance may be that roots growing pavement materials. This is known as the
through the mixture have to travel greater Specification for Highways Works (SHW -
distances to divert around the immoveable which forms the basis of the Southwark
aggregate skeleton which will also restrict Highway Specification). The SHW was
the extent of their expansion. Given the low updated some years ago to conform with
soil content, this effort will be rewarded with European Standards aimed at increasing
little moisture or essential elements. It may the sustainability of construction. This
also be that the water holding capacity of resulted in the replacement of CBM
the mixture is reduced once it is occupied clauses with CBGM and other HBM
by roots. clauses that support using less prescriptive
mixture designs (and so potentially the
2.4 Hydraulically Bound Mixtures (HBM) incorporation of materials from more
and concretes sustainable sources). To complicate things
further, it is not always appreciated that
Hydraulically Bound Mixtures (HBM) CBGMs and other HBMs may not be
a. HBM is a term used to refer to granular directly equivalent to the old CBMs of
materials that have been bound with an similar strength grade. Whilst they cure to a
agent that is activated by water. That agent similar value in the very short term, that in
is often cement but may also be (partly or the medium term (e.g. at 28 days) is
wholly) a number of more sustainable considerably lower. Because of this, when

CBGMs and HBMs are used in place of the to be less sustainable than CBGMs and
CBM mixtures in older standards, they other HBMs this can serve to make them
need to be specified with a slightly higher more cost effective since less extensive
strength class to compensate. testing and validation is generally required.
Consequently they are often the material of
d. Because of their variable potential mixture choice for work in urban streets wherever
contents, CBGMs and other HBMs require the applications permits. However, though
extensive testing both before and after use their strength grading may appear
to confirm that they provide the intended superficially similar to CBGMs and other
structural performance. Given the time and HBMs, their overall quality is much lower.
effort this takes, they are typically only cost This generally limits their use to the
effective when they can be mixed and used pavement foundation layers. They cannot
in large volumes. This is generally only be reliably used to upper pavement layers.
likely to be the case on large trunk road
and motorway schemes and where used as g. Though used extensively in some other
part of major new development works when European countries, no-fines concrete is a
entire new streets are being created. relatively new material for UK pavement
construction. It first originated here for
Concretes housing design. It behaves very differently
d. Concretes are similar to CBGMs and other
from conventional concretes and HBMs
HBMs but tend to be better mixed and to
and requires different mixing, testing and
use higher grade materials that achieve
installation methods. It is produced by
improved mechanical performance and
mixing a single-size gap graded aggregate
durability. They can be broadly broken into
(not so dissimilar to the open graded
three types: Pavement quality concretes;
unbound granular mixtures described in
lean concretes; and no-fines concretes.
section 2.2 of this appendix) with small
e. Pavement quality concretes use large amounts of a cement binder paste. The
amounts of cement binder and are result is something akin to hard toffee
produced to very high standards and popcorn - the aggregates being bound to
consequent strength. Because of this they one another at contact points, so leaving
are sometimes referred to as ‘rich mix large gaps in between (there not having
concretes’. Pavement quality concrete is been enough binder or small aggregate in
the same sort of material that is used to the mixture to fill these). The resulting
construct bridge decks and the floors of material has a number of advantages.
new office buildings. For pavement Firstly, cast slabs are pervious to water.
purposes they are most typically used Unsurprisingly this makes no-fines
within the upper pavement layers concrete a popular material for use in
discussed in standard DS.601 – either to pervious pavement constructions.
create cast concrete surface slabs or However, the same qualities also make it
where an extremely strong base slab is useful as part of more conventional block
required. Though used elsewhere in the surfaced pavement constructions where it
country neither of these design approaches will allow surface water that will inevitably
are common in London. Only in exceptional penetrate the surface between joints to
circumstances (e.g. when spanning a large drain through – so avoiding the many
void) is pavement quality concrete likely to issues trapped water can cause higher in
be used to the foundation levels of the construction. This is one of the reasons
pavement. The low stresses at such depths for its use in other European countries.
simply don’t justify it. Next, its porosity also allows it to breath,
permitting heat that may otherwise build up
f. Lean concretes use a lower proportion of in it or the underlying ground to dissipate.
cement binder than pavement quality This may seem trivial but increasing
concrete and are consequently much temperatures in urban areas (the ‘urban
weaker. They are produced to what is heat island effect’) are a major public
known as a standardised prescribed mix (a health concern and pavements a significant
simple recipe using consistent readily contributor to these. Trees and other plants
available materials). Though they are likely also fare less well in hot ground and - as

the trees themselves are potential further significantly reduce the longevity of the
atmospheric coolers - there is an escalator pavement. Generally speaking, the
effect. Next, the significantly decreased stronger, quicker setting and less flexible
density of no-fines concrete means it the material is, the more significant these
consumes far fewer raw materials, whilst it effects are. As such pavement quality
is also less prone to contraction and concretes suffer the most whilst weaker
expansion, so avoiding the need for HBMs that use slow setting binders suffer
extensive joints. the least. To overcome these issues
engineers intentional split slabs into smaller
h. Unlike other concretes, there are few bays, introducing special joints between
common national or international standards these to allow for the expansion and
in respect to how to mix, test and install no- contraction. This effectively pre-empts the
fines concrete (though this problem is cracks and allows them to install other
increasingly being addressed). It is preventative measures in the layers above
therefore mostly produced as a ‘proprietary rather than having to guess where the
product’ by suppliers who keep their own cracks will occur. It also means that the
guarded recipes and methods for joints can be designed to mitigate some of
successful use. They may often install and problems that untreated cracks create by
validate it themselves. In general, the filling them with materials that prevent
higher the voids content that can be water ingress or casting in steel rods to
achieved in the mixture, the greater its transfer loads between the slabs of
permeability to water will be. However, with adjoining bays. In the case of pavement
increasing voids content - strength is quality concrete, engineers may also
reduced. Other factors also affect strength, reinforce slabs with steel mesh grids or
such as: the proportion of sand included in special fibres to resist the significant
the otherwise singled size ‘large’ aggregate contracting forces in the concrete as it
mixture; just how wet the cement paste is; cures. However, all the above is of much
and the degree of compaction achieved less concern when these materials are
during placement. Until mixing, testing and used to the pavement foundation levels
installation methods can be further that are the subject of this standard. Given
standardised to create more consistently that using pavement quality concrete will
durable mixtures, using no fines concrete is next-to-never be justified to foundation
likely to be confined to low trafficked layers and that, for other concretes and
pavements only. Notwithstanding this, the HBMs, the consequences of cracking are
particular advantages of the material are far less severe at such depths, cracking is
such that it is much more likely to be used often just accepted and allowed to take
to construct pavement base courses than it place.
is the foundations levels. Two notable
exceptions to this are lightly trafficked j. Finally, designers must consider the rate at
conventional modular flag and slab which strength in these materials develops
surfaced footways and pervious block in relation to when they need to open them
pavements which sometimes require for trafficking – either by construction
hydraulically bound materials to be used to vehicles or upon full opening of the street.
the upper part of their subbase. All materials take considerable time to
develop full strength - typically many
Issues affecting all concretes and HBMs weeks. Whilst full strength isn’t necessarily
i. All concretes, CBGMs, and other HBMs required in order for trafficking to begin and
(other than no-fines concretes) suffer from special additives can be used to speed up
problems caused by expansion and strength development, the minimum
contraction when they are cast into larger necessary ultimate strength may still take
slabs. This can occur both as the material much longer to harden sufficiently. In such
initially cures (causing contraction) and instances designers may choose to use
much later, because of temperature loading mixtures that have an ultimate strength
from the sun. Given the UK’s climate, the greater than they require in order that that
former of these is the greater concern. lower strength required for trafficking can
Either way, the result can be cracking or be reached earlier.
buckling of the material. This serves to
2.5 Geo-cellular unit (GCU) assemblies are designed to be used in conjunction with
unbound granular mixture layers,
a. A GCU assembly consists of individual or strengthening them in the process. The
interlocking load bearing boxes, each of aggregate is filled into the open lattice. The
which may be up to 95% void (empty cells created by the lattice confine the
space). Assemblies are typically able to aggregate and so prevent it spreading
incorporate gaps in their structure sideways. This improves the stiffness of the
(sometimes using special bridge aggregate layer and may mean that the
components) to permit the passage of depth of this can be reduced. A good
underground utilities through them. Where example of how this works in practice is to
designed to robustly inter-lock and create a consider a pyramid made out snooker or
‘raft’ they can serve as ‘subbase pool balls. Were you to push down on the
replacement systems’ for trafficked top of the pyramid, it would quickly
pavements. There are many different collapse. However, were you to confine the
products available that come in all sorts of bottom layer of the pyramid by placing the
depths from 85mm upwards. As the setting up triangle around it, it would be
structural performance will vary from much stiffer and less likely to collapse.
product to product, not all are appropriate
for shallow use close to the surface of b. There are two principle types of geo-
trafficked pavements where imposed loads confinement systems.
are greatest. i. Geo-grids are relatively flat sheets of
material with the lattice being made up
b. There are three typical instances in which of individual ribs. The grid formed by
GCU assemblies may be used to pavement the ribs could be square, triangular or
foundations. In all of these, the assembly any number of shapes (though
effectively serves to ‘suspend’ the triangular grids often perform best).
pavement over the structure it creates. ii. Cellular confinement systems are
i. To create under-pavement reservoirs similar to geo-grids but the lattice is
for infiltration or attenuation storage of extruded upwards so that the
surface water by leaving the units geosynthetic confines the aggregate fill
empty to a greater depth.
ii. To create under-pavement rooting Both geo-grids and cellular confinement
zones for street trees (sometimes systems may sometimes be combined with
referred to as ‘soil vaults’) by filling the other geo- synthetics (such as geotextile
assembly with soil. filters) to create geo-composites that can
iii. As part of a ‘no-dig’ construction when perform the functions of both materials in a
it is necessary to construct a pavement single product.
over the rooting zone of an existing
tree and it is not possible to c. Geo-confinement systems may be used for
significantly alter ground levels. a number of reasons. These include to:
i. Increase the stiffness of capping layer
c. They may also be used for a wide range of when a subgrade is very weak (and
less common purposes including as where used as part of geo-composite
drainage blankets above subgrades at the to prevent the subgrade from
very bottom of the pavement structure or contaminating foundation layers).
as part of ‘break out corridors’ for roots ii. Prevent the migration of unbound
under pavements that link tree pits to aggregate courses when they need to
gardens and other nearby soil resources. be trafficked by site vehicles during
construction works.
2.6 Geo-confinement systems iii. Reduce the required thickness of
unbound aggregate courses where
a. Geo-confinement systems are open lattice-
there are limitations on available cover
like sheets or panels of high tensile
(e.g. when a deep pavement
strength synthetic material. Though similar
construction is not possible because of
to geo-cellular units they are not designed
constraints). A common example is
to form large box-like void structures that
where lightly trafficked surfaces need
can replace other pavement layers; they
to be installed over vulnerable tree
roots that are close to surface but
which cannot be cut.
2.7 Fill for filter drains and other sub-

drains
a. Filter drains are gravel filled trenches that

collect and move water. They may also
treat pollution. The trench is filled with free
draining granular material. It often has a
perforated pipe in the bottom to collect
water.
b. In urban areas, filter drains are generally

unseen, being located either beneath of or
within pavement constructions (or soft
landscaped areas) to collect and remove
any water that might be accumulating there
as ‘sub drains’. This water could have got
in from the surface (having percolated
down through the materials above – either
intentionally or accidently) or it might have
risen up from the ground beneath (ground
water). Were it not removed it could
undermine constructions. However, filter
drains can also be used to collect and
remove water directly from the surface.
Where this is the case then the gravel
trench is left open so that surface water can
drain into it. This is a common site along
the hard shoulders of rural roads and
motorways.
c. In order to function correctly, the gravel

used within the drain must be carefully
graded to be sufficiently permeable whilst
at the same time performing its important
filtration role and supporting any materials
above.

DS 602 Structural Design Pavement Foundation Layers (Revision)

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Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 1

1 Introduction ...................................... 3 5 Structural soils .................................. 13

4.1 Use requirements................................ 12 8.1.2 Permitted material options for different

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 2

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 3

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 4

≥5.0% but < 10.0% 190 N/A N/A 110 130

≥10.0% 150 N/A N/A N/A 130

[U-Type 3/20] To be used if <2.5% Requirements to be agreed on a case specific basis

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 5

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 6

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 9

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 10

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 11

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 12

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 13

5.2 Design requirements a. HBMs that may be used to pavement

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 17

b. Unlike other subbase materials, the 8.1 Use requirements

b. Wherever geo-confinement systems are b. In recent years new design philosophies

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 24

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 25

2.7 Fill for filter drains and other sub-

a. Filter drains are gravel filled trenches that

b. In urban areas, filter drains are generally

c. In order to function correctly, the gravel

Southwark Streetscape Design Manual SSDM/DSR Standard DS.602 28

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