ISSSTA2004, Sydney, Australia, 30 Aug. - 2 Sep.

2004

Design of Spreading Sequences with Negative

Auto-Correlations Realizable by Nonlinear
Feedback Shift Registers
Akio Tsuneda, Daisaburo Yoshioka, and Takashi Hadate
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kumamoto University
2–39–1 Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
Tel.: +81-96-342-3853, Fax.: +81-96-342-3630
E-mail: tsuneda@eecs.kumamoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract— Spreading sequences with a negative auto- II. AVERAGE I NTERFERENCE PARAMETER (AIP) FOR
correlation for time-delay one are designed based on the Bernoulli C HAOTIC S EQUENCES
and tent maps which are well-known one-dimensional chaotic
maps. We also show that maximal-period binary sequences with In asynchronous DS/CDMA systems, the average interfer-
the negative auto-correlation based on such maps with finite bits ence parameter is defined by [1],[2]
can be generated by a class of nonlinear feedback shift registers N −1 N −1
(NFSRs). Furthermore, we perform computer simulations of


asynchronous DS/CDMA communications using such negatively rk,i = 2N 2 +4 Ak (
)Ai (
)+ Ak (
)Ai (
+1), (1)
auto-correlated spreading sequences. l=1 l=1−N

where Ak (
) is an aperiodic auto-correlation function of the

(k)
I. I NTRODUCTION k-th user’s spreading sequence {Bn }N −1
n=0 with period N ,
defined by
In direct-sequence code division multiple access 
N
−1−



(DS/CDMA) systems, spreading sequences play an important 

(k)
Bn(k) Bn+
(0 ≤
≤ N − 1)


role since they dominate the system performance such 
 n=0

as bit error rate (BER) [1],[2]. Spreading sequences with
Ak (
) = N
−1+
(2)
exponentially vanishing negative auto-correlations can 
 (k)
Bn−
Bn(k) (1 − N ≤
< 0)


reduce multiple access interference (MAI) in asynchronous 
 n=0


DS/CDMA systems compared with classical spreading codes 
0 (|
| > N ).
such as M-sequences, Gold sequences and Kasami sequences
[3],[4]. Since such negatively auto-correlated sequences Using eq.(1), the average signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the
can be generated by one-dimensional chaotic maps, some output of a correlation receiver of the i-th user among K users
researchers try to use chaotic sequences with exponentially under additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) environment is
vanishing negative auto-correlations based on some special defined by
maps [4]–[8].  −1
 1
K
N0 
In this paper, we design binary sequences with a nega-
SNRi = rk,i + , (3)
tive (but not exponentially vanishing) auto-correlation based  6N 3 2Eb 
k=1,k
=i
on the well-known Bernoulli and tent maps. Theoretically,
the performances of such sequences are slightly worse than where N0 /2 is two-sided spectrum density and Eb is data
the sequences with exponentially vanishing negative auto- bit energy. The average bit error√ probability for the i-th user
correlations with respect to MAI reduction. However, the is approximated by Pei = Q( SNRi ) under the assumption
proposed sequences can be generated by simpler chaotic maps that
∞ the distribution of MAI is Gaussian, where Q(x) =
−u2 /2
than the others, though our binary functions are somewhat x
e du [1].
complex. Such a design is useful for maximal-period se- Now we briefly introduce generation of chaotic sequences
quences generated by chaotic maps with finite bits, which and their statistical analyses. Using one-dimensional nonlinear
have been studied by us for the purpose of realizing simple difference equation defined by
generators of chaos-based sequences [9]–[11]. Namely, the
xn+1 = τ (xn ), xn ∈ I = [d, e], n = 0, 1, 2, · · · , (4)
Bernoulli and tent maps can be realized by a class of nonlinear
feedback shift registers (NFSRs) [9]. We also investigate BER we can generate a chaotic real-valued sequence {xn }∞
n=0 ,
performances of asynchronous DS/CDMA systems with such where xn = τ n (x0 ). We transform such a real-valued
sequences by computer simulations. sequence into a binary sequence {β(τ n (x))}∞
n=0 (β(x) ∈

0-7803-8408-3/04/$20.00 © 2004 IEEE 330

{−1, 1}. The theoretical auto-correlation of such a binary known [4]–[8],[12]. Most of them are piecewise linear Markov
sequence {β(τ n (x))}∞
n=0 is defined by maps. In this paper, we use the Bernoulli map τB (x) and the

tent map τT (x), respectively defined by
C(
; β) = E[β(x)β(τ
(x))] = β(x)β(τ
(x))f ∗ (x)dx 
I 2x (0 ≤ x < 12 )
(5) τB (x) = (12)
2x − 1 ( 12 ≤ x ≤ 1),
under the assumption that τ (·) has an invariant density 
function f ∗ (x), where E[·] denotes the expectation. Assume 2x (0 ≤ x < 12 )
τT (x) = (13)
that K users use chaotic binary sequences {β(τ n (x(i) ))}N −1 2(1 − x) ( 12 ≤ x ≤ 1),
n=0
(i = 1, 2, · · · , N ) of length N as its spreading code, where each of which is one of the simplest piecewise linear chaotic
x(1) , x(2) , · · · , x(K) are statistically independent of each an- maps with the interval I = [0, 1] and f ∗ (x) = 1. Furthermore,
other. The AIP for a user in such a system is given by we define a binary function by
N

−1
r̂ = 2N 2 + 4 (N −
)2 C(
; β)2 B(x) = Θ 18 (x) − Θ 38 (x) + Θ 34 (x), (14)
l=1
N −1 where Θt (x) is a threshold function defined by


+2 (N −
)(N −
+ 1)C(
; β)C(
− 1; β). (6) 
−1 (x < t)
l=1 Θt (x) = (15)
1 (x ≤ t).
Note that eq.(6) is obtained by averaging eq.(1) with the
invariant density f ∗ (x). Furthermore, define a normalized AIP Thus we give the following theorem.
by
r̂ Theorem: The binary sequences {B(τBn (x))}∞ n=0 and
R = lim . (7)
N →∞ 2N 2 {B(τTn (x))}∞
n=0 generated by the Bernoulli map and the tent
Obviously, we have R = 1 for uncorrelated sequences with map have the auto-correlation function given by
C(
; β) = 0 (
≥ 1). 
 1 (
= 0)
First, consider the case C(
; β) = λ
(|λ| < 1), that C(
; B) = − 1 (
= 1) (16)
is, chaotic sequences with exponentially vanishing auto-  4
0 (
≥ 2).
correlations. In this case, we have
λ2 + λ + 1 Proof: See the appendix.
R= (8)
1 − λ2
√ √ The above theorem implies that the sequences
which takes the minimum value 23 when λ = −2 + 3 {B(τBn (x))}∞ n ∞
n=0 and {B(τT (x))}n=0 are optimal spreading
[3]. Thus such sequences have smaller AIPs than uncorrelated codes in a class of sequences with the auto-correlation
sequences with R = 1. function given by eq.(9).
Next consider the sequences whose auto-correlation func-
tion is given by B. Maximal-Period Sequence

 1 (
= 0) In order to realize simple hardware generators of chaos-
C(
; β) = ε (
= 1) (9) based sequences, we have been studying maximal-period se-

0 (
≥ 2), quences based on chaotic maps with finite bits [9]–[11]. The
concept is quite simple. First, quantize the chaotic map to some
where |ε| < 1. In this case, the calculation of AIP is much levels which usually correspond to integers {0, 1, · · · , N − 1}.
easier than the case C(
; β) = λ
and we have Next, iterate the quantized map f (x) from an integer seed,
r̂ = 2N 2 + 4(N − 1)2 ε2 + 2N (N − 1)ε (10) that is, calculate xn+1 = f (xn ) (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) to generate
R = 2ε2 + ε + 1 (11) a sequence. If the quantization of the map is appropriate, the
2
period of the sequence is equal to N . Such a sequence is
which take the minimum values 7N4 +1 and 78 when ε = − 14 , called a maximal-period sequence. Figure 1 (a) and (b) show
respectively. These minimum values are √ slightly larger than examples of quantized maps for the Bernoulli map and the tent
the case C(
; β) = λ
with λ = −2 + 3 but the differences map, both of which can generate a maximal-period sequence.
are quite small. Of course, the sequences of this case (ε = − 14 ) In these figures, N black points indicate the mapping function
also outperform the uncorrelated sequences with R = 1. f (x) which approximates the original mapping function τB (x)
or τT (x).
III. C HAOS -BASED S EQUENCES WITH N EGATIVE
As described in [9], maximal-period sequences based on the
AUTO -C ORRELATIONS
Bernoulli and the tent map can be generated by NFSRs with k
A. Chaotic Binary Sequence stages and their extended version, where the maximal-period
Several types of chaotic maps which can generate chaotic is N = 2k . Examples of such NFSRs are shown in Fig.2 (a)
sequences with exponentially vanishing auto-correlations are and (b), where the relation between an integer xn and a state

331
 15
14
13 nonlinear feedback
12 (combinational logic circuit)
11
10
f(xn)
9
8
output
7
6 ak-1(n) ak-2(n) a 1 (n) a 0 (n)
5
4 (a) Conventional NFSR for de-Bruijn sequences
3
2 (Bernoulli-type map).
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
nonlinear feedback
xn (combinational logic circuit)

(a) Bernoulli-type
15 output
14 ak-1(n) ak-2(n) a 1 (n) a 0 (n)
13
12
11
10
(b) Extended NFSR for tent-type maps.
f(xn)

9
8
7
6 Fig. 2. Known NFSRs [9].
5
4
3
2 integers, we define a binary function corresponding to eq.(14)
1
0 by
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
B̃(x) = Θ N (x) − Θ 3N (x) + Θ 3N (x), (18)
xn
8 8 4

3
where we assume k ≥ 3, that is, N ≥ 2 . Thus the maximal-
(b) Tent-type period binary sequence {B̃(xn )}N −1
n=0 is an approximated one
∞
to {B(xn )}n=0 , that is, it has a negative auto-correlation
Fig. 1. Examples of quantized chaotic maps (N = 16). similar to eq.(16). In this case, the binary function is realized
by a combinational logic circuit with the three inputs a0 (n),
a1 (n), a2 (n), as shown in Fig.3.
of the register at time n represented by {ak−1 (n), ak−2 (n),
· · · , a0 (n)} (ai (n) ∈ {0, 1}) is given by IV. C OMPUTER S IMULATIONS

xn = a0 (n) · 2k−1 + a1 (n) · 2k−2 + · · · + ak−1 (n) · 20 . (17) We performed computer simulations to investigate bit error
rate (BER) in baseband asynchronous DS-CDMA systems
Note that maximal-period sequences generated by the NFSR using the above maximal-period sequences {B̃(xn )}N −1
n=0 with
of Fig.2 (a) are well known as de-Bruijn sequences [13],[14]. a negative auto-correlation as spreading codes. In these simu-
Generation algorithms of maximal-period sequences including lations, the number of transmitted information bits per user is
de-Bruijn sequences have been proposed [10],[11],[15]. 10, 000 and there are random delays between each user. We
Furthermore, we usually transform a maximal-period integer also assume that there is no channel noise in order to focus on
sequence {xn }N −1
n=0 into a binary sequence {Θ N (xn )}N −1
n=0 for BER performances versus properties of spreading sequences.
2
its applications to CDMA. The threshold N2 corresponds to 12 The simulations were performed 100 times by changing initial
in the original chaotic maps with I = [0, 1]. For the Bernoulli values of random numbers and the averages of BERs were
map and the tent map, a binary sequence {Θ 12 (xn )}∞ n=0 is
computed. For comparison, we also used Gold sequences of
theoretically shown to be i.i.d. (independent and identically period N = 31, 63, and 127 as conventional spreading codes
distributed), that is, it is an uncorrelated sequence. Hence, a and chaotic binary sequences computed by sufficient precision
maximal-period binary sequence {Θ N (xn )}N −1
n=0 based on the
(64-bit floating point operation) with exponentially
√ vanishing
2
Bernoulli map and the tent map is an approximately uncor- optimum auto-correlations (λ = −2 + 3) and with the auto-
related sequence which can be obtained from the rightmost correlations given by eq.(16). Here we used a piecewise linear
box in the NFSRs, that is, Θ N (xn ) = 2a0 (n) − 1 under the map (PLM) defined by
relation given by eq.(17).
2

2
 |λ|−1 x + 1
 (0 ≤ x < 1−|λ|
2 )
Now consider another binary function for generating
maximal-period binary sequences with a negative auto- τ (x) = 1 1−λ
λ (x − 2 ) ( 2 ≤ x < 1+|λ|
1−|λ|
2 )
(19)

 2 (x − 1) ( 1+|λ| ≤ x ≤ 1),
correlation given by eq.(16). For the quantized maps by N |λ|−1 2

332
 nonlinear feedback
(combinational logic circuit)
0.045

0.04
maximal-period (Bernoulli)
ak-1(n) a 2 (n) a 1 (n) a 0 (n) 0.035 maximal-period (tent)
chaotic binary (Bernoulli)
output 0.03
combinational chaotic binary (tent)

BER
logic circuit 0.025 chaotic binary (λ=−2+ 3)
Gold
(a) De-Bruijn (Bernoulli-type) 0.02

0.015

nonlinear feedback 0.01

(combinational logic circuit)
0.005

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Number of Users
ak-1(n) a 2 (n) a 1 (n) a 0 (n) (a) N = 32
0.045

0.04
output
maximal-period (Bernoulli)
combinational 0.035 maximal-period (tent)
logic circuit chaotic binary (Bernoulli)
0.03
chaotic binary (tent)
(b) Tent-type 0.025 chaotic binary (λ=−2+ 3)
BER

Gold
0.02

Fig. 3. NFSRs with a binary function for negative auto-correlations. 0.015

0.01

for generating sequences with the exponentially vanishing 0.005

auto-correlation λ
[6],[7]. The results are shown in Fig.4. We 0
can find that the maximal-period sequences with a negative 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

auto-correlation are slightly better than Gold sequences. On Number of Users

the other hand, the maximal-period sequences are inferior to (b) N = 64
chaotic sequences computed by 64-bit floating point opera-
0.045
tion. However, it should be noted that the maximal-period maximal-period (Bernoulli)
sequences can be generated by NFSRs with 5 to 7 stages (bits) 0.04
maximal-period (tent)
which are much simpler than generators of chaotic sequences. 0.035 chaotic binary (Bernoulli)
Furthermore, we also note that the number of maximal-period chaotic binary (tent)
0.03 chaotic binary (λ=−2+ 3)
sequences is much greater than Gold sequences [9],[13],[14].
BER

0.025 Gold
V. C ONCLUDING R EMARKS 0.02
We have designed spreading sequences with a negative 0.015
auto-correlation for time-delay
= 1 and no correlation
for
≥ 2 based on the Bernoulli and tent maps. Maximal- 0.01

period binary sequences based on such maps with finite bits 0.005
can be generated by use of conventional nonlinear feedback 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
shift registers with an additional combinational logic circuit.
Computer simulations have shown that such negatively auto- Number of Users
correlated spreading sequences are useful in asynchronous (c) N = 128
DS/CDMA communications. Note that for the Bernoulli map
and the tent map, there exist several other binary functions Fig. 4. BER versus the number of users in asynchronous DS/CDMA systems
giving the auto-correlation of eq.(16), which can also be in computer simulations.
realized by the NFSRs of Fig.3. The detailed evaluation of
hardware complexity of the NFSR-based generator is left to
future study.

333
 A PPENDIX and τ  (t) is a right derivative of τ (t). Using eq.(A.9), we have
P ROOF OF T HEOREM 1 1
Pτ {b(x) − E[b]} = (θ 14 (x) − E[θ 14 ]) − (θ 34 (x) − E[θ 34 ])
 1 2 2
For simplicity of description, we denote both of τB (x) and

 + (θ 12 (x) − E[θ 12 ]) (Bernoulli map)
τT (x) by τ (x) and consider a binary {0, 1}-valued sequence 2
{b(τ n (x))}∞ (A.11)
n=0 , where b(x) is a binary function defined by 
 − 1 (θ 1 (x) − E[θ 1 ]) (Tent map),
b(x) = θ 18 (x) − θ 38 (x) + θ 34 (x) (A.1) 2 2 2
2
 P τ {b(x) − E[b]} = 0. (A.12)
0 (x < t)
θt (x) = (A.2) Substituting eqs.(A.11) and (A.12) into eq.(A.8), we have
1 (x ≤ t),
1
that is, B(x) = 2b(x) − 1. We define the auto-covariance Ĉ(1; b) = − (A.13)
n ∞
16
function of {b(τ (x))}n=0 by Ĉ(
; b) = 0 (
≥ 2). (A.14)

Ĉ(
; b) = (b(x) − E[b])(b(τ
) − E[b])f ∗ (x)dx, (A.3) Thus using the relationship C(
; B) = 4Ĉ(
; b) for E[B]=0,
I we have eq.(16) in Theorem.
where
R EFERENCES
∗
E[b] = b(x)f (x)dx. (A.4) [1] M. B. Pursley, “Performance evaluation for phase-coded spread spectrum
I multiple-access communication—part I: System analysis,” IEEE Trans.
Commun., Vol.COM-25, No.8, pp.795–799, 1977.
The above auto-covariance form makes it easy to obtain [2] M. B. Pursley and D. V. Sarwate, “Performance evaluation for phase-
its explicit expression as shown later [16] and it is easily coded spread spectrum multiple-access communication—part II: Code
sequence analysis,” IEEE Trans. Commun., Vol.COM-25, No.8, pp.800–
transformed into the ordinary auto-correlation function given 802, 1977.
by eq.(5). Note that we have E[b] = 12 , that is, E[B] = 0 [3] R. Rovatti and G. Mazzini, “Interference in DS-CDMA Systems with
for the Bernoulli and tent maps because f ∗ (x) = 1 for both Exponentially Vanishing Autocorrelations: Chaos-Based Spreading Is
Optimal,” Electronics Letters, Vol.34, No.20, pp.1911–1913, 1998.
maps. [4] G. Mazzini, R. Rovatti, G. Setti, “Interference Minimization by Auto-
We now define the Perron-Frobenius (PF) operator Pτ of correlation Shaping in Asynchronous DS-CDMA Systems: Chaos-
the τ with an interval I = [0, 1] by based Spreading is Nearly Optimal,” Electronics Letters, Vol.35, No.13,
pp.1054–1055, 1999.

[5] R. Rovatti, G. Setti and G. Mazzini, “Chaos-based generation of opti-
d
Pτ G(x) = G(y)dy (A.5) mal DS-CDMA sequences, Proc. of 1999 International Symposium on
dx τ −1 ([0,x]) Nonlinear Theory and its Applications, vol.1, pp.231–234, 1999.
[6] A. Tsuneda, “Design of Chaotic Binary Sequences with Prescribed Auto-
which can be rewritten as Correlation Properties Based on Piecewise Monotonic Onto Maps”,
Proc. of 1999 International Symposium on Nonlinear Theory and its
2

Applications, vol.2, pp.605–608, 1999.
Pτ G(x) = |gi (x)|G(gi (x)) (A.6) [7] A. Tsuneda, “Design of Binary Sequences with Prescribed Auto-
i=1
Correlation Properties Based on One-Dimensional Chaotic Maps”, sub-
mitted to IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems–I, Jan. 2004.
for the Bernoulli and the tent map, where gi (x) is the i-th [8] T. Kohda and H. Fujisaki, “Pursley’s Aperiodic Cross-Correlation
Function Revisited,” IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems–I, vol.50, no.6,
preimage of the map τ (·) [17]. This operator is very useful in pp.800–805, 2003.
evaluating correlation functions because it has the following [9] A. Tsuneda, Y. Kuga, and T. Inoue, “New Maximal-Period Sequences
important property [17]: Using Extended Nonlinear Feedback Shift Registers Based on Chaotic
Maps”, IEICE Trans. Fundamentals, vol.E85-A, no.6, pp.1327–1332,


2002.
G(x)Pτ {H(x)}dx = G(τ (x))H(x)dx. (A.7) [10] D. Yoshioka, A. Tsuneda, and T. Inoue, “Maximal-Period Sequences
I I with Negative Auto-Correlations and Their Application to Asynchronous
DS-CDMA Systems”, IEICE Trans. Fundamentals, vol.E86-A, no.6,
Using eq.(A.7), Ĉ(
; b) for
≥ 1 is also written as pp.1405–1413, 2003.
[11] D. Yoshioka, A. Tsuneda and T. Inoue, “An Algorithm for the Generation

of Maximal-Period Sequences Based on One-Dimensional Chaos Maps
Ĉ(
; b) = Pτ
{(b(x) − E[b])f ∗ (x)}(b(x) − b)dx. (A.8) with Finite Bits”, to appear in IEICE Trans. Fundamentals., Vol.E87-A,
I No.6, June 2004.
[12] R. E. Kalman, “Nonlinear Aspects of Sampled-Data Control Systems,”
According to [16], we have Proc. Symp. Nonlinear Circuit Analysis VI, pp.273–313, 1956.
[13] N. G. de Bruijn, “A Combinatorial Problem,” Nederl. Akad. Wetensch.
Pτ {(θt (x) − E[θt ])f ∗ (x)} Proc., vol.49, pp.758–764, 1946.
[14] S. W. Golomb, Shift Register Sequences, revised ed., Aegean Park
1
= s(τ  (t))(θτ (t) (x) − E[θτ (t) ])f ∗ (x) (A.9) Press,1982.
2 [15] H. Fredricksen, “A survey of full-length nonlinear shift register cycle
algorithms”, SIAM Rev., vol.24, pp.195-221, Apr. 1982.
where s(x) is the signum function defined by [16] T. Kohda and A. Tsuneda, “Statistics of Chaotic Binary Sequences”,
 IEEE Trans., Information Theory, vol.43, no.1, pp.104–112, 1997.
−1 for x < 0 [17] A. Lasota and M. C. Mackey, Chaos, Fractals, and Noise, Springer-
s(x) = (A.10)
1 for x ≥ 0, Verlag, 1994.

334