buildings

Article
Optimum Design of RC Footings with Genetic
Algorithms According to ACI 318-19
German Solorzano and Vagelis Plevris *
Department of Civil Engineering and Energy Technology, OsloMet—Oslo Metropolitan University, 0167 Oslo,
Norway; germanso@oslomet.no
* Correspondence: vageli@oslomet.no




Received: 27 May 2020; Accepted: 9 June 2020; Published: 11 June 2020


Abstract: Engineers usually use trial-and-error approaches for dealing with design problems where
they need to find the most economical design of a structural element in terms of its material cost
while satisfying all the safety requirements imposed by the design codes. In this study, we employ a
genetic algorithm (GA) with a dominance-based tournament selection technique for dealing with this
design challenge. The methodology is applied in the design of reinforced concrete rectangular-shaped
isolated footings in accordance with the American Concrete Institute ACI 318-19. First, the footing is
encoded into a set of decision variables and an objective function is defined to compute the total cost
based on the different construction materials. Then, the compliance of the design with the ACI 318-19
code is enforced by a constraint function that takes into consideration all the demand–capacity ratios
for the different resistance requirements such as the allowable bearing pressure of the supporting
soil, and the shear and flexural capacities of the footing, among others. Two numerical examples are
presented where the results show a significant advantage in terms of material-cost and design-time
reduction in comparison with the commonly used trial and error approach, proving the applicability
of optimization algorithms (OAs) into the everyday design routine of the structural engineer.

Keywords: structural design; optimization; ACI 318-19; concrete isolated footing;

genetic algorithm; GA

1. Introduction
With the development of modern computing, optimization algorithms (OAs) have emerged as
powerful design tools in practically all fields of engineering. In the construction industry, most times
optimization is only applied locally to a few specific “key” components of the design, but it is still
considered over-complicated to be applied at a full scale to broader design problems. One of the
reasons for this is that the design of these elements usually requires fast, reliable, and sometimes
on-the-go solutions for which the complexity of an optimization algorithm seems to be not worth the
benefits obtained compared to traditional trial-and-error approaches, which take advantage of the
experience of the engineer. This conception is changing rapidly nowadays with the development of
ready-to-use optimization tools and libraries that require either a small amount of coding or are based
on a user-friendly interface that takes the coding complexity away. When such computational tools are
used, it only takes some basic understanding of the underlying concepts of optimization to successfully
implement it into the everyday-design problems that the structural engineer faces during the design of
buildings and structures [1].
The motivation for using modern computational techniques to optimize the structural design
of a construction comes as an answer to the fact that the construction industry consumes a huge
amount of resources, which contributes to a high amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings
and construction generate nearly 40% of global CO2 emissions according to the 2019 Global Status

Buildings 2020, 10, 110; doi:10.3390/buildings10060110 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2020, 10, 110 2 of 17

Report [2] published by the Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction (GlobalABC) of the UN.
The fast-required solutions of the construction industry many times outweigh an efficient usage of
construction materials. A much more efficient resource usage and lower carbon footprint can be
achieved by integrating modern optimization techniques into the everyday design process of structural
elements, without compromising the safety or the speed of the design process.
The main goal of this study is to set an example of how the problem of the design of structural
elements, such as reinforced concrete (RC) footings, can be transformed to a well-defined optimization
problem that can then be computationally handled and solved by an OA. The genetic algorithm,
a well-established OA inspired by the natural evolution process, has been used in the study because of
its elegance, robustness, and reliability in handling various types of optimization problems. Genetic
algorithms (GAs) have been successfully used for solving highly non-linear problems in various
engineering disciplines [3].
Optimization techniques have been successfully used for the design of various reinforced concrete
structures [4,5]. Coello et al. [6] applied a simple GA for the design of RC elements, where the aim was to
minimize the cost of a reinforced concrete rectangular beam based on strength design procedures, while
also considering the costs of concrete, steel, and shuttering. In Luévanos-Rojas et al. [7,8], optimization
was applied to the design of concrete footings using a soil pressure model that requires the computation
of several integrals in the constraint functions. Chaudhuri et al. [9] used GA and unified particle swarm
optimization (UPSO) strategies for the design of footings according to IS 456 2000, showing that both
implementations produce noticeable better solutions than some popular structural design commercial
packages in terms of material cost. Khajehzadeh et al. [10] presents an interesting multi-objective
optimization (MOO) approach for the design of spread footings, where one of the objective functions
quantifies the total amount of CO2 emissions resulting from the material usage. The MOO problem is
solved using a novel global–local gravitational search algorithm. Al-Ansari [11] proposes an iterative
optimization method for RC footings with a sophisticated analytical model that computes the total cost
of the footing including a high level of detail such as the timber formwork and rebar dowels length.
Other metaheuristic techniques have been also successfully implemented for the design of RC footings,
such as in Nigdeli et al. [12] where harmony-search (HS), teaching–learning-based optimization (TLBO),
and flower pollination algorithm (FPA) have been used with successful results.
In this paper, an optimization methodology to find the most economical structural design using
GAs is developed. A problem is defined where the total material cost of the structural element is used
as an objective function to be minimized, and the compliance of the building design code is enforced by
a constraint function that takes into account all of its design requirements. The methodology is tested
for the design of RC footings within the scope of the building code requirements for concrete structures
by the American Concrete Institute ACI 318-19 [13]. For a given set of reaction forces and other input
parameters, the algorithm will find the optimum dimensions of the RC footing and the amount of steel
reinforcement that lead to the lowest material cost while satisfying all the design criteria for footing
design stablished in the ACI 318-19 code.

2. The Optimization Problem

2.1. Basic Principles of Design

The design of a structural element needs to comply to all the safety and strength requirements
provided in the governing building design code, from now on, each of these requirements will be
denoted as a “design check”. Each design check can be understood as the comparison of a characteristic
or property of a structural element (capacity) against the permitted or required value provided in the
building design code (demand). In general, the capacity of the structural element has to be larger than
the demand and this comparison can be expressed in form of the demand–capacity ratio d/c of the
actual value c (capacity, e.g., element strength) against the required value d (demand, e.g., actual stress)
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 3 of 17

of the property in question. The ideal scenario is when the element demand is slightly less than its
capacity, i.e., d/c ≈ 1, meaning that the design is structurally efficient and also economic.
The goal of the structural designer is to achieve the best cost-effective design in order to maintain
the viability of the project. For that purpose, finding the most economical solution for as many
structural elements as possible is essential. This may be a non-trivial task for specific structural
elements that are required to comply with multiple design checks under various loading conditions
and combinations of loads. For example, a RC column must be able to resist both axial forces (vertical
loads) and bending moments (due to lateral loads). In some scenarios, the resistance to vertical loads
could be improved by simply increasing the compressive strength of the concrete and the cost would
not change considerably. However, for the lateral loads, probably adding additional steel reinforcement
would be the simplest option but it could elevate the cost significantly. As a result, the solution to
achieve the most cost-effective overall solution is not always obvious.

2.2. Encoding the Problem in Decision Variables

The first step is to encode the structural element into n decision variables z1 , z2 , . . . , zn , where n
is the dimensionality of the optimization problem. These variables represent the element properties
which are possible to change during the design phase, such as the geometrical dimensions and others.
For each decision variable zj , a specific range [zj,min , zj,max ] and domain must be defined. For continuous
search spaces it is usually zj ∈ R. The encoded structural element e can then be written as a vector of
the decision variables as follows:
e = [z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ] (1)

2.3. Objective Function

The optimal design is defined in terms of the material cost of the structural element; therefore, the
optimization task becomes a minimization problem where the set of design variables that leads to the
minimum material cost of the structural element are to be found. In the general case with m different
materials used for the construction of the structural element, the element cost is given by
m
X
f (e) = v jc j (2)
j=1

where vj is the volume of material j and cj is the perspective material volumetric cost. Other cost
parameters such as the labor cost, the form-work in concrete elements, or the welding in steel
constructions could be easily added as additional terms in Equation (1), yet the present study focuses
only on the material cost, i.e., the cost of concrete and steel of the RC element.

2.4. Defining the Constraint Function

To define the constraint function, all the design checks that apply to the design of the structural
element in question are identified in the building design code and converted into a d/c ratio where for
a safe design check, it is a d/c ≤ 1. For each design check, we define the exceeding ratio er as follows

(d/c) j − 1 if (d/c) j > 1


er j =  (3)
0

otherwise

The constraint function g(e) is then the summation of the exceeding ratios er of all design checks
applied to the structural element. Assuming that for the structural element e there is a number ndc of
design checks to comply to, the constraint function is written as
ndc
X
g1 ( e ) = er j (4)
j=1
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 4 of 17

which means that g1 (e) = 0 denotes a safe design that satisfies all the ndc design checks.

3. Solving the Optimization Problem

3.1. Foundamentals of Genetic Algorithms

GAs are based on the principle of genetic evolution in which only the best or “fittest” individuals
of a population survive to reproduce and create the next generation. During the process, some genes
of the new-born individuals are randomly mutated. This operation introduces new changes that could
make an individual stronger to survive in its environment, and therefore, more likely to reproduce and
pass those advantages to the next generation.
In the mathematical analogy a population consist of several design vectors (individuals), each
design vector is composed of a set of design variables (chromosomes) that can be modified within
a specific domain or search space during the algorithm execution. In the case of single-objective
optimization problems, a single objective function that assigns a fitness value to the design vectors
is defined. The natural processes of selection, reproduction and mutation are simulated through
numerical operations. At every iteration (or generation), the best design vectors of the population
based on their fitness value are selected, combined, and mutated to create a new stronger population.
The algorithm usually stops after a certain number of generations is completed, if no improvement is
observed after a specific number of iterations or if another convergence criterion is satisfied.

3.2. Genetic Algorithm with Elitism

The solution to the optimization problem is found by applying a single objective GA with elitism.
The algorithm used for the present study is briefly described in the following steps [14].
Step 1. Initialization. The algorithm starts at i = 0 by randomly generating multiple design vectors
e1 , e2 , . . . , es on a search space that is based on their pre-specified domain and ranges. Each design
vector is denoted as an individual and all together they form the initial population Pi , which has a size
of s = 100 individuals.
Step 2. Objective and constraint function evaluation. The objective and the constraint values are
computed for all the individuals of the current population Pi based on Equations (2) and (4), respectively.
Step 3. Selection of the fittest. The best individuals from the current population are chosen
following the dominance-based tournament selection operator [15]. This operator takes two random
individuals from the current population {ea , eb } ∈ Pi to be compared or “fight” against each other.
The winner of the fight is chosen according to the following dominance criteria, where the symbol 
denotes dominance of a design over another:

• A solution ea that fulfils the constraint dominates a solution eb that does not.

if ( g(ea ) = 0 and g(eb ) > 0) then

(5)
ea  eb

• If both solutions fulfil the constraint, the one with the lowest objective value dominates the other.

if [( g(ea ) = g(eb ) = 0 and f (ea ) < f (eb ))] then

(6)
ea  eb

• If both solutions violate the equality constraint, the one with the lowest constraint value dominates
the other.
if [( g(ea ) > 0 and g(eb ) > 0) and ( g(ea ) < g(eb ))] then
(7)
ea  eb
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Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

After the winner of the first encounter is obtained, a new opponent is chosen randomly from
After the
the current winner oftothe
population first encounter
“fight” against the is previous
obtained,winner.
a new opponent
This battlingis chosen
processrandomly fromfor
is repeated thea
current population
specific number to “fight”
of times knownagainst
as tournament size ts.winner.
the previous This of
The winner battling
the finalprocess
fight isistherepeated
championfor of a
specific number of
the tournament, andtimes known asoftournament
the outcome the selectionsize ts. The winner of the final fight is the champion
operator.
of theSincetournament,
only oneand the outcome
individual of theper
is selected selection operator.
tournament, the process is repeated multiple times until
a setSince
Si ∈ P only
i thatone individual
contains is selected
a number per=tournament,
s·0.20 100·0.20 = 20 theofprocess is repeated
individuals multipleAfter
is obtained. timesevery
until
set Si ∈ Pi that
atournament, contains ais number
the champion removeds∙0.20 = 100∙0.20
from the available = 20 of to
pool individuals
avoid selectingis obtained.
the sameAfter every
individual
tournament,
multiple times. the champion is removed from the available pool to avoid selecting the same individual
multipleSteptimes.
4. Crossover. The goal of the crossover operation is to generate new elements by the
Step 4. Crossover.
reproduction of the strongestThe goal of the crossover
individuals. From the operation
previouslyis tocreated
generate poolnewSi , elements by the
two individuals
reproduction
{e I , eII } ∈ Si are ofchosen
the strongest
and theirindividuals. From the(chromosomes)
decision variables previously created pool Si, two
are combined individuals
to obtain two new {eI,
II} ∈ Si are
eoffspring {exchosen
, ey } ∈ Qand
i . their
The decision
selection variables
process is (chromosomes)
repeated until Q i are
has acombined
total of to
s·0.80 =
obtain two
100·0.80 =
new 80
offspring
individuals. ey} ∈
{ex,The Qi. The selection
simulated process algorithm
binary crossover is repeated(SBX)until[16]
Qi has a total
is used for of
thiss∙0.80 = 100∙0.80 = 80
operation.
individuals. The simulated binary crossover algorithm (SBX) [16] is used for this operation.
crossover(Si ) = Qi (8)
crossover ( Si ) = Qi (8)
Step 5. Mutation. The mutation operation is introduced to the newly created population Qi .
Step 5.
The main Mutation.
purpose of the The mutation
mutation is operation
to maintain is introduced
diversity and to avoid
the newly created population
the problem Qi. The
of getting trapped
main
into apurpose of the mutation
local minimum. is to maintain
The mutation operatordiversity
producesand avoid
a small the problem
change of getting
to the decision trappedusing
variables into
athe
local
polynomial mutation scheme [17]. The mutation is applied with a probability of 1/n, so thatthe
minimum. The mutation operator produces a small change to the decision variables using on
polynomial
average, onemutationvariable per scheme [17]. The
individual mutation is applied with a probability of 1/n, so that on
is mutated.
average, one variable per individual is mutated.
P
Pi +1 =i+mutation
1
( Qi ) ∪i Si
= mutation(Q ) ∪ Si (9)
(9)
Notice that elitism preservation is achieved by passing the selected elements S unchanged to the
Notice that elitism preservation is achieved by passing the selected elementsi Si unchanged to
next population. This feature has proven to improve the efficiency of the algorithm by avoiding that
the next population. This feature has proven to improve the efficiency of the algorithm by avoiding
good solutions are degraded by the mutation or crossover operators.
that good solutions are degraded by the mutation or crossover operators.
Step 6. Termination. With the newly created population Pi+1 , steps 2–5 of the process are repeated
Step 6. Termination. With the newly created population Pi+1, steps 2–5 of the process are
until a termination criterion is met. In this study, the algorithm stops after the objective function has
repeated until a termination criterion is met. In this study, the algorithm stops after the objective
been evaluated MAXEVAL number of times. The design vector with the lowest objective value of the
function has been evaluated MAXEVAL number of times. The design vector with the lowest objective
final population is selected as the solution to the optimization problem.
value of the final population is selected as the solution to the optimization problem.
Figure 1 shows a flowchart of the GA procedures described in the above steps 1–6.
Figure 1 shows a flowchart of the GA procedures described in the above steps 1–6.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Flowchart
Flowchart of
of the
the genetic
genetic algorithm
algorithm with
with elitism.

4. Optimum
4. Optimum Design
Design of
of RC
RC Rectangular
Rectangular Footings
Footings
The previously
The previously described
described methodology
methodology is is applied
applied to
to the
the design
design of
of rectangular
rectangular footings
footings inin
accordance with
accordance with the
theAmerican
AmericanConcrete
ConcreteInstitute
InstituteBuilding
Building Code
Code Requirements,
Requirements, ACIACI 318-19
318-19 [13].[13].
In
In this section, a brief insight on the design procedures is provided. For a more detailed description,
this section, a brief insight on the design procedures is provided. For a more detailed description, the
interested reader is referred to [18,19]. Concrete footings have been chosen as an example of the
applicability of optimization algorithms in structural engineering because of the complexity of their
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 6 of 17

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

the interested reader is referred to [18,19]. Concrete footings have been chosen as an example of
the applicability
design ofdesign
optimization algorithms in structural
degree ofengineering
dependencybecause
makingofthe thedesign
complexity of
Buildingswhere
2020, 10,all
x FOR checks share
PEER REVIEW a certain 6 process
of 17
their design where
particularly all design checks share a certain degree of dependency making the design process
challenging.
particularly
design
Thewhere challenging.
all design
rectangular checks
footing is share a certain degree
first encoded into a of dependency
total making
of five design the design
variables, process
three for the
The rectangular
particularly
geometrical footing
challenging.
dimensions is first
of the slabencoded intodimensions
(horizontal a total of fiveLdesign
x, Ly and variables,
thickness three fortwo
t) and the geometrical
for the steel
dimensions of the
The rectangular
reinforcement slabAs
(areas (horizontal
footing
x, Asy),is dimensions
asfirst
shown encoded Lxinto
, Ly 2.
in Figure and
a total of fivet) and
thickness twovariables,
design for the steel reinforcement
three for the
(areas Asx , Asdimensions
geometrical y ), as shown of in
theFigure
slab 2.
(horizontal dimensions L x, L y and thickness t) and two for the steel
reinforcement (areas Asx, Asy), as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Rectangular footing and its decision variables: (a) plan view; (b) elevation.
Figure2.2. Rectangular
Figure footingand
Rectangular footing andits
itsdecision
decisionvariables:
variables:(a)(a) plan
plan view;
view; (b)(b) elevation.
elevation.
The design principles are based on the stresses generated on the soil and the concrete slab due
The
to theThe design
designprinciples
contact/bearing are
arebased
pressure
principles on
on the
acting
based stresses
between
the generated
them.
stresses Such on
generated on the soil
pressure
the soilisand
and theconcrete
assumed
the concrete slab
to beslab due to
linearly
due or
the contact/bearing pressure
to the contact/bearing
uniformly acting
pressure
distributed along between them.
acting between
the contact Such pressure
them. Such
area depending is assumed
pressure or
on whether is not to
assumedbe linearly
there to
arebe or uniformly
linearly or on
eccentricities
distributed
uniformly
the along
axial load the contact
distributed
or momentsalong area
the
acting depending
contact
on thearea on as
whether
depending
column, or
in not
on whether
shown there
Figure notare
or 3. eccentricities
there on theon
are eccentricities axial
load
the or moments
axial acting onacting
load or moments the column, as shownasinshown
on the column, Figure
in3.Figure 3.

Figure
Figure 3. Pressure distribution along the contact area:
area:(a)(a) non-eccentric axial force; (b) eccentric axial
Figure3.3.Pressure
Pressure distribution alongthe
distribution along thecontact
contactarea: (a) non-eccentric
non-eccentric axial
axial force;
force; (b) (b) eccentric
eccentric axialaxial
force
force or/and bending moment acting on the column.
forceor/and
or/and bending moment acting
bending moment actingon
onthe
thecolumn.
column.

For
For any point (x, y) inside
insidethe contact area, where (x =(x0,=y0,= y0)=denotes the center pointpoint
of theofslab,
Forany
any point
point (x, y) inside the
the contact
contact area,
area, where
where (x = 0, y = 0) 0) denotes
denotes thethe center
center point of the the
the
slab,bearing pressure is computed as
slab,the
thebearing
bearing pressure computedas
pressure is computed as

12
MM12M y 12
x 12 Mx xy x
M12M
FF Fz12 xyxy
σσ ((xx,,σyy()x,
)==y) =z z L±x±
L
±
3
±3 ± ± y y 3
L3x L y L LL3LLy3Lx
(10)
(10)(10)
LLx xLLy y yLL
xLxL
y y y yx x

Notice
Noticethat
Notice thatEquation
that Equation(10)
Equation (10)depends
(10) dependssolely
depends solely
solelyon
on
onthe
the geometrical
thegeometrical
geometrical properties
properties
propertiesand the
andand acting
thethe
acting forces
acting in the
forces in
footing.
the This
footing. is due
This to
is the
due assumption
to the that
assumption the concrete
that the slab is
concrete considered
slab is as a rigid
considered
the footing. This is due to the assumption that the concrete slab is considered as a rigid body. body.
as a Furthermore,
rigid body.
Furthermore,
Equation
Furthermore, Equation
(10) Equation
is (10) when
only valid
(10) is
is only valid
onlythe fullwhen
valid area the
when ofthe full
the
fullarea
areaofof
footing the infooting
is the contactis with
footing in
is contact
in the with
soil
contact (notheuplift
with soil soil
the of
(no
the uplift of
footing). the footing).
With the With
definitionthe definition
of Equation of Equation
(10), the (10), the
pressure pressure
applied applied
on the
(no uplift of the footing). With the definition of Equation (10), the pressure applied on the soil or theon the
soil or soil
the or the
stresses
stresses generated
generated on specificonsections
specific sections
of of the concrete
the concrete slab canslabbe can be accurately
accurately computed
computed and compared
and compared with the
stresses generated on specific sections of the concrete slab can be accurately computed and compared
with the corresponding
corresponding resistance,
resistance,resistance, according
accordingaccording to
to the design the design
code code provisions.
provisions.
with the corresponding to the design code provisions.
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 7 of 17

4.1. Rectangular Footing Design Checks

The design requirements for two-way isolated RC footings are given in Sections 13.3.1 and 13.3.3
of ACI 318-19. The four principal design checks that must be satisfied are briefly described in the next
section. Note that in the following formulas, the stresses are considered in MPa and the geometrical
dimensions in meters. A description of the various variables used is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Description of the variables used.

Variable Description
d Effective depth of the concrete section
bw Length of the cross-section perpendicular to the effective depth d
b0 Perimeter of the critical section for two-way shear
λ Factor required when light-weight concrete is used
Nu Axial force normal to the face being analyzed
β Long-to-short side ratio of the column
fy Yield stress of the reinforced steel
f0 c Compressive strength of the concrete
As Reinforced area of steel in the section being analyzed
Φf = 0.90 Resistance reduction for flexural strength
Φs = 0.75 Resistance reduction for shear strength

Design check 1: Allowable soil pressure (section 13.3.1.1). Sufficient contact area must be
provided so that the maximum generated bearing pressure σ(x,y)max should not exceed the soil’s
allowable pressure qa . The allowable soil pressure must be determined by principles of soil mechanics
in accordance with the general building code.

(d/c)1 = σ(x, y)max /qa (11)

Design check 2: One-way shear resistance (sections 8.5.3.1.1/22.5.1.2). The critical section for
one-way shear is located at a distance d from the edge of the column. For rectangular footings
with rectangular columns this condition leads to the possibility to have up to four critical sections,
two parallel to the x direction and two parallel to the y direction. The shear strength Φs Vn at every
critical section must be sufficient to resist the corresponding acting shear force Vu . The shear strength
of a concrete section can be computed as follows
 p 
Vu ≤ φs Vc + 0.66 fc0 bw d (12)
!
p Nu
Vc = 0.17λ fc0 + bw d (13)
6A g
The acting shear force Vu at the critical sections is obtained by integrating the bearing pressure
over the corresponding area, as shown in Equations (14), (15) and Figure 4.

Zx2 Zy4
Vu,x1 = σ(x, y)dxdy (14)
x1 y1

Zx4 Zy4
Vu,x2 = σ(x, y)dxdy (15)
x3 y1
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 8 of 17
Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure Critical
Figure 4.4.Critical sections
sections for one-way
for one-way shear (perpendicular
shear (perpendicular to x direction):
to x direction): (a)(b)
(a) plan view; plan view;
elevation
(b) elevation
view. view.

Notice
Notice that
that only
only the
the critical
critical sections
sections andand shear
shear forces
forces perpendicular
perpendicular to the xx direction
to the direction are
are shown
shown
in (14), (15) and Figure 4. The critical sections perpendicular to y
in Equations (14), (15) and Figure 4. The critical sections perpendicular to y should also be checked in
Equations should also be checked in
aa similar
similar way.
way. The
The demand–capacity
demand–capacity ratio ratio (d/c) will be
(d/c)22 will be taken
taken as
as the
the maximum
maximum of of the
the four
four analyzed
analyzed
critical
critical sections.
sections.
(d/c)2 = Vu /(φs Vn ) (16)
( d / c )2 = Vu (φsVn )
Design check 3: Flexural resistance (section 8.5.2.1/22.3). The critical section for flexion is located
(16)

at theDesign
edge of check
the column. Similarresistance
3: Flexural to the one-way shear
(section check, for a The
8.5.2.1/22.3). rectangular
critical column
section there could be
for flexion is
four critical
located sections,
at the edge oftwo in each ofSimilar
the column. the orthogonal x and yshear
to the one-way directions. Theamoment
check, for capacity
rectangular columnΦf M n at
there
each
couldofbethe critical
four sections
critical must
sections, twobeinsufficient to resist
each of the the corresponding
orthogonal acting The
x and y directions. bending
momentmoment Mu .
capacity
The moment capacity of a concrete section can be computed as follows
ΦfMn at each of the critical sections must be sufficient to resist the corresponding acting bending
moment Mu. The moment capacity of a concrete section can be computed as follows
Mu ≤ φ f Mn (17)
Mu ≤ φf M n (17)
β1 c
!
M n = As f y d − (18)
2
 β1c 
M n = As f y  dA− f  (18)
c= 
s y2 
(19)
β1 · 0.85 fc0 bw

As f y 17 ≤ fc0 ≤ 27
c0.85
=

(19)


β 0.05
⋅ 0.85 0
f c′)bw 27 < fc0 < 55

( fc −28
β1 = 

0.85 −1 (20)

 7
fc0 ≥ 55

0.65

 0.85 17 ≤ f c′ ≤ 27
The acting bending moment  Mu at the critical sections is obtained by integrating the bearing
f c′ − 28) it with its lever arm to the critical section as
 area and
0.05(
β1 = 0.85 − multiplying
pressure over its corresponding 27 < f c′ < 55 (20)

shown in Equations (21), (22) and Figure 5. 7
 0.65
x y
f c′ ≥ 55
Z2Z4
The acting bending momentMM = the critical
u at
u,x1 σ(x, ysections
) · (x − x2is
)dxdy (21)
obtained by integrating the bearing
pressure over its corresponding area andx1multiplying
y1 it with its lever arm to the critical section as
shown in Equations (21), (22) and Figure 5.
Zx4 Zy4
x2 y 4
M = σ(x, y) · (x − x3 )dxdy (22)
=
M u , x1u,x2 
σ ( x, y ) ⋅ ( x − x2 ) dxdy
x y1
x1 y1 3
(21)
 Notice that only the critical sections and bending moments perpendicular to the x direction are
shown in Equations (21), (22) and Figure 5. Similarly, the critical sections perpendicular to y should
also be checked. The demand–capacity ratio (d/c)3 will be taken as the maximum of the four analyzed
critical sections.

Buildings 2020, 10, 110 ( d c )3 = M u (φ f M n ) 9(23)

of 17

Figure 5. 5.Critical
Figure Criticalsections
sectionsperpendicular to xx for
perpendicular to for flexural
flexuralresistance:
resistance:(a)(a) plan
plan view;
view; (b)(b) elevation
elevation view.
view.

Notice that
Design only
check the criticalorsections
4: Two-way punching andshear
bending moments
resistance perpendicular
(sections to the x direction
8.5.3.1.2/22.6.5.2). are
The critical
shown for
section in Equations
two-way or(21), (22) andshear
punching Figure 5. Similarly,
is the perimeterthe critical sections
b0 located perpendicular
at a distance d/2 from theto ycolumn.
should
also be checked. The demand–capacity ratio (d/c) will be taken as the maximum of the
The shear strength ΦsVn of this section must be 3sufficient to resist the acting shear force Vu that isfour analyzed
critical sections.
generated by the bearing pressure which produces a punching  stress near the column edges. The
(
punching shear strength Vn will be taken as thed/c ) = M u / φ f M n
3 minimum of three formulas, as shown below (23)

Design check 4: Two-way or punching shear resistance (sections 8.5.3.1.2/22.6.5.2). The critical

section for two-way or punching shear  is the perimeter b0 located at a distance d/2 from the column.
 must
The shear strength Φs V n of this section 0.33be f c′ b0 d to resist the acting shear force Vu that
λs λsufficient
is generated by the bearing pressure  which  produces
2 a punching stress near the column edges.

Vn V=nmin
The punching shear strength will be0.17 
taken 1 +
as the λ
 s λ
minimum f c′ b0ofd three formulas, as shown below
(24)
  β p
   0.33λ as d sλ fc p
0b d
0
 0.083
  2 + 2
 ss cf′cb0 b00dd
λ
λ λ f

Vn = min
 0.17 1 + (24)
    b0 βas d  p 0
0.083 2 + λ f b d
b0 s c 0

2 2
r
λs =λs = ≤1≤ 1 (25)
(25)
1 + 0.004 d
1 + 0.004d

40 40 interor
interior columns
columns

a = (26)
as = s30 30edge
edge columns
columns (26)
 20 corner columns
20 corner columns
The acting shear force Vu at the critical section is obtained by integrating the bearing pressure
over The acting shear force
its corresponding Vuthe
area to at the critical
critical section
section is obtained
as shown by integrating
in Equation the bearing
(28) and Figure 6. Thepressure
demand
over its corresponding area to the critical section
capacity ratio (d/c)4 is then computed as follows: as shown in Equation (28) and Figure 6. The demand
capacity ratio (d/c)4 is then computed as follows:
(d/c)4 = Vu /(φs Vn ) (27)

Zx4 Zy4 Zx3 Zy3

Vu = σ(x, y)dxdy − σ(x, y)dxdy (28)
x1 y1 x2 y2
 ( d / c )4 = Vu (φsVn ) (27)

x4 y 4 x3 y3

Buildings 2020, 10, 110

Vu =   σ ( x, y )dxdy −   σ ( x, y )dxdy
x1 y1 x2 y 2
(28)
10 of 17

Figure 6. Criticalzone
6. Critical zoneconsideration
considerationforfor two-way
two-way or or punching
punching shear.
shear.

4.2.
4.2.Additional
Additional Constraints
Constraints
Section
Section 22 described
described thethe optimization methodologyinina ageneral
optimization methodology generalform.
form. TheThe objective
objective andand
the the
demand–capacity ratio constraint functions are the core elements of the
demand–capacity ratio constraint functions are the core elements of the methodology. However, methodology. However,
some
somestructural
structural elements
elements maymay require
requireadditional
additionalconstraints
constraints toto ensure
ensure that
that meaningful
meaningful results
results willwill
bebeproduced
producedfromfrom the
the optimizer.
optimizer. In Inthethecase
caseofofrectangular
rectangularfootings,
footings, due
due to to
thethe bi-directional
bi-directional nature
nature
ofofthe
the design, an additional constraint has been defined to prevent the undesired characteristic of of
design, an additional constraint has been defined to prevent the undesired characteristic
having
havingone side several
one side severaltimes
times longer
longer than
than the the
otherother orthogonal
orthogonal side.characteristic
side. Such Such characteristic
could be could
more be
economical
more in terms
economical of material
in terms cost but
of material costnot
butpractical for construction
not practical purposes.
for construction To prevent
purposes. this, athis,
To prevent
a second
secondconstraint
constraintfunction
functiong(e) 2 is is
g(e) 2 introduced
introduced that limits
that thethe
limits dimensions
dimensions to atomaximum
a maximum long-to-short
long-to-short
sideratio
side ratiodenoted as ββmax
denoted as max..This
Thisadditional
additionalparameter
parameter can bebe
can easily modified
easily modified to allow for for
to allow anyanydesired
desired
ratiobefore
ratio beforerunning
running the
the optimizer.
optimizer.

max( L , L )
gg2 ((ee)) == max(Lx x , Lyy ) ==ββ≤≤ββmax (29) (29)
2 min(
minL(Lx x, ,LLyy))
max

4.3. Optimization Problem Definition Particularly for the Design of Rectangular Footings
4.3. Optimization Problem Definition Particularly for the Design of Rectangular Footings
Now that all the required equations and concepts were defined, the optimization problem can be
Now that all the required equations and concepts were defined, the optimization problem can
formally written.
be formally written.In this case,
In this there
case, there m=
areare m 2= materials
2 materialsandandthe
theobjective
objectivefunction
functionto
tobe
beminimized
minimized can
becan
written as as
be written
X2
f (e) = 2 v j c j (30)

f ( e ) = j=1v j c j
j =1
(30)
where c1 , c2 are the unit costs of concrete and steel, respectively, and v1 , v2 are the volumes of concrete
where
and c1, respectively,
steel, c2 are the unitthat
costscan
of concrete and steel,
be expressed as respectively, and v1, v2 are the volumes of concrete
and steel, respectively, that can be expressed as

v1v1==LxLLxyLty t (31)
(31)

v2 = Asx Lx + Asy L y (32)

= Afollowing
The two constraint functions arev2the sx Lx + Asy Ly (32)

4
X
g1 (e) = er j = 0 (33)
j=1

g2 (e) ≤ βmax (34)

Buildings 2020, 10, 110 11 of 17

5. Numerical Examples
Two numerical examples are examined in order to test the methodology and the efficiency of
the optimization procedure. Both dead and live loads are taken into consideration. The three load
combinations are presented in Table 2. The first design check corresponding to the soil capacity only
considers the service load combination while the other three design checks (one directional shear,
punching shear and flexural design) consider the ultimate load combinations U1 and U2.

Table 2. Load combinations used in the numerical examples.

Combination Dead Load Live Load

Service 1.0 1.0
U1 1.4 0
U2 1.2 1.6

The methodology has been implemented into a custom-made application specifically for the
design of rectangular RC footings, using the Java programming language. The applied GA is a
combination of self-coding and the use of the open source package MOEA Framework. The 3D
graphics are generated using the JavaFX package.
The population size of the GA is s = 100, while the tournament size is ts = 5. The algorithm stops
after the objective function has been evaluated MAXEVAL = 10,000 times. The parameter βmax having
to do with the maximum long-to-short length ratio described in Equation (34), is set to 1.5. The material
properties used in both examples are shown in Table 3. We did not use real monetary values for the
cost of concrete and steel, as these values may vary with time and the exact values are not important
for this study. What is important is the relative cost of concrete and steel. We assume that the cost of
steel is 15 times higher than the corresponding cost of concrete, in volume terms, which is a reasonable
assumption based on the current prices of the two materials in most European markets.

Table 3. Material properties and other parameters.

Parameter Value Unit Description

f0 c 35 MPa Concrete compressive strength
fy 410 MPa Steel reinforcement yield strength
qa 40 kPa Soil bearing capacity
c1 1 /m3 Concrete cost per m3
c2 15·c1 /m3 Steel cost per m3
γc 24 kN/m3 Volumetric weight of concrete
γs 78 kN/m3 Volumetric weight of steel
rc 5 cm Concrete cover

The design variables of the optimization problem are presented in Table 4 with their minimum
and maximum range. All variables are continuous, defined in the R domain.

Table 4. Design variables with their corresponding domains and ranges.

Design Variable Min Max

Lx (cm) 60 1500
Ly (cm) 60 1500
t (cm) 10 300
Asx (cm2 ) 1 1000
Asy (cm2 ) 1 1000
 Design Variable Min Max
Lx (cm) 60 1500
Ly (cm) 60 1500
t (cm) 10 300
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 12 of 17
Asx (cm2) 1 1000
Asy (cm2) 1 1000
5.1. Example 1: Rectangular Footing with Square Eccentric Column
5.1. Example 1: Rectangular Footing with Square Eccentric Column
The first example consists of the design of a rectangular footing with a column cross section of
50 × 50Thecm.
first example
The columnconsists of the design
has an eccentricity of cm
of 20 a rectangular footing
to the footing centerwith a x-direction.
in the column cross section
The loading of
50 × 50 cm. The column has
conditions are given in Table 5.an eccentricity of 20 cm to the footing center in the x-direction. The loading
conditions are given in Table 5.
Table 5. Example 1: Reaction forces in the column.
Table 5. Example 1: Reaction forces in the column.
Load Case F z (kN) M x (kN·m) M y (kN·m)
Load Case
Dead F−1500
z (kN) Mx (kN∙m)
0 My1500
(kN∙m)
× 0.20 = 300
LiveDead −1500
−850 0 0 1500∙0.20 300= 170
850 ×=0.20
Live −850 0 850∙0.20 = 170
The progression of the algorithm is shown in Figure 7. Each data point in the plot corresponds to
The progression of the algorithm is shown in Figure 7. Each data point in the plot corresponds
a feasible design computed during the algorithm execution. The x axis shows the number of function
to a feasible design computed during the algorithm execution. The x axis shows the number of
evaluations while the y axis shows the objective function value. Because of the population size (s = 100),
function evaluations while the y axis shows the objective function value. Because of the population
100 function evaluations correspond to one generation. In the first function evaluations, there is a high
size (s = 100), 100 function evaluations correspond to one generation. In the first function evaluations,
variance in the data points because at this stage the algorithm is exploring a large area of the search
there is a high variance in the data points because at this stage the algorithm is exploring a large area
space. As the algorithm progresses further, the selection operator prevents the solutions with a high
of the search space. As the algorithm progresses further, the selection operator prevents the solutions
objective value to pass to the next generations and the search space is greatly reduced in the direction
with a high objective value to pass to the next generations and the search space is greatly reduced in
of the global minimum. A plot of the standard deviation of the objective values of all the individuals
the direction of the global minimum. A plot of the standard deviation of the objective values of all
of each generation is presented in Figure 8.
the individuals of each generation is presented in Figure 8.

Buildings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWExample 1: Optimization algorithm progression.

Figure 13 of 17
Figure 7.
7. Example 1: Optimization algorithm progression.

Figure 8. Example 1: Standard deviation of the objective values of all the individuals at every generation.
Figure 8. Example 1: Standard deviation of the objective values of all the individuals at every generation.
The optimum design vector eopt and its corresponding objective value f(eopt) are shown in Table
6. The demand–capacity ratios of the optimum design vector achieved by the algorithm are shown
in Table 7, where an asterisk (*) denotes an active constraint. The first, third and fourth d/c constraints
appear to be active at the optimum, with values close to one. The β parameter takes a value of 1.4995
< 1.5 at the optimum, which also indicates an active constraint. Figure 9 shows the geometry of the
final design eopt and the contact pressure corresponding to the service load combination.
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 13 of 17
Figure 8. Example 1: Standard deviation of the objective values of all the individuals at every generation.

The optimum
The optimumdesign
designvector
vectoreeopt and
andits
itscorresponding
correspondingobjective
objectivevalue
value
f (ef(e opt) are shown in Table
opt opt ) are shown in Table 6.
6. The demand–capacity ratios of the optimum design vector achieved
The demand–capacity ratios of the optimum design vector achieved by the algorithm by the algorithm areare shown
shown in
in Table 7, where an asterisk (*) denotes an active constraint. The first, third and fourth
Table 7, where an asterisk (*) denotes an active constraint. The first, third and fourth d/c constraints d/c constraints
appear to
appear to be
beactive
activeatatthe
theoptimum,
optimum, with values
with close
values to one.
close The βThe
to one. parameter
β parametertakes takes
a valuea of 1.4995
value of
< 1.5 at the optimum, which also indicates an active constraint. Figure 9 shows
1.4995 < 1.5 at the optimum, which also indicates an active constraint. Figure 9 shows the geometry the geometry of the
of
final design eopt and the contact pressure corresponding to the service load combination.
the final design e and the contact pressure corresponding to the service load combination.
opt

Table 6. Example 1: Optimum design vector and its objective value.

Table 6. Example 1: Optimum design vector and its objective value.
Variable Value
Variable Value
Lx 348.8 cm
Lx 348.8 cm
Ly 233.8 cm
Ly 233.8 cm
t t 52.9
52.9cm
cm
Asx A sx 153.2
153.2cm
cm2 2
Asy Asy 122.9 cm2 2
122.9cm
f (eopt ) f(eopt) 5.547
5.547 ¤

Table 7. Example 1: Demand–capacity ratios corresponding to the optimum design vector.

Table 7. vector.

DesignCheck
Design Check d-c
d-c Ratio
Ratio Value
Value Active
Active
Soilbearing
Soil bearingcapacity
capacity (d/c)
(d/c)11 0.999
0.999 * *
One-wayshear
One-way shear (d/c)
(d/c)2 0.231
0.231
Punching
Punchingshear
shear (d/c)33
(d/c) 0.993
0.993 * *
Flexural resistance (d/c)4 0.962 *
Flexural resistance (d/c)4 0.962 *

Figure 9. Example 1: Geometry

9. Example Geometry and
and pressure
pressure distribution
distribution (service
(service combination)
combination) of the obtained
obtained
optimum design.

5.2. Example 2: Rectangular Footing with Rectangular Center Column

For the second test example, the optimum design of a rectangular footing with a rectangular
cross section of 50 × 80 cm is sought. The column has a reaction force of −1600 kN and −900 kN
corresponding to the dead and live load cases, respectively. In this example, there are no eccentricities
or moments acting on the column. Similarly, to the results presented in the previous example, the
progression of the algorithm is displayed in Figure 10.
The results are shown Tables 8 and 9. Again, three of the d/c ratios appear to be active as constraints
at the optimum, with values close to one. One the other hand, the β parameter takes a value of
1.23 < 1.5 at the optimum, which indicates that this constraint is not active at the optimum.
 5.2. Example 2: Rectangular Footing with Rectangular Center Column
For the second test example, the optimum design of a rectangular footing with a rectangular
cross section of 50 × 80 cm is sought. The column has a reaction force of −1600 kN and −900 kN
corresponding to the dead and live load cases, respectively. In this example, there are no eccentricities
Buildings 2020, 10,acting
or moments 110 14 of the
on the column. Similarly, to the results presented in the previous example, 17

progression of the algorithm is displayed in Figure 10.

Figure 10.Example
Figure10. Example2:2:Optimization
Optimizationalgorithm
algorithmprogression.
progression.
Table 8. Example 2: Optimum design vector and its objective value.
The results are shown Tables 8 and 9. Again, three of the d/c ratios appear to be active as
constraints at the optimum, with Variable Value
values close to one. One the other hand, the β parameter takes a
value of 1.23 < 1.5 at the optimum, which
Lx indicates that 213.9
this constraint
cm is not active at the optimum.
Ly 302.1 cm
t Optimum design vector
Table 8. Example 2: 49.1 and
cm its objective value.
Asx 106.1 cm2
AsyVariable 103.4 cm2
Value
f (eopt ) Lx 3.98
213.9 cm
Ly 302.1 cm
Table 9. Example 2: Demand–capacity
t ratios corresponding
49.1 cm to the optimum design vector.
Asx 106.1 cm2
Design Check d-c Ratio Value Active
Asy 103.4 cm2
Soil bearing capacity (d/c) 0.998 *
f(eopt) 1 3.98 ¤
One-way shear (d/c)2 0.212
Punching shear (d/c)3 0.999 *
TableFlexural
9. Example 2: Demand–capacity
resistance (d/c)ratios
4 corresponding
0.981 to the optimum* design vector.

Design check d–c ratio Value Active

In order to verify the results, the
Soil bearing capacity values of the
(d/c)1optimum design
0.998 vector are
* substituted back into
Equations (10) and (11),One-way
to compute
shear(d/c)1 . Due to the2 uniformity
(d/c) of the bearing pressure acting on the
0.212
soil, the shear forces and the bending
Punching shearmoments on the
(d/c) 3 critical sections
0.999 can be computed
* easily without
the need of numericalFlexural
integrations.
resistance (d/c)4 0.981 *

1600 + 900 + 80.21

σmax =
In order to verify the results, the values of the optimum design
= 399.29 kPavector are substituted back(35)into
2.139 · 3.021
Equations (10) and (11), to compute (d/c)1. Due to the uniformity of the bearing pressure acting on the
soil, the shear forces and the bending moments 399.29
on the critical sections can be computed easily without
(d/c)1 = = 0.998 < 1 (36)
the need of numerical integrations. 400
Note that the self-weight of the footing is included in the above calculation and it has a value of
80.21 kN. Similarly, using the optimum 1600 + 900 + 80.21
σ max = design vector and Equations
= 399.29(10),
kPa(24), (27), and (28), the (d/c)
(35)3
ratio is computed as follows 2.139 ⋅ 3.021
1600 · 1.2 + 900 · 1.6 + 80.21
σu = = 532.38 kPa (37)
2.139 · 3.021
Vu = 532.38 · 2.139 · 3.021 − 532.38 · 1.24 · 0.94 = 2819.65 kN (38)

b0 = (1.24 + 0.94) · 2 = 4.36 (39)

Buildings 2020, 10, 110 15 of 17

d = 0.491 − 0.05 = 0.441 (40)

√
Vn = 0.75 · 0.33 · 35 · 4.36 · 0.441 = 2815.36 kN (41)
2819.65
(d/c)3 = = 1.001 ≈ 1 (42)
2815.36
The values slightly differ with those found by the algorithm by a few decimals due to the rounding
operations done in the hand-calculations. The computer uses double precision variables and the real
value of (d/c)3 is in fact equal to 0.999 when all the decimals are considered.

5.3. Discussion of the Results

In both examples, the optimizer has achieved a demand–capacity ratio close to 1.0 for three out
of four design checks. This corroborates a successful implementation of the methodology as further
reduction of the cost would not be possible without exceeding the element capacity in at least one of
its design checks. The results show that the dimensions Lx and Ly of the slab are controlled by the
allowable soil pressure (d/c)1 , while the thickness is controlled by the punching shear (d/c)3 and the
flexural capacity (d/c)4 as shown in Equations (35) to (41). The optimum dimensions of the slab for
both examples exhibit a rectangular shape, this is due to the eccentricity present in example 1 and
the rectangular shape of the column in example 2. The second constraint related to the factor βmax in
Equation (29) is also active for example 2, this constraint is particularly useful when a certain shape is
required (i.e., forcing a square-shaped slab by setting βmax ≈ 1.0).
In terms of computational cost, the developed methodology shows high efficiency with a total
execution time for 10,000 function evaluations of only 4.8 s on a regular personal computer with a
i7-8550U 1.80 GHz CPU. The most computationally expensive operation is the numerical integration
required to obtain the total acting forces and moments. The developed algorithm could be additionally
optimized for faster computational speed, but this is not the main focus of this study.
The obtained optimum design for both examples is most likely to be a local minimum since the
design space appears to be highly non-convex. Two different executions of the algorithm with the
same parameters could lead to slightly different results, which is partly due to the stochastic nature of
the GA and partly because of the local minima in the design space. Therefore, achieving the global
minimum is a particularly challenging computational task and there is no guarantee that it will be
reached in the end. Nevertheless, the obtained design is always very close to the global optimum and
from an engineering point of view it is a well-suited solution to the problem.

6. Conclusions
A systematic methodology for optimizing the design of structural elements in terms of their
economical cost while satisfying all the safety and strength requirements imposed by the governing
building design code has been developed by means of a GA with elitism. The method was successfully
applied in two examples for the design of RC isolated footings in accordance with the ACI 318-19.
The input parameters include the dimensions and reactions of the column along with the strength of the
construction materials used. The design of the footing is checked to satisfy the ACI 318-19 requirements
for the allowable bearing pressure, one-way shear, punching shear, and flexural resistance. The results
in both examples shows that 3 out of 4 design checks are active with a demand–capacity ratio close to
1.0, which indicates that further reduction of the cost is probably not possible, and thus, confirms that
the obtained design is close to optimum in terms of the economic cost.
This study shows that OAs and in particular GA, can be practically applied to the design of
structural elements reducing the time and effort of the everyday-design routine of the engineer.
The main advantages of the methodology are highlighted as follows:

• High computational efficiency. The computational cost of the methodology is relatively low with
an execution time of only 4.8 s in the examined cases.
Buildings 2020, 10, 110 16 of 17

• Reduction of the design process time. The traditional design process of trial and error is replaced
by an automated design that finds the optimum dimensions quickly. This allows the engineer to
avoid repetitive design routines and focus on the big picture, the design control, and other more
important features of the overall design process.
• Simple implementation. While it is true that some expertise and coding abilities are necessary in
order to successfully implement OAs, this trend is rapidly changing with the development of more
user-friendly optimization commercial packages (i.e., MATLAB, MAPLE) that greatly reduce the
computational complexity. Therefore, the requirements for implementing the methodology for its
practical usage narrows down to the proper definition of the optimization problem itself, which
has been clearly presented in this study.
• More efficient usage of material. By minimizing the cost of a structural element with modern
optimization techniques, less material is used compared to the traditional trial-and-error methods
without compromising the required level of safety and reliability of the structure. The exact cost
reduction depends on the complexity of the design problem, but it can easily be in the order of
10%–20%. This is a remarkable achievement not only from an economical point of view, but also
in terms of the environmental impact. A more efficient usage of the construction materials can
significantly help to reduce the high carbon footprint of the construction industry.

7. Future Work
It is of great interest to expand and test the methodology for the design of more complex structural
elements such as reinforced concrete columns or shear walls. Having an optimum and automated
design routine of all the structural elements present in a building could open the possibility of obtaining
a cost-efficient structural design of the whole building in a very short time. This can have great
implications on the overall efficiency of the structural design process.
Although GA was successfully used in this study, the methodology can be easily adapted for its
use with other modern optimization algorithms such as particle swarm optimization [20], differential
evolution [21], and others. By doing so, a comparative study could be conducted to select the most
efficient algorithm for the examined optimization problem.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.S. and V.P.; methodology, G.S.; software, G.S.; validation, V.P.; formal
analysis, G.S. and V.P.; investigation, G.S. and V.P.; resources, G.S. and V.P.; data curation, G.S.; writing—original
draft preparation, G.S.; writing—review and editing, V.P.; visualization, G.S.; and supervision, V.P. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Plevris, V.; Tsiatas, G. Computational Structural Engineering: Past Achievements and Future Challenges.
Front. Built Environ. 2018, 4, 21. [CrossRef]
2. International Energy Agency; United Nations Environment Programme. 2019 Global Status Report for Buildings
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