Dynamic Modeling and Projection-Based Reduction Methods For Bladed Disks With Nonlinear Frictional and Intermittent Contact Interfaces

Applied Mechanics Reviews.
Received July 14, 2018;

Accepted manuscript posted March 08, 2019. doi:10.1115/1.4043083
Copyright (c) 2019 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0
Dynamic Modeling and Projection-Based

Reduction Methods for Bladed Disks with
Nonlinear Frictional and Intermittent Contact
Interfaces
d
Mainak Mitra
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ite
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
ed
Email: mitram@umich.edu
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Bogdan I. Epureanu∗
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Michigan
Co
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
Email: epureanu@umich.edu
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Turbine bladed disks or blisks, which constitute critical com- CDF Cumulative distribution function
ponents of most modern turbomachinery, are known for their CMM Component mode mistuning
complex vibratory behavior. The nonlinear dynamics ob- DoF(s) Degree(s) of freedom
rip
served in most operational regimes of blisk with contact in- EO Engine order
terfaces are dominated by one of two typical contact behav- EOM(s) Equation(s) of motion
iors. Frictional contacts are dominated by Coulomb friction FE Finite element
sc
forces, while intermittent contacts are characterized by mul- FMM Fundamental model of mistuning
tiple separation events. Other factors such as the dispersion HBM Harmonic balance method
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in material or geometric properties across blades, known as HFT Hybrid frequency-time

mistuning, also affect the dynamics significantly. Presently, JP Jacobian projection
probabilistic analysis is the widely accepted design method- NNM(s) Nonlinear normal mode(s)
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ology to account for mistuning, which is unknown prior to ND(s) Nodal diameter(s)
manufacture. Thus, reduced order modeling of these blisks is PLM(s) Piecewise linear mode(s)
essential as high fidelity models are prohibitively expensive POD Proper orthogonal decomposition
for such simulations. This paper provides a technical dis- POM(s) Proper orthogonal mode(s)
ed
cussion of dynamic modeling and reviews projection-based PROM(s) Parametric reduced order models
techniques used for creation of reduced models of blisks with ROM(s) Reduced order model(s)
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contacts. SD Static deflection

SNM Subset of nominal modes
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SVD Singular value decomposition

Nomenclature
Abbreviations Accents
Ac
AF(s) Amplification factor(s) ¯ Quantity in frequency domain

AFT Alternating frequency-time ˙ Single time derivative
AMM Asymptotic model of mistuning ¨ Double time derivative
AMP(s) Adaptive microslip projection (modes) ˆ Estimate
BAA Bilinear amplitude approximation ˜ Constrained quantity
BC(s) Boundary condition(s)
BLM(s) Bilinear mode(s) Symbols
CB-CMS Craig-Bampton component mode synthesis A Additional projected stiffness mistuning matrix
C Damping matrix
D Dynamic stiffness matrix
∗ Address all correspondence to this author.
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Applied Mechanics Reviews. Received July 14, 2018;
Copyright (c)
e 2019 by ASME;
Column reuse
of complex license
Fourier CC-BY 4.0
matrix AMP Reduction using adaptive microslip projection
EO Engine order B Variable for degrees of freedom in matrix partition
E Complex Fourier matrix BLM Reduction using bilinear modes
f Force vector cm Coarse mesh
|F| Amplitude of excitation force C Contact
g Vector of generalized forces in reduced domain CB Craig-Bampton component mode synthesis
h Harmonic index number DOM Dominant modes
H Receptance matrix for nonlinear degrees of freedom eq Equivalent single harmonic quantity
i Square root of -1 E Excitation
k, k Nodal contact stiffness value and vector of contact f Free system
stiffnesses f m Fine mesh
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K Stiffness matrix g Gross slip system
l Vector of generalized forces in reduced domain gen Generating matrix
ite
M Mass matrix H High surface sector degrees of freedom
n Sector or blade index L Low surface sector degrees of freedom
ed
ND Number of nodal diameters i Index for contact node-pair number
N, N Scalar and vector of normal contact force(s) at single I Interior sector degrees of freedom
or multiple node-pairs j General index or integer
py
p Spatial harmonic l Local contact coordinate system
p Vector of displacements in generalized reduced L Linear degrees of freedom
coordinates max Maximum value
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q Vector of displacements in physical or higher order min Minimum value
coordinates M Master degrees of freedom
Q Matrix of collated displacements in time domain N Nonlinear degrees of freedom
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R Rotation matrix o Tuned system quantity
s Vector of displacements in generalized reduced O Non-contact degrees of freedom
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coordinates PLM Reduction using piecewise linear modes
S Sector PS Prestress
t Time r Relative coordinate system
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T, T Scalar and vector of tangential contact force(s) at ROM Reduced order model
single or multiple node-pairs s Full Stick system
u Relative tangential displacement of node-pair S Slave degrees of freedom
sc
v Relative normal displacement of node-pair S1 Contacting surface 1 degrees of freedom

w Slip at node-pair S2 Contacting surface 2 degrees of freedom
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α Estimated scalar modal amplitude t Transition between systems

β Sector angle x, y, z Local tangential and normal degrees of freedom
∆ Change in quantity 0 Static quantity
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η Vector of displacements in generalized reduced

coordinates Superscripts
γ, Γ Structural damping value and matrix H Complex conjugate transpose of a matrix
θ , Θ Individual modes and matrix of proper orthogonal h Harmonic index number
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modes S Sector level matrix

λ, Λ Eigenvalues and diagonal matrix of eigenvalues T Transpose of a matrix
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µ Coefficient of friction
Σ Sum
φ , Φ Single mode and matrix of modes 1 Introduction
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ψ , Ψ Single mode and matrix of modes Bladed disks, also alternatively called blisks or rotors,
ω Circular frequency of excitation which constitute the compressor and turbine stages of all tur-
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Ω Rotational speed bomachinery experience high thermal and cyclic structural

≈ Approximated as stresses during their operation, which involves extremely
◦ Hadamard/Schur product for entry-wise multiplication high rotational speeds. As a consequence, a significant thrust
of matrices of research in the field of turbomachinery has been dedicated
⊗ Kronecker product of matrices to understanding, quantifying and modeling the dynamic be-
ℜ Real part of a complex number havior of bladed disks with the aim of accounting for their
inherently harsh operating conditions and producing reliable
Subscripts and robust designs. Early studies into the subject during the
a Physical global coordinate system 1960’s and 1970’s involved quantifying the (linear) mass,
A Variable for degrees of freedom in matrix partition stiffness and damping characteristics of the blisks employing

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With the4.0
improvement in dampers have been employed to provide additional damp-
modeling techniques and computational capabilities, these ing. Nonlinearities can also occur unintentionally such as
simplistic models were replaced by high fidelity finite ele- cracks or defects in blades. Modeling these nonlinear effects
ment (FE) models, which became the standard for industry is paramount to achieve accurate estimates of responses and
by the mid 1990’s- early 2000’s [3]. Although a single linear stresses in blisks. The earliest attempts at modeling non-
analysis for even a large FE model, which often contains mil- linear contacts in blisks involved approximating the nonlin-
lions of degrees of freedom (DoFs), can be performed within ear forces using lumped parameters [33, 34] at every sec-
a reasonable period of time typically on the order of hours or tor. The research focus then shifted to modeling complex
days with current computational speeds, the multiple analy- localized behavior of frictional forces [35, 36]. Iwan models
ses that need to be carried out during the design procedure which were initially developed for modeling hysteretic be-
makes a design approach based only on such high fidelity havior under constant unidirectional normal load have been
d
simulations cumbersome. As a result, the development of employed extensively to model certain types of interfaces
reduced order models (ROMs) of blisks, which allow faster [37–40]. Later, models which predict the local frictional
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simulations for accurate response predictions, emerged as an forces under different regimes of stick, slip and separation
important research area in the field. under varying periodic normal loads were proposed [41–44].
ed
The most obvious reduction one may apply to any blisk To model nonlinear Coulomb friction accurately, a number
model is based on its property of cyclic symmetry. If any of these models must be used at every contact interface to
sector of the blisk is considered to be geometrically and ma- calculate the local values of normal and tangential frictional
py
terially identical to any another, the DoFs of the blisk dy- forces from the local relative displacements. Moreover, to
namic may be reduced by a factor of the number of blades find steady state solutions, the friction forces over the en-
by the application of suitable constraints. However, it is well tire period must be calculated iteratively until convergence
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known that even small differences which exist between dif- is achieved. These additional calculations greatly increase
ferent sectors in practice due to manufacturing tolerances, the computational effort required to predict forced responses
collectively called mistuning, can have significant effects on for blisks with frictional interfaces. The computational cost
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blisk response amplitudes [4–14]. Mistuning may be small associated also increases sharply with the number of non-
when the variability in parameters between the sectors does linear degrees of freedom. Practically, simulation times for
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not significantly affect the modes of the structure, or large calculation of the steady state forced response of a high fi-
when the response of the mistuned blisk in a certain fre- delity blisk model with nonlinearities at single frequency us-
quency range cannot be captured by a set of nominally cyclic ing time marching or transient dynamic analysis are in the
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symmetric or tuned modes whose natural frequencies lie in order of days or weeks, even with modern computational
the corresponding range. Thus, the phenomenon of mistun- hardware. Hence, reduction in the dynamic simulation times
ing limits the applicability of a cyclic symmetric model to is essential to make computational predictions feasible for
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approximately determining the natural frequencies of a sys- nonlinear blisks.

tem with small mistuning. The response amplification which Reductions in calculations were initially obtained in the
occurs due to mistuning also necessitates the use of proba- time domain by using well-known general approaches to
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bilistic analyses [15, 16] in the design of blisks. These anal- nonlinear differential equation solving such as the harmonic
yses account for uncertainties associated with the values of balance method (HBM) [45–47]. HBM converts the nonlin-
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mistuning parameters such as material stiffness and density, ear differential equations in the time domain associated with
which cannot be exactly specified in the design as they are the blisk dynamics into algebraic equations in the frequency
subject to manufacturing uncertainties. domain associated with periodic harmonics of the response.
ROMs are indispensable for Monte-Carlo (MC) type Reductions in calculations are obtained by retaining a finite
ed
probabilistic analyses, which require multiple runs of differ- number of harmonics for calculating the solution. The con-
ent mistuning patterns applied to the same underlying tuned version to the frequency domain entails a complication due to
system. The effects of mistuning were studied widely, and the nonlinear forcing functions in the time domain equations
pt
a number of different ROMs were proposed for linear mis- which appear as functions of displacements at the interfaces.
tuned blisks. These include modifications of general linear In general, it is not possible to find a closed form expres-
ce
reduction methods such as Craig-Bampton component mode sion for the equivalent harmonic nonlinear forcing functions
synthesis (CB-CMS) [17–22], as well as more specialized which must appear in the frequency domain HBM equations.
Ac
techniques developed especially for blisks such as subset of To address this issue, an alternating frequency-time tech-
normal modes (SNM) [23], fundamental model of mistuning nique (AFT) [48,49] was proposed, to numerically obtain the
(FMM) [24], component mode mistuning (CMM) [25–27] harmonic nonlinear forces by calculating them in the time
and asymptotic model of mistuning (AMM) [28–30]. Alter- domain as functions of displacements and converting them
natives for linear systems with parametric variations include back into the frequency domain by using Fourier and inverse
parametric reduced order models (PROMs) [31, 32]. Fourier transforms. Calculation of the forced frequency re-
However, not all blisks are designed to behave linearly. sponses for nonlinear blisk using HBM and AFT has become
In fact, nonlinearities are often introduced into blisk design standard practice in the field [50–60].
to lower resonant responses and stresses. Traditionally, fric- Due to the local nature of the forces which act only
tion interfaces on shrouds, under-platform dampers or ring at contact interfaces, it is possible to obtain further reduc-

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have used CC-BY
linear 4.0 techniques
reduction based methods and other, more advanced methods referred
to obtain spatial reductions at the non-contact linear DoFs to as hyper-reduction [85–89] is the computational power re-
only [46, 52, 61, 62]. However, these techniques retain all the quired to calculate the nonlinear responses from which the
nonlinear DoFs from the original models and must perform POMs are calculated. Even with the associated computa-
associated HBM and AFT simulations, which contribute to tional cost, POMs may be feasible for creating ROMs of
the majority of the calculation costs. Another perspective on specific, well-understood systems which are not expected to
understanding the response of nonlinear systems is the for- change their dynamic behavior between instances and appli-
mulation of nonlinear normal modes (NNMs) [63–67] which cations. However, they remain a weak choice for systems
are nonlinear synchronous motions of the system where the like blisks where fundamental uncertainties of mistuning and
motion of a single DoF of a system can describe the motion associated probabilistic calculations would require that non-
along all other DoFs. Unlike linear modes of a system, these linear simulations be performed every time the model is
d
modes are energy dependent and change with the level of ac- changed slightly. There also exist other projection-based
tivation and consequently with response frequency [68, 69]. methods which obtain reductions by capturing the physics
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The calculation of these modes is no easier than calculat- of the dynamic problem at hand. While such ROMs may not
ing the nonlinear response itself. In fact, HBM is commonly be as broadly applicable to different structures and nonlin-
ed
used to calculate these modes for large and complex systems earities (as POMs are), they serve well for the specific appli-
such as nonlinear blisks [68, 69]. Since the concepts of su- cation they are designed for.
perposition and (linear) orthogonality do not generally apply One of the early methods pertinent to blisks with inter-
py
for NNMs [68, 70], model reduction by using a reduced or- mittent contact or cracks, is based on ideas of bilinear modes
der basis of NNMs is not an option. Instead, researchers have (BLMs) representing the dynamics of localized piece-wise
sought to find invariant manifold descriptions [66, 70–73] of linear systems [90–92]. BLMs are linear normal modes for
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these NNMs to reduce the nonlinear dynamics. In the past, the system with special boundary conditions (BCs) at the sur-
such methods have been applied to simple models with rel- face where the intermittent contact takes place. In [91] it was
atively few DoFs [70]. Reduction of the dynamics of large shown that BLMs are able to capture the nonlinear dynam-
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models such as blisks with complex friction nonlinearities ics of a cracked plate with intermittent contact by approx-
using NNMs is quite challenging due to high computational imating the dominant POMs calculated from the nonlinear
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costs and remains a field of active research [74, 75]. response. The concept of BLMs was extended in [93] to di-
More commonly for such nonlinear systems, researchers rectly calculate amplitudes of the periodic nonlinear steady
have used other methods to calculate a linear basis which ap- state response at resonant frequencies using modes similar to
rip
proximately spans the nonlinear motion space and projected BLMs. This method is referred to as bilinear amplitude ap-
both the linear and nonlinear dynamics onto that basis to ob- proximation (BAA), and is considerably faster than the BLM
tain ROMs. One method to obtain such a basis is to aug- ROMs used in [91]. BAA was used to construct ROMs for
sc
ment a basis obtained from a linear system with other basis blisks in [94] also. More recently, in [92], BLMs were used
vectors. These other vectors might be obtained using deriva- to reduce a cracked plate model where the effects of fric-
tives of the original basis vectors with respect to parameters tional forces and contact prestresses were also considered.
nu
[31, 32, 76]. Such system parameters may affect the system In [95], ROMs were developed using piecewise linear modes
dynamics nonlinearly. Commonly this nonlinear parameter (PLMs) which are normal modes of the piecewise linear sys-
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is the input amplitude of the system, in which case the addi- tems which approximate the instantaneous structural dynam-
tional basis vectors perform a function similar to describing ics of the nonlinear system.
functions in control theory [77] where a nonlinear system is Another important operational regime for nonlinear
approximated by a linear one which changes with amplitude. blisks, especially with friction damping mechanisms is mi-
ed
A similar approach is an equivalent linearization [78] of the croslip [35, 36, 44, 46, 80, 96–99]. A structure in microslip is
nonlinear system where nonlinear terms in the dynamics may dominated by frictional effects and exhibits complex stick-
be estimated by equivalent linear terms. Equivalent lineariza- slip behavior at contact interfaces both spatially and tempo-
pt
tion type techniques may also be used to find additional rally. ROMs for blisks with ring dampers were presented
vectors to augment projection bases [79]. Extending these in [62] where a reduction basis comprised of linear modes
ce
ideas, many approaches for the formulation of projection- of the damper in full stick and gross slip were used. The
based ROMs discussed here involve the combination of basis same reduction basis was used in [79], which achieved fur-
Ac
vectors or modes of linear systems which closely represent ther simplification of the dynamics by approximating equiva-
the physics of the nonlinear system in some specific/selected lent single harmonic modal damping and stiffness parameters
operational regime. Note that projection-based ROMs thus for the nonlinear forces using an energy equivalence calcula-
formulated may be numerically ill-conditioned due to linear tion. The dynamics of a shrouded blisk is significantly differ-
dependency between vectors. Consequently, intelligent trun- ent from the afore-mentioned structures with cracks or from
cation and conditioning of the basis is often carried out using blisks with ring dampers. Unlike in cracked structures, fric-
methods such as singular value decomposition [80, 81]. tion plays a more dominant role in shrouded blisks. More-
Many popular ROMs use proper orthogonal modes over, due to the contacts at the shrouds being in proximity
(POMs) [82–84] as a projection basis to estimate the span of the blade tip, there is a significant effect of the frictional
of the nonlinear response. The main drawback of such POM forces on the blisk response to such an extent, that the nonlin-

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ear2019 by ASME;
displacements noreuse
longerlicense
lie on CC-BY 4.0 spanned by
the subspace The high and the low nodes are usually matched in a
the linear modes corresponding to stick and slip. A ROM for cyclic symmetric model such that one set may be obtained
such shrouded blisks was developed in [80] using an adap- from the other by rotation about the axis of the blisk by an
tive microslip projection (AMP) basis which can span the amount equal to the sector angle β = 2π/nmax . The stiffness
required subspace by approximating the spatial correlations matrix for any sector Sn with free BCs at high and low nodes
exhibited by the system. The AMPs are obtained from modes is in cylindrical coordinates for all n, and may be represented
of intermediate linear systems corresponding to special BCs as:
at the contact interfaces by using concepts similar to those
used for PLMs. An evolution of the AMP method, devel-  
oped especially for applications to nonlinear systems with KLL KLI KLH
dominant multi-harmonic dynamics, called the Jacobian pro- KS =  KIL KII KIH  (1)
KHL KHI KHH
d
jection (JP) method was presented recently also [100].
The focus of this paper is to review the techniques
ite
and the concepts of projection-based reduction methods for
where subscript L refers to low DoFs, subscript I refers to
blisks with frictional or intermittent contacts. To facilitate
interior DoFs, and subscript H refers to high DoFs. Since all
ed
the discussion of projection based ROMs, a technical and
the operations applied to the system matrices in this discus-
theoretical background in the dynamics of blisks relevant to
sion are similar, only the operations applied to the stiffness
the topic is provided first. The nuances of the dynamics of
py
matrix are shown. The matrices corresponding to mass and
nominally cyclic symmetric structures and the effects of mis-
damping will have similar forms. The full blisk is formed
tuning are discussed in greater detail. A brief mathematical
by merging the interface DoFs of adjacent sectors as shown
Co
overview of HBM and AFT is used to impart a more concrete
in Fig. 2. This is equivalent to the addition of stiffnesses at
understanding of the nonlinear blisk dynamics and provide a
interfaces.
rigorous framework for formulating the reduction problem
using projection bases. This is followed by a discussion of
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contact nonlinearities and their behavior in different regimes
of operation, supplemented by a brief description of popu-
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larly used contact models from literature and their applica-
bility in capturing the physics of these nonlinear effects. Fi-
nally, an in-depth technical discussion and review of projec-
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tion based reduced order models for blisks are provided.

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2 Nominal cyclic symmetry in linear blisk dynamics

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2.1 Cyclic coordinates

A cyclic symmetric blisk or tuned blisk is comprised of
nmax materially and geometrically identical contiguous sec-
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tors Sn (n = 1, 2, . . . , nmax ). Each sector contains interior

Fig. 2. Schematic and finite element full blisk models
DoFs which are not shared with other sectors, as well as high
and low interface DoFs which are shared with the adjacent
sectors as shown in Fig. 1.
ed
The corresponding full system stiffness matrix K is

pt
given by:
ce
···
K KIH 0 0 0 0 KIL

II
K K +K K KLH 0 ··· 0 KHL
 0HI HHKIL LL KLIII KIH 0 ··· ··· 0
Ac

KHI KHH +KLL KLI ···
 0 KHL 0 0

 
K= 0
 .. .. .. .. .. ..  (2)

 0 . . . . . . 
 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . . . . 
0 0 0 0 0 ··· KII KIH
KLI KLH 0 0 0 ··· KHI KHH +KLL
where, 0’s represent a matrix of zero elements of the appro-

priate size which depends on the number of nodes and the
Fig. 1. Schematic and finite element sector models DoFs per node. It may be be observed that K may also be

Copyright (c) 2019as:
written by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0 decomposition in the spatial domain for each cyclic symmet-
ric nodal DoF across the sectors. Sub-matrices K̃ p along the

Kgen,1 Kgen,2 Kgen,3 · · · Kgen,nmax
 diagonal in Eq. (5) are given by:
Kgen,nmax Kgen,1 Kgen,2 · · · Kgen,nmax −1 
K= (3)
 
.. .. .. .. ..  nmax
 . . . . . 
K̃ p = ∑ Kgen,n ei(n−1)(p−1)β
Kgen,2 Kgen,3 Kgen,4 · · · Kgen,1
n=1
KIH +KIL e−i(p−1)β
h i
KII
= (7)
Kgen,n are called generating matrices of K and are given by: KHI +KLI e i(p−1)β KHH +KLL +KLH ei(p−1)β +KHL e−i(p−1)β
KII

KIH

0 0
A more physical understanding of what these cyclic matri-
d
Kgen,1 = ; Kgen,2 = ces K̃ p represent may be obtained by studying an alternative
KHI KHH + KLL KLI KLH
ite
derivation for them. One may apply constraints between the
00 0 KIL nodal DoFs of matching nodes on low and high surfaces of
Kgen,j = ; (j = 3, 4..., nmax − 1); Kgen,nmax =
00 0 KHL the free sector [53] described by:
ed
(4)
p p
q̃L = q̃H e−ipβ (8)
A matrix with this special structure is called a block circu-
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lant matrix. The symmetries associated with the geometric
structure of the blisk, which are reflected in the mathematical where q represents a displacement vector, and ˜ represents its
Co
interpretation of its block circulant system matrices, make constrained nature. Eq. (8) also illustrates why pβ is some-
it conducive to mathematical treatment using group theory. times referred to as the interblade phase angle [19], as it is
A comprehensive mathematical theory for circulant matrices similar to imposing a phase difference between the complex
was first developed in [101]. An recent summary of this the- displacements of the high and low nodal DoFs in a traveling
ot
ory as applied to blisk dynamics may be found in [102]. An wave. The transformation between the free and constrained
especially convenient special property of these block circu- nodal DoFs may be expressed by a matrix T p as follows:
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lant matrices is that they may be block diagonalized using
the transformation matrix (E ⊗ I) as follows:
0 Ie−ipβ
   
qL p
q̃
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 qI  = T p pI ; T p =  I 0  (9)
 1
K̃ 0 ··· 0
 q̃H
qH 0 I
. .. 
K̃2 ..

0 . 
sc
(E ⊗ I)H K(E ⊗ I) = 
 . .. . .

.. 
 .. . . .  Then, the stiffness matrix in cyclic coordinates K̃ p of Eq. (7)
0 · · · · · · K̃nmax may be recovered by applying the transformation matrix T p
nu
in Eq. (9) to the free sector stiffness matrix KS in Eq. (1) as

= BDiag(K̃ p+1 ) ; p = 0, 1, · · · , nmax − 1 (5) follows:
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where BDiag(.) represents an operator, which constructs a

K̃ p = T pH KS T p (10)
block diagonal matrix from its arguments of smaller matri-
ces. I is the identity matrix of the appropriate size, super-
ed
script H represents the complex conjugate transpose (or Her- 2.2 Natural frequencies and modes of a tuned blisk
mitian) of the matrix, and the symbol ⊗ refers to the direct The block diagonalization in Eq. (5) decouples the tuned
(or Kronecker) product of two matrices. K̃ p are the blisk full blisk system into smaller independent systems whose
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stiffness matrices corresponding to the pth spatial harmonic sizes are of the order of a single sector model and are ob-
in cyclic coordinates. E is the complex Fourier matrix de- tained by applying constraints in Eq. (8) on the sector model
ce
fined as: with free high and low nodes. As the transformation in
Eq. (5) is linear, the generalized eigenvalues of the stiffness
Ac
··· and mass matrices in cyclic coordinates K̃ p and M̃ p are the

1 1 1 1

1 eiβ e2iβ ··· e(nmax −1)iβ
1  1 e2iβ e4iβ ··· e2(nmax −1)iβ
 same as the generalized eigenvalues of the full system ma-
E= √ 
nmax  .. .. .. ..
.
..  trices K and M. Note that these smaller systems are not
. . . . approximations and together comprise an exact description
1 e(nmax −1)iβ e2(nmax −1)iβ ··· e(nmax −1)(nmax −1)iβ
(6) of the full linear tuned blisk since the spatial Fourier basis
where i is the square root of -1. The transformation in Eq. (5) used in the projections of these transformations spans the full
is referred to as the transformation to cyclic coordinates. The space. Hence, the natural frequencies of the full system may
term eiβ seen in Eq. (6) is the nth
max primitive root of unity and be obtained by nmax smaller sector-level eigenvalue problems
the complex Fourier matrix is composed of its integral pow- as opposed to solving it for the coupled matrices of the full
ers. The effect of the transformation in Eq. (5) is a Fourier blisk which is much more expensive computationally.

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these specific license CC-BY 4.0 symmetric
of a cyclic in the frequency versus nodal diameter plot where two fam-
system, the natural frequencies and modes also exhibit cer- ilies veer away from each other, such as the one shown in
tain unique characteristics. The modes of the full blisk may Fig. 3, are characterized by disk-blade interactions as well as
be obtained from the modes calculated from the cyclic matri- contributions from multiple blade modes.
ces by using the transformation E ⊗ I. As the modes are sub-
ject to constraints of Eq. (8), the corresponding full blisk ex-
pansions display regular patterns corresponding to the num-
ber of spatial harmonics corresponding to p. Each mode has
a specific number of diameters along which the nodal dis-
placements are zero known as nodal diameters (ND) of that
mode. Sometimes, the number of NDs exhibited by a mode
d
is also referred to as the harmonic index.
One may also observe that the powers of the nth max root
ite
of unity also have the property ei(nmax −p)β = e−ipβ . An ex-
amination of Eqs. (7) and (8) in light of this property shows
that the cyclic matrices K̃ p and K̃(nmax −p) may be formulated
ed
by applying the same constraints except that the high and
low nodes are reversed in definition. However, the eigenval-
py
ues yielded by both these matrices will be the same. Conse- Fig. 3. Frequency vs. number of nodal diameters
quently, tuned blisks have repeated natural frequencies cor-
responding to all K̃ p except p = 0 (and p = nmax /2 if nmax
Co
is even). The corresponding modes for repeated eigenvalues
contain the same number of NDs and have similar spatial
patterns, differing only in circumferential position. These
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mode-pairs are also called forward and backward traveling
modes [23, 24, 102]. The backward traveling modes cor-
tN
respond to values of p higher than the maximum number
of NDs (nmax /2 or (nmax − 1)/2 for blisks with even and
odd nmax respectively). Hence, as per the theory of Fourier
rip
transforms, an alternative but consistent nomenclature may

be used, where these backward traveling modes may be as-
cribed negative spatial harmonic number based on the equiv-
sc
alent negative phase value yielded by the powers of nth max root
of unity higher than the maximum number of NDs.
The natural frequencies for tuned blisks are often ar- Fig. 4. ND 1 mode-pair
nu
ranged in plots such as the one shown in Fig. 3 where the

natural frequencies are plotted against the number of NDs
Ma
exhibited by the corresponding modes. Figure 3 shows such

a plot for a blisk with 24 sectors which has modes with up
to a maximum of 12 NDs. The natural frequencies are repre-
sented by circle markers. There are 2 modes corresponding
ed
to every natural frequency except for modes with ND 0 or 12.

The horizontal lines connecting these frequencies are known
as modal families with the family of lowest frequencies be-
pt
ing the first family, the next one the second family, and so
on. Figures 4 and 5 show typical mode-pairs correspond-
ce
ing to ND 1 and ND 8 respectively. Within a family, there

exist some flat or nearly horizontal regions of high modal
Ac
density where the natural frequencies are very close to each

other. For conventional blisk designs, these usually occur for
modes with higher NDs which are dominated by displace- Fig. 5. ND 8 mode-pair
ments at the blade, such as the ND 8 pair in Fig. 5. Hence,
these are known as blade-dominant modes. The modes in
these flat regions of each family, may thus be approximated
by applying the cyclic transformation to a single mode of the
cantilevered blade. Modes with lower number of NDs such 2.3 Linear dynamics of a tuned blisk
as the ND 1 pair in Fig. 4, where the families are not flat The NDs of the modes are important also in the con-
have significant displacement at the disk DoFs. The regions text of the typical excitation patterns encountered by blisks

Copyright (c) 2019 by ASME;
in operation. reuse license
The internal CC-BY
structures 4.0 compressors
of axial where ¯ represents complex quantities in the frequency do-
or turbines comprise of alternating stators and rotors. Since main, ω is the frequency of excitation, D is the dynamic stiff-
the fluid encounters a stator prior to the rotating blisk, the ness matrix, and C is the linear damping matrix commonly
pressure wave encountered by the blades of the blisk have a obtained by assuming proportional or structural damping. In
dominant spatial harmonic pattern related to the number of the frequency domain, the excitation vector f̄E is a spatial
blades in the stator. While studying the dynamics of the blisk harmonic pattern, and is populated at the excitation DoFs
computationally, an equivalent dynamic problem is consid- by complex numbers with amplitudes |F| and phases corre-
ered for convenience. The problem is analyzed from the per- sponding to θE . Applying the cyclic transformation, one may
spective of the rotating frame of reference, where the blisk decompose the system into smaller systems as before and the
is stationary and the pressure wave is rotating [4, 103, 104]. excitation vector is transformed as follows:
Such a rotating wavefront, called a traveling wave excitation,
d
is conceptually illustrated in Fig. 6. When a traveling wave p
−ω M̃ + iωC̃ p + K̃ p q̄˜ = ˜f̄E
2 p p
has a single spatial harmonic component, it is referred to as
ite
p
q̄˜ = (e p ⊗ I)q̄ ; ˜f̄ = (e p ⊗ I)H f̄
p
an engine order (EO) type excitation where the EO is equal E E (13)
to the dominant spatial harmonic of the traveling wave. To
ed
capture and study the effects of such excitation in simulation,
it is often sufficient to apply discrete time varying forces at where e p is the pth column of the complex Fourier matrix
certain nodal locations (commonly the blade tips) as shown E. For EO type excitation, only the spatial excitation com-
p
ponent ˜f̄E corresponding to the number of harmonics in the
py
in Fig. 6. This excitation fE at sector n at time t may be
expressed as: traveling wave will be non-zero. Hence, only the reduced
cyclic sub-system corresponding to those harmonics need to
Co
be simulated to obtain the response. In general, any mode-
2πEO(n − 1)
fE (t, n) = |F|cos ωt + (11) pair of the blisk may only be excited by a forcing with the
nmax same EO as its ND and by higher EO= jnmax ±ND where j
ot
is any integer. Hence, not only are significant computational
where |F| is the excitation force amplitude. Note that ω = savings obtained in the simulation of linear tuned blisks by
ΩEO, where Ω is the rotational speed of the blisk. using the cyclic reduction, but in most cases the dynamics
tN
may be captured by simulating only one or two of these sub-
systems corresponding to the expected EO excitation.
rip
3 Mistuning and its consequences

sc
3.1 Mistuned modes and responses

Mistuning occurs when there is a variability across the
sectors of the blisk in a parameter which affects its dynam-
nu
ics. Variations in different material properties such as mass,

stiffness and damping as well as in geometry across sectors
Ma
have been studied in literature [4, 5, 8–14, 27, 105–107]. The

consequence is that the sector-level system matrices are non-
identical across sectors. The mistuned stiffness matrices for
the free sector and full blisk may be represented as:
ed
KSn = KSo + ∆KSn ; K = Ko + ∆K ; ∆K = BDiag(∆KSn ) (14)

pt
Fig. 6. Traveling wave excitation with EO 5. Excitation is

where the subscript o represents a tuned matrix or mode,
ce
applied as a spatially distributed loads on blades around the

∆KSn is the mistuning stiffness component at sector n, and
blisk which vary circumferentially as given by Eq. (11).
∆K is the change in stiffness due to mistuning for the entire
Ac
blisk. The transformation to cyclic coordinates do not yield

an exact block-diagonal structure as in Eq. (5). Instead one
Designers are interested in the studying the dynamics obtains:
of the blisk for long-term steady state operation which leads
to high cycle fatigue. Hence, the steady state frequency re-
sponses of blisk are calculated using the dynamic equation of (E ⊗ I)H K(E ⊗ I) = BDiag(K̃op ) + (E ⊗ I)H ∆K(E ⊗ I) (15)
motion (EOM) in the frequency domain, which is expressed
as: The projection of mistuning onto cyclic coordinates is a full
matrix in general. Hence, the mistuned systems may not
Dq̄ = f̄E ; D = −ω2 M + iωC + K

(12) be decomposed perfectly. The modes of a mistuned blisk

Copyright (c)
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do not ASME;perfect
reuse license CC-BY
ND patterns 4.0
in general, and mul- cal upper bounds for AF when mistuning is introduced in
tiple modes will respond to an EO excitation even in a rel- a linear blisk [9, 28, 110]. However, these limits are con-
atively narrow frequency range spanning an isolated mode servative, do not convey information regarding the specific
family. Figure 7 shows such typical frequency responses of a patterns which lead to the highest AFs, and are of limited
tuned blisk and a mistuned blisk with small stiffness mistun- use for operational designs. Currently, the industry standard
ing. The maximum normalized amplitude response across when designing for mistuning, is to investigate thousands of
all the blades is plotted. In the tuned blisk response, only randomly generated patterns applied to a specific nominal
modes with the corresponding ND respond to the EO excita- tuned design, and conduct probabilistic analyses at different
tion. The response amplitudes of all the blades are identical, levels of mistuning [4, 15, 16, 111, 112].
differing only in phase. Hence, the maximum response am- However, any prediction of the AF requires solving the
plitude across all blades is the same as the response of any mistuned blisk dynamics. Industrial FE models which typi-
d
given blade. The frequency of the single peak is close to cally contain millions of DoFs per sector, are cumbersome
the natural frequency of the responding mode-pair. In the for such analyses. Hence, the use of ROMs becomes es-
ite
mistuned blisk response, multiple modes respond, each with sential. Mistuned ROMs may also be useful in other sce-
a different natural frequency. The modal displacements at narios where repeated simulations of blisks are necessary,
ed
each blade are also non-identical for these mistuned modes. such as mistuning identification from blisk response mea-
Hence, different blades respond differently as per the mis- surements [27, 113–116], optimizing intentional mistuning
tuned modal contributions and multiple peak frequencies oc- patterns in blades [3, 14, 109], deciding mistuned damper
py
cur corresponding to when each blade responds the most. arrangements [117, 118], or detecting abnormalities in the
structure such as cracks [119, 120].
Co
3.2 Dynamic reduction and probabilistic analyses
Several ROMs of gradually increasing sophistication
have been developed for predicting linear dynamics of ROMs
ot
with small mistuning in the blades. One of the earliest meth-
ods is based on the observation that the mistuned modes in
tN
a given frequency range may be a linear combination of the
tuned modes of the families in that region Φ o . Hence, the
dynamics of any mistuned blisk may be projected onto this
rip
subset of nominal modes (SNM) to obtain the model reduc-

tion [23]. The projection basis is formulated by collating
tuned modes which can be calculated in cyclic coordinates
sc
Fig. 7. Tuned vs. mistuned response for an EO excitation and expanded based on their corresponding spatial harmonic
p using the cyclic transformation as follows:
nu
p
In most cases, the maximum response amplitude over Φ o = [· · · (e p ⊗ I)φ̃φo · · · ] (16)
Ma
all blades across frequencies also increases when mistuning

is added. The ratio of this maximum response of a mis- p
where φ̃φo is a tuned mode in cyclic coordinates. It then be-
tuned blisk to that of a tuned blisk for identical excitations
comes possible to project the additional mistuned matrices
is called the amplification factor (AF). This amplification in
onto the modal coordinates. For instance, the stiffness ma-
ed
response introduces an element of uncertainty in the analy-

trix undergoes the transformation as follows:
sis because the level (the variance across blades or sectors),
pattern and source (material or geometric) of mistuning are
pt
unknown at the design stage. The amplification may be un- ΦH Φo = Φ H

o KΦ o (Ko + ∆K)Φ
Φo = Λ o + A;
derstood as a strain energy localization phenomenon [1, 4],
Λo = ΦH H
ce
o Ko Φ o ; A = Φ o ∆KΦ
Φo (17)
and is dependent on the energy transfer between sectors due
to interconnectivity between the blades through the disk. It
Ac
is due to this reason that the veering region dominated by where Λ o is a diagonal vector of eigenvalues corresponding
modes with blade-disk interaction are most sensitive to mis- to the selected tuned modes.
tuning. Note that sensitivity does not necessarily imply am- The fundamental model of mistuning (FMM), devel-
plification of the response when a specific mistuning pat- oped in [24] is an extension of the SNM projection shown
tern is present, but there is a high likelihood of encountering in Eq. (17). In the FMM procedure, the choice of nominal
some amplification. Different blade stiffness patterns with modes is limited to a single family. The projected matrix
the same variance, may exhibit drastically different AFs. In of mistuned parameters A is not diagonal in general. How-
fact, sometimes intentional mistuning patterns are introduced ever, its values may be determined using sector level calcu-
into design to ensure small AFs [3, 14, 106, 108, 109]. Sev- lation exploiting the tuned cyclic modes in Eq. (16) and sec-
eral studies have been conducted to calculate the theoreti- tor level mistuning components shown in Eq. (14). FMM

Copyright (c) 2019uses
further by ASME; reuse license
the approximation thatCC-BY 4.0 modes in flat
the tuned Eq. (20), it follows that the constraint modes may be deter-
blade-dominant regions, may be generated from cantilevered mined using the equation:
blade modes. FMM calculates the projected mistuning com-
ponents as functions of blade alone frequencies and the av-
ΨCB = −K−1
SS KSM (21)
erage of system frequencies in the flat-region for fast ROM
formulation directly in the reduced space. However, FMM
ROMs are only accurate for analysis near flat isolated fam- The normal modes are the linear modes of the system ob-
ilies. The asymptotic model of mistuning (AMM) [28–30] tained by completely constraining all the master DoFs, and
generalizes the concept, and extends the applicability FMM can be determined as the solution to the eigenvalue problem:
by relaxing assumptions regarding dominance of blade mo-
tion in the tuned system modes, seeking to instead approxi-
KSS ΦCB = MSS ΦCB Λ SS (22)
d
mate which tuned modes actively contribute the most to the
mistuning components assuming small mistuning and damp-
ite
ing in the modes. where MSS represents the mass matrix, and Λ SS represents
Other studies have used variants of the Craig- a diagonal matrix containing eigenvalues of the constrained
ed
Bampton component mode synthesis (CB-CMS) [17, 18] system. Further details regarding coupling of sub-structures
sub-structuring approach to generate mistuned blisk ROMs may be found in [17]. Representations of the CB-CMS re-
[16,19,20,22,25,121–123]. In CB-CMS a system is first par- duction modes and reduced matrices may also be obtained
py
titioned into sub-structures, which are individually reduced directly in cyclic coordinates [19,22,112,124] offering com-
and then coupled to each other to obtain a reduced formu- putational savings.
lation of the system. The whole system may be treated as CB-CMS which uses constrained interface modes, is
Co
a single structure in which case the second coupling step is only one of the popular methods amongst the many differ-
not necessary. For each substructure, the DoFs of the system ent flavors of available sub-structuring methods [125–128].
and consequently the system matrices may be partitioned as Other methods use free interface modes or a combination of
ot
follows: both free and constrained interface modes [124].
One of the more general techniques developed for mis-

tN
qM KMM KMS tuned blisk reduction based on CB-CMS, is known as com-
q= ;K= (18)
qS KSM KSS ponent mode mistuning (CMM) [25–27]. CMM employs a
sub-structuring approach where the change in the tuned sys-
rip
where subscript M refers to the master DoFs, subscript S tem due to mistuning is treated as an additional component
refers to the slave DoFs, and subscripts MM, MS, SM or SS to the tuned system. The dynamics of the system are then
represent a matrix partition based on the master-slave parti- formulated using DoFs corresponding to a subset of normal
sc
tion of the displacement vector. In CB-CMS reduction [17], modes of the tuned system and constraint modes of the mis-
the master nodes are retained unchanged while applying a tuning component. In its most general formulation, CMM
can be applied to both small and large mistuning. However,
nu
reduction to the slave DoFs to reduce them to some gener-

alized DoFs η S corresponding to a set of slave modes. The since it is known from SNM studies that small mistuning at
reduction is represented as follows: the blades may be captured using tuned normal modes only,
Ma
a more specialized formulation of CMM ignores the addi-

qM I 0

qM tional reduced DoFs corresponding to the attachment modes
qCB = = (19) for such cases. The second major assumption in CMM is
ηS ΨCB ΦCB qS
that small mistuning at the blades may be captured by pro-
ed
jection onto a set of nominal cantilevered blade modes. The

where the subscript CB represents quantities related to CB- CMM ROM is formulated by projecting the blade mistuning
CMS reduction. qCB are the set of reduced CB-CMS coordi- onto tuned cantilevered blade modes and further projecting
pt
nates, qM are displacements of master DoFs retained in the onto the set of system modes (which may or may not in-
CB-CMS reduction, η S are reduced modal coordinates cor- clude attachment modes) by employing modal participation
ce
responding to a set of slave modes. ΨCB is a matrix whose factors which can be obtained using sector level calculations
columns are referred to as constraint or attachment modes and cyclic expansions. Mistuning parameters are expressed
and ΦCB is a matrix whose columns are called the normal
Ac
directly in the reduced space, and the participation factors

or slave modes of the system. The constraint modes are ob- need only be calculated once for a given nominal system.
tained by applying a unit displacement to the master DoFs This allows for fast generation of CMM ROMs for new mis-
individually. Hence, they must satisfy the relation: tuning patterns without any involved calculations with larger
models.
KMM KMS I f Another alternative perspective to ROM generation for
= M (20)
KSM KSS ΨCB 0 linear mistuned blisk was provided in [129] which focuses on
the calculation of the inverse of the mistuned dynamic stiff-
where fM is the force applied at the master DoFs to enforce ness matrix (D in Eq. (12)) using a series expansion repre-
the constraints. Simplifying the second row of the matrix sentation. Specific methods also exist for creating ROMs for

Copyright (c) 2019
large by ASME;
mistuning reuse
effects license
where the CC-BY
mistuned4.0
modes may no
longer be captured by the tuned modes [5, 10, 34, 130–133].
These cases usually arise due to large differences in geom-
etry across structures for example due to missing material.
Such ROMs require the development of specific modal bases
which can capture the dynamics.
Any of these ROMs may be used to carry out probabilis-
tic analyses by generating mistuned models randomly and
using Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations. The AFs for each ran-
domly generated pattern may be obtained statistically. Worst
case AFs are especially of interest and usually a high per-
centile such as the 95th percentile in the distribution of AF
d
values for any given level of mistuning is used as a bench- Fig. 8. Comparison between the cumulative distribution
ite
mark for design. MC simulations can only provide estimates function (CDF) of amplification factors (AFs). Monte-Carlo
of the percentile values of the actual distribution. As AFs are distribution obtained from 1,000 cases and 20 Weibull fits to
ed
obtained for more cases with randomly generated mistuning different sets of 50 cases (a case refers to an instance of a
patterns, the distribution of simulated AFs approaches the ac- randomly generated mistuning pattern).
tual distribution, and the accuracy of the percentile estimates
py
calculated from them increases. However, for reasonable es-
timates of high percentiles such as the 95th percentile, sim-
ulation of many cases (about 1000) may be required. It was
Co
shown in [19] that since the forced vibration response of mis-
tuned linear blisks are bounded [9, 28, 110], the distribution
of the AFs approaches a 3-parameter Weibull distribution.
ot
Hence, another estimate of the distribution may be obtained
by fitting AFs from a relatively few cases (around 50-100) to
tN
a Weibull distribution. Figure 8 shows a comparison between
the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the MC distri-
bution obtained from 1000 cases and Weibull fits to different
rip
sets of 50 cases. It is seen that these estimated CDFs are

quite accurate and can be used to generate estimates of the
percentile values for different levels of mistuning requiring Fig. 9. Variation of amplification factor with mistuning
level. Circles represent individual cases of mistuning
sc
fewer simulations for each mistuning level. Figure 9 shows

such an analysis, where the circle markers represent the AFs patterns. Lines represent percentile values.
for each individual simulation of response calculation of a
nu
blisk with randomly generated stiffness mistuning. For many

blisk designs, the AF percentiles first increase and then de- techniques. The penalty method uses an explicit penalty
Ma
crease as the standard deviation (mistuning level) increases, stiffness to penalize penetration between the contacting sur-
giving rise to a local maxima [19]. This plot allows the deter- faces [136]. Another approach is the Lagrange multiplier
mination of worst-case mistuning standard deviations where method, where terms containing extra DoFs representing
the blisk responses are likely to show highest amplification the contact forces are added to the dynamic equations and
ed
over the nominal case, and stresses in the structure are likely simultaneous solution of the dynamics and constraints en-
to be highest. This information may then aid engineers to sures near-zero penetration [137, 138]. An augmented La-
design with adequate safety margins to ensure operational grange method contains concepts from both these methods
pt
robustness. and uses a penalty stiffness as well as a Lagrange multi-

plier [139, 140]. For contact modeling in blisks, it is desir-
ce
able to strike a balance between accurately capturing dom-

4 Simulation methods for blisks with nonlinearities inant effects of contact interactions which are pertinent to
Ac
4.1 Contact Modeling blisk dynamics and maintaining feasible simulation times.
Contact is a very complex phenomenon, and its mod- The modeling method currently preferred for nonlinear blisk
eling has developed into an entire branch of mechanics. simulations [11, 46, 50, 52, 61, 80, 124, 141–149] is a penalty-
Interaction between contacting surfaces may even require based method which involves using arrays of local contacts
scrutiny at nanoscale resolution [134]. These interactions on every surface and approximating the contact effects on
are highly localized and depend on a number of factors small regions around each location. For convenience, the lo-
such as the size and shape of local surface features and cal contact may be described between nodes at the contact
asperities, local material properties and ambient conditions surfaces of FE models, as it is easier to obtain the responses
[135]. Contacts in FE models are usually modeled as time- of these nodes during calculations.
varying constraints which may be imposed using different Two types of such node-to-node contact models, which

Copyright (c)
have2019 bycommonly
been ASME; reuse
used license
in bliskCC-BY 4.0 are shown in
simulations by:
Fig. 10. These contact models calculate the normal and tan-
gential contact forces as a function of relative displacements 
 kx,i (ux,i − wx,i ) stick
between the nodes at any instance of time. Tx,i = sign(ẇx,i )µNi slip (24)
0 separation

where µ is the coefficient of friction, kx,i is the appropriate

tangential contact stiffness, and ux,i is the tangential relative
displacement between the two contact nodes. wx,i is known
as the slip in the tangential direction and describes the po-
sition of the free end of the tangential contact stiffness rela-
d
tive to one of the nodes, as shown in Fig. 10. The model is
ite
said to be in stick when wx,i remains constant and the spring
is allowed to change length, and in slip otherwise. wx,i is
an internal variable whose value is unknown at the begin-
ed
ning of simulation. The values of wx,i and consequently all
tangential contact forces, are usually determined by running
Fig. 10. 1D and 2D contact models
py
the model multiple times and obtaining convergence of the
values over a pre-determined time period. When not in sep-
aration, the state of the model is determined by the rate of
Co
change of wx,i . The Coulomb force friction limit µNi may
The 2D contact model [41, 150–153] is so named as it not be exceeded by the tangential force Tx,i for any tangential
calculates the force vector in the tangential direction as com- spring deformation, thereby leading to motion of the free end
ponents along two orthogonal directions. Sometimes, this of the tangential stiffness and slip. During slip, wx,i changes
ot
may also be referred to as a 3D model in the literature refer- so that the tangential force limit is maintained. Similar equa-
ring to the consideration of all three orthonormal direction tions for the independent 1D model along the orthogonal tan-
tN
[41, 147]. While this is the more accurate model [46, 147], gential direction yl in Fig. 10 may be obtained by replacing
many studies use two separate 1D contact models in orthogo- subscripts x with y.
nal directions to independently estimate the tangential forces The 2D model calculations differ from Eq. (24) only
rip
in those directions [42, 43, 50, 80, 141, 154]. It has been during the slip state [147]. The difference between 1D and
shown that this strategy can obtain accurate estimates of the 2D models during the stick state arises from the manner in
contact forces (while offering significant computational time which the Coulomb friction limit of µNi is enforced on the
sc
savings) if the relative motion at the interface is aligned with tangential force. In the 2D model the limit
the tangential direction of one of the independent 1D models q applies to the vec-
tor sum of the tangential forces Ti = T2x,i + T2y,i which is
nu
during most of the cycle [46,147]. For both models, penetra-

tion is allowed, and the normal contact force is proportional constrained
q to be parallel to the tangential slip velocity vec-
to the magnitude of penetration when there is contact (i.e., in tor ẇi = ẇ2x,i + ẇ2y,i . For 1D models, the same force limit is
Ma
the stick or slip conditions) between the surfaces. The nor- applied independently to the tangential forces along two or-
mal force is zero when there is separation. The normal force thogonal directions, which results in good accuracy when the
Ni at the ith at node-pair, along the local normal direction zl tangential motion is aligned with either one of the 1D mod-
as shown in Fig. 10 may be obtained as follows: els, and low accuracy otherwise [147, 155]. The tangential
ed
force components in the 2D model may be given by:

Ni = max (kz,i vi , 0) (23)
pt
k (u − wx,i ) stick

 x,i ẇx,ix,i

Tx,i = qẇ2 +ẇ2 µNi slip (25)
ce
where kz,i is the normal contact stiffness, and vi is the normal 

 x,i y,i
relative displacement between the nodes, assumed negative 0 separation

Ac
when there is no penetration between the two surfaces. Ni

may vary with time, and includes any prestresses due to con- Ty,i may be calculated similarly. Although subtle, the differ-
stant normal loads. Prestress loads lead to a constant com- ences in between Eqs. (24) and (25) have major implications
ponent of vi . An initial gap may also be modeled where the in terms of computational time, especially when applied to
initial value of vi is negative. blisk models [147]. Instead of the independent convergence
The tangential contact forces Tx,i at any point in time of a single slip variable, the 2D model requires simultaneous
may be calculated based on the current contact state at the convergence of two dependent slip variables under the con-
node-pair which can be described by one of three distinct straint established by the tangential force direction. There
cases: stick, slip or separation. For the 1D model, these re- is only one contact state shared across the two orthogonal di-
lationships in the tangential direction xl in Fig. 10 are given rections at any given point in time for the 2D model, whereas

Copyright (c)
they2019
mayby
beASME;
differentreuse
in thelicense CC-BY
1D model. The4.0
transition times
between contact states may also be different for the two mod-
els depending on the dynamics being analyzed.
Different aspects of contact modeling are emphasized
for different dynamic behaviors. For intermittent contacts,
the small magnitudes of tangential forces which are en-
countered during motion are often completely ignored [91,
93, 124]. In most operational regimes, contacts surfaces
in blisks are designed with high preloads, and the system
generally does not encounter separation at any of the node-
pairs [46, 80]. Both the 1D and 2D models represent ap-
d
proximations of reality, and as such both experimental meth-
ods [156–158] and modeling techniques [159] have been de-
ite
veloped to fit these models for contact behavior between sur-
faces with known materials, sizes and finishes by estimat-
ed
ing contact parameters (contact stiffnesses and coefficient of
friction). Fig. 11. Absolute and relative coordinates
py
4.2 Relative coordinates qL = [qS1,l qO ]T are the linear DoFs, where T represents a
For a blisk with contact nonlinearities, the vector of dis- matrix or vector transpose. The transformation may be ap-
Co
placements in absolute (global) physical coordinates is given plied to corresponding physical system matrices. The dy-
by: namic EOM for a blisk with contact in the time domain in
relative coordinates may be expressed as:
ot
 
qS1,a
q = qS2,a  (26) M f q̈r + C f q̇r + K f qr = fE + fC (qr ) (28)
tN
qO
where M f , C f , K f are the mass, damping and stiffness ma-
where subscripts S1 and S2 correspond to the two contact- trices of the (free) system where no contact conditions have
rip
ing surfaces such as the ones shown in Fig. 11. Subscript been enforced, expressed in relative coordinates. fE is the
a refers to the representation of a quantity in physical abso- vector of excitation forces usually an EO excitation. fC is the
lute coordinates (such as the Cartesian or cylindrical coordi- vector of contact forces.
sc
nate system of the FE model). The nonlinear contact forces

will be non-zero along DoFs qS1,a and qS2,a , while they will 4.3 Harmonic balance
nu
have zero values along the other DoFs corresponding to qO . Equation (28) may be simulated in the time domain us-
The DoFs along which the nonlinear forces act are known as ing time marching techniques [148,162,163]. However, such
nonlinear DoFs and the computational cost of solving the dy- calculations require multiple expensive simulations at differ-
Ma
namics of the blisk increases greatly as their number grows. ent excitation frequencies. When steady state solutions are
desired, much of the computational effort is wasted is simu-
A critical observation which may be made here is that lating transients due to initial conditions in such time march-
the forces at the contact are all functions of relative displace- ing procedures. Consequently, the problem is recast by mak-
ed
ment at the contact [160, 161] and not the absolute displace- ing the assumption that the desired steady state solution is
ments of the contacting DoFs. Hence, one may transform periodic and may be expressed as a sum of finite number of
pt
the vector of absolute global displacements at contacts in q temporal harmonics h as follows:

in Eq. (26) to the local relative coordinates [130, 160] such
ce
that: hmax
      qr = ∑ℜ q̄hr eihωt ;
qS1,a 0 R0 qS2,l − qS1,l h=0
Ac
q = qS2,a  = R R 0 qr ; qr =  qS1,l  (27) hmax

qO 0 0 I qO fE = ∑ℜ f̄hE eihωt ;
h=0
hmax
where l refers to the local coordinates corresponding to each fC = ∑ ℜ f̄Ch eihωt (29)
contact interface as shown in Fig. 11, and R is the rotation h=0
matrix required for transformation from local to global co-
ordinates. In these relative coordinates, the nonlinear forces where ℜ(.) represents the real part of a complex quantity,
will act only along the DoFs qN = qS2,l − qS1,l . Hence, the and hmax is the highest harmonic number retained in the ap-
number of nonlinear DoFs is halved. The rest of the DoFs proximation. Substituting Eq. (29) into Eq. (28) and equating

Copyright (c)
the2019 by ASME;
coefficients reuse
of the license
linearly CC-BY 4.0
independent harmonic func-
tions eihωt one may obtain:
Dh q̄hr = f̄hE + f̄Ch ;

Dh = −(hω)2 M f + (ihω)C f + K f

(30)
This procedure is called the harmonic balance method

(HBM) [46,50,52] and yields a set of coupled nonlinear alge-
braic equations which describe the nonlinear blisk dynamics
in the frequency domain. The coupling among harmonics
occurs due to the nonlinear contact force vector f̄Ch which is a
d
function of the displacements in time, and hence contributes
ite
to multiple harmonics in the nonlinear EOM. The excitation
usually only has non-zero components corresponding to pre-
stress f̄0E which does not vary with time, and a periodic ex-
ed
Fig. 12. Alternating frequency-time procedure. Fourier
citation f̄1E with a fixed frequency ω. When the excitation is (FFT) and inverse Fourier (IFFT) transforms are used to
applied at a higher harmonic h (instead of h = 1), the HBM- alternate between frequency and time domains to allow the
py
based solution can capture integral sub-harmonic responses. calculation of nonlinear quantities such as frictional forces
The nonlinear algebraic equations in Eq. (30) may be in the time-domain while solving the dynamics in the
solved using optimization algorithms which minimize its
Co
frequency domain.
residual. Most commonly, iterative gradient-based optimiza-
tion techniques such as trust-region based algorithms are em-
ployed. Although the gradients of the residual with respect to ation methods possess the advantage of having variable fre-
ot
the harmonics of the displacements may be approximated nu- quency steps which do not need to be pre-specified by the
merically using finite differences, such calculations increase user, possessing an in-built logic for non-convergence situ-
tN
the solution times by orders of magnitude and are infeasible ations and not requiring multiple restarts when the system
for solutions of large systems. Hence, it is often necessary dynamics has multiple solutions at the same frequency.
to provide the analytical gradients of the residuals to the al-
rip
gorithm [46, 50, 164]. The contact forces fC are described as

functions of displacements in time by most contact models. 4.4 Nonlinear responses
Since it is impossible to predict the switching times between Figure 13 shows different types of contact interfaces in
sc
multiple contact states in most scenarios, obtaining a general a blisk which may lead to nonlinear behavior. While fir-
analytical expression for the nonlinear contact force harmon- tree joints (which join the blades to the disk) with improper
ics f̄Ch as a function of the harmonic displacements q̄hr is also fits or cracked blades [119, 120, 124, 160, 165] result in in-
nu
not possible. Hence, most simulations employ an alternating termittent contacts, frictional damping mechanisms such as
frequency time (AFT) or hybrid frequency time (HFT) pro- shrouds [11, 50, 74, 80, 144, 147, 166, 167], under-platform
[96,142,155,168–171] or ring dampers [5,62,68,79,146] op-
Ma
cedure [48, 49] as shown in Fig. 12. During each iteration of

the solver, the relative local displacements in the frequency erate in the microslip regime (spatially and temporally vary-
domain are extracted from the estimated displacement vec- ing stick and slip conditions in a contact region).
tor q̄hr at that step. These are then converted into local dis-
ed
placements in the time domain using an inverse fast Fourier

transform (IFFT), and they are used to calculate the local
temporal contact forces. A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is
pt
then used to recover the Fourier coefficients of these forces

which are then used to construct the nonlinear force vector
ce
in the frequency domain f̄Ch for various harmonics. A similar

procedure is also used to obtain the derivatives of the Fourier
Ac
coefficients of the contact forces with respect to the Fourier

coefficients of the displacements at each iteration step, which
are then used to formulate the gradients of the residuals ana- Fig. 13. Nonlinear contacts in a blisk [79, 80, 120]
lytically.
In some practical applications, continuation methods
[46] are employed, where the dynamic EOMs are augmented Intermittent contact and microslip result in markedly
with the solution frequency ω. A predictor-corrector method distinct dynamic behavior of the blisk. Their effects are most
is used to solve the augmented system while following the re- dominant close to different frequency ranges correspond-
sponse frequency curve. In this case, similar gradient-based ing to different linear conditions. Assuming that all contact
optimization is still required for the corrector step. Continu- node-pairs at all interfaces have the same contact condition at

Copyright (c)
all 2019
timesby
in ASME; reuse
the period, license
three CC-BY
distinct linear4.0
blisk conditions
may be obtained. One of these is full stick, which corre-
sponds to all the contact node-pairs being in the stick con-
dition. Full stick is therefore equivalent to enforcing linear
stiffnesses in the local normal and tangential directions at
all contact node-pairs. Another condition called gross slip,
which is characterized by a constant friction force, is mod-
eled by enforcing linear contact stiffnesses only in the local
normal directions and leaving the tangential direction free.
The third condition is that of the free linear blisk with no
contacts being enforced, and the interfaces being free to sep-
d
arate from or penetrate into each other. In a frequency range
Fig. 15. Typical nonlinear response of a structure with
dominated by an isolated mode, the frequency responses of
ite
intermittent contacts. The response of a cracked plate is
a tuned blisk in these three distinct conditions resemble the
shown. Details can be found in [173].
schematic in Fig. 14.
ed
vent separation, and hence peak nonlinear response frequen-
py
cies usually occur between the full stick and gross slip res-
onances. Ignoring separation, the dynamics in microslip de-
pends on the coefficient of friction µ, the excitation ampli-
Co
tude, and the normal preload. Consequently, at the system
level, nonlinear microslip behavior may be approximately
predicted by the non-dimensional parameter ρ = µ|N0 |/|F|
where |N0 | = ∑i N0,i = ∑i kz,i v0i is the sum of normal con-
ot
tact preloads at all the interfaces, and |F| is the amplitude of
excitation. As ρ decreases, the conditions at the interfaces
tN
become more conducive to slip, leading to more localized
contact regions entering slip condition for longer fractions of
the cycle period. This increase in the microslip level is re-
rip
flected in the frequency response. As the energy dissipation

at the contact increases, there is a decrease in the normalized
response amplitude. There is also a reduction in the peak fre-
sc
Fig. 14. Linear contact conditions

quency. Intuitively this is due to an effective decrease in the
interface stiffness caused by the increased time spent in the
nu
Intermittent contacts represent nonlinear conditions, slip state by a larger part of the contact surface. Energy dis-
usually encountered during low preloading or high exci- sipation due to friction at full stick is theoretically zero. The
energy dissipated per cycle at large gross slip is proportional
Ma
tations, where local interface regions come in and out of

contact and hence exhibit responses in frequencies between to the amplitude of motion. In contrast, the energy dissipated
those corresponding to the free and gross slip conditions. per cycle in viscous damping is proportional to the square of
Typical frequency responses for a dynamical system with in- the amplitude of motion, i.e. it increases much faster with
ed
termittent contacts is shown in Fig. 15. At excitation fre- the amplitude of motion. Thus, both the case of stick and the
quencies far from the peak linear frequencies, the nonlinear- case of large gross slip do not lead to the maximum energy
ities are not activated significantly, and the contacts are ei- dissipation per cycle. The maximum energy dissipation and
pt
ther free or in gross slip throughout the cycle. Consequently, minimum normalized response occurs in a microslip state
the structure exhibits a near linear response in these ranges. between the two linear states [141, 154, 155]. Eventually
ce
Near (linear) resonant frequencies, the contact exhibits com- as the microslip level increases, the optimum level of fric-
plex behavior with localized regions of alternating slip and tional damping is achieved where the normalized response is
minimum at the desired DoF. If the value of ρ is further de-
Ac
separation conditions, and the frequency response may de-

viate significantly from the linear behavior. For large ex- creased, the amount of energy dissipated per cycle decreases
citation amplitudes, multiple response amplitudes may also and the normalized response starts increasing until the gross
occur for the same excitation conditions corresponding to slip condition is reached.
multiple equilibria of the nonlinear dynamics [50, 143, 172],
indicated by bends in the frequency response, as shown in
Fig. 15. 5 Projection based reduced order models
Frequency responses for a structure with microslip con- 5.1 Spatial reduction by projection
tacts is shown in Fig. 16. Most commonly, these contacts Projection based ROMs seek a reduction basis Φ ROM
are designed to operate under normal preloads which pre- which captures the dominant spatial correlations in the dy-

Copyright (c) 2019 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0 Using Eqs. (33)- (35) it is possible to describe the dynamics
of the system only in terms of the nonlinear reduced DoFs as
follows:
HhROM s̄hN = ḡhE,L + Φ TROM,N f̄hE,N + Φ TROM,N f̄C,N

h
;
−1
HhROM = DhNN,ROM DhNL,ROM DhLL,ROM DhLN,ROM ;
−1
ḡhE,L = −DhNL,ROM DhLL,ROM Φ TROM,L f̄hE,L (36)
Any relevant linear reduction technique, such as those dis-
d
Fig. 16. Typical nonlinear response of structure with cussed in section 3.2 may be applied to obtain the linear re-
ite
microslip contacts. The response of a blisk with ring duction basis Φ ROM,L [125–128]. Before the advent of meth-
damper is shown. Details may be found in [79]. ods for reduction of the nonlinear DoFs, CB-CMS was com-
monly used by many researchers as a method of reducing
ed
only the linear DoFs in the nonlinear blisk model. For such
namics and can therefore be used to project them into the
reductions, the nonlinear DoFs are retained as master DoFs,
reduced generalized DoFs p such that:
py
and linear DoFs are reduced as slave DoFs [46, 50]. Some-
times, reductions may also be applied sequentially, by car-
qr ≈ Φ ROM p (31) rying out only the reduction of the linear coordinates first
Co
and then applying reduction again to nonlinear and reduced
Applying the reduction in Eq. (31) to the frequency domain linear DoFs [80, 92]. Alternatively, some methods apply re-
dynamics obatined using HBM in Eq. (30), one may obtain: ductions to the frequency response function matrices which
describe the relationship between nonlinear force and re-
ot
sponse [149]. The rest of section 5 is dedicated to the dis-
DhROM p̄h = Φ TROM f̄hE + Φ TROM f̄Ch ;
cussion of methods to formulate a nonlinear reduction basis
tN
DhROM = Φ TROM Dh Φ ROM (32) where Φ ROM,N in Eq. (34) or the nonlinear portion of Φ ROM
in Eq. (31) are not identity matrices. Such reduction bases
Many ROMs use the formulation in Eq. (32) where both lin- may be obtained by augmenting linear reduction bases with
rip
ear and nonlinear DoFs are reduced simultaneously by pro- modal derivatives to capture the effect of nonlinearity on the
jection after the formulation of the nonlinear tions. Alter- linear modes [174–176]. However, this strategy can be com-
putationally expensive and the number of reduction modes
sc
natively, it is possible to employ separate reductions for the

linear and nonlinear DoFs. The matrix equation in Eq. (30) yielded might be quite large, and consequently not offer suf-
may be separated into two sets of equations, corresponding ficient reduction in DoFs. Hence, specific techniques have
nu
to the linear and nonlinear DoFs from qr in Eq. (27) as fol- been developed to estimate these nonlinear modal dependen-
lows: cies and generate the appropriate reduction basis in a com-
putationally efficient manner.
Ma
h h h
DNN DhNL q̄hN
h
f̄E,N f̄C,N h q̄N
= + ; q̄r = (33)
DhLN DhLL q̄hL f̄hE,L 0 q̄hL 5.2 Proper orthogonal modes
The proper orthogonal decomposition (POD), also
ed
Individual reductions may be applied to the linear and non- sometimes called the Karhunen-Loeve decomposition was
linear DoFs to project them onto the reduced DoFs sL and sN first proposed independently by a number of sources [177–
181]. POD has since gained popularity for nonlinear analysis
pt
respectively as follows:
in a number of different fields where it may be variably re-
ferred to as principal component analysis, empirical orthogo-
ce
qN ≈ Φ ROM,N sN ; qL ≈ Φ ROM,L sL (34)

nal function, or factor analysis [82]. As applied to structural
dynamic analysis, it is used to synthesize a set of orthogonal
Ac
where Φ ROM,N and Φ ROM,L are the nonlinear and linear vectors or modes which capture the dominant (most ener-
reduction bases respectively. Substituting Eq. (34) into getic) motions of the system. This is achieved by carrying
Eq. (33) and simplifying one may observe that the reduced out the singular value decomposition (SVD) of the matrix
linear DoFs are functions of the reduced nonlinear DoFs and Q = [qr (t1 ) qr (t2 ) . . .], which is comprised of columns con-
excitation force as follows: taining snapshots of the time domain responses of the sys-
tem at times t1 ,t2 , . . . at all the DoFs (linear and nonlinear).
DhLL,ROM s̄hL = −DhLN,ROM s̄hN + ΦTROM,L f̄hE,L ; The left singular vectors Θ = [θθ1 θ 2 . . .] of Q are known as
proper orthogonal modes (POMs). Each of the POMs is as-
DhAB,ROM = Φ TROM,A DhAB Φ ROM,B ; A = {L, N} , B = {L, N} sociated with a corresponding singular value, whose magni-
(35) tude represents the relative dominance of POMs in the mo-

Copyright (c)
tion2019 by ASME;
described in Q. reuse licensemay
The POMs CC-BY 4.0
alternatively obtained BLMs Φ BLM = [Φ Φ f Φ g ] are comprised of selectively cho-
as the eigenvectors of QQT and the relative dominance in- sen normal modes of the linear systems corresponding to
dicated by the corresponding eigenvectors [82]. POMs may the free (ΦΦ f ) and gross slip (Φ Φg ) conditions. Two selec-
also be interpreted as the best least-squares fit of a linear rep- tion criteria for these modes are provided in [91]. In one
resentation of a single synchronous NNM describing the mo- of the methods, no POM calculations are required and the
tion [182]. BLM basis is first populated by linear modes from both the
POMs may be used as basis vectors in the reduction ba- free and gross slip systems lying within a frequency range
sis Φ ROM in Eq. (31). As more POMs are included, the re- of interest (usually the frequency range of excitation) since
duction is able to approximate the dynamics with sufficient they most resemble the nonlinear motion. However, these
accuracy. However, the main drawback of this method lies modes are usually not sufficient to span the nonlinear motion
in the determination of the matrix Q, which requires exten- space and hence must be augmented with more linear modes.
d
sive experimental observations or computationally expensive The additional modes are augmented in the increasing order
full order simulations. In the case of blisks, the practical ap- of some metric which determines the closeness of the lin-
ite
plications of POD for ROM formulation is further limited ear modes which are potential BLMs to the already selected
by the fact that uncertainty is fundamentally tied into the re- BLMs. This metric is either the Eucledian angle between
ed
duction problem due to mistuning and variability in system the vectors describing the modes, or another angle metric
behavior between operating conditions. Hence, researchers which uses a stiffness-based norm [91]. In the other method
focus on obtaining reductions by addressing the dominant described in [91], POMs Θ cm obtained from simulations of
py
physical phenomenon underlying the blisk dynamics such as another FE model of the structure with a coarser mesh are
the behavior of contacts, which remains largely invariant to used. These POMs are less expensive to calculate for the
these uncertainties. However, POMs do serve as a conve- coarser mesh model than the fine mesh model for which the
Co
nient validation tool for these physics-based ROMs, under BLMs are developed. The POMs in Θ cm can then be spa-
the specific conditions they were generated [80]. For in- tially interpolated to obtain approximate POMs for the finer
stance, POMs should not be used for validation of responses mesh model Θ f m . The projection basis vectors in Φ BLM may
ot
involving modes which were not excited in the snapshots. then be chosen from amongst the linear modes, to minimize
Thus, a POM ROM developed from the response of a mis- the error between Θ f m and its projection on Φ BLM which is
tN
tuned blisk to a given EO excitation, generally cannot be given by ||Θ Θ f m − Φ BLM (Φ ΦTBLM Φ BLM )−1 Φ TBLM Θ f m ||. Thus,
used to accurately predict responses to a different EO excita- the BLM basis is optimized to describe as much of the space
tion. Nevertheless, POMs may be used for model reduction described by the approximate POMs as possible. Figure 18
rip
in other systems which do not present large uncertainties in shows the comparison between BLM ROM response near the
their operational envelope [87]. first bending mode of a cracked plate to the FE model and
other CMS-based ROMs [91]. It is seen that the response
sc
may be captured with just a few BLMs.

5.3 ROMs for intermittent contacts
One of the concepts that led to the development of
nu
modern ROMs for systems with intermittent contacts such

as cracked blades or blisks [124, 183, 184], was the iden-
Ma
tification of the piecewise linear behavior of these systems

[185, 186]. While such a structure may exhibit highly non-
linear characteristics, at any instant of time during its motion,
it may be described by as a linear system with particular con-
ed
straints at the interfaces. In particular, researchers postulated

that the nonlinear system behavior may be captured by lin-
ear modes of these systems. In [90], it was shown that the
pt
free and gross slip linear system frequencies could be used

to formulate an effective natural frequency of the nonlinear
ce
structure called the bilinear frequency (BLF) when the dif-

ference between the linear regions was small. This was vali-
Ac
dated with NNMs obtained using a two degree of freedom

model representing a cracked beam. Order reduction for Fig. 17. Bilinear mode (BLM) reduction basis formulation
mass-spring systems with local nonlinearities was also ob- by selectively choosing normal modes of the linear systems
tained in [187] by using projection bases composed by aug- corresponding to the free and gross slip conditions
mentation of linear normal modes with basis functions with
appropriate discontinuities at the locations of nonlinearity.
These ideas were combined and modified to develop Another ROM formulation technique for intermittent
bilinear modes (BLMs) as a feasible projection basis for contacts called the bilinear amplitude approximation (BAA)
cracked structures. BLMs were treated as approximations of was proposed in [93]. The BAA method aims to directly
POMs of the nonlinear system [91]. As shown in Fig. 17, approximate the amplitude of the nonlinear periodic motion

Copyright (c) 2019 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0 the amplitude of the nonlinear motion and calculation of the
response at each frequency.
d
ite
Fig. 19. Bilinear amplitude approximation (BAA) basis and
nonlinear periodic motion. The basis representing the
ed
transition states is a subset of the span of the free and gross
slip modes under the assumption that the dynamics is linear
while contact conditions are unchanged, and the structure
py
enters the free and gross slip stage exactly once every
period.
Co
Additional effects introduced into the dynamics by pres-
ot
ence of preloads at the contact interfaces require careful con-
sideration. In general, the problem of determining the static
deflection based on a known preload can be overdetermined
tN
and hence can have multiple solutions [92]. In most simu-
lations, the static deflection is usually estimated by a quasi-
static application of preloads at the interfaces, which admits
rip
a unique solution q0PS [80, 92]. This is a good model of the

preload effects when the mean deflection during motion is
sc
not affected by the dynamics of the structure [50, 80], i.e.

there is minimal coupling between the dynamic EOMs (cor-
Fig. 18. BLM ROM for a cracked plate (results from [91]): responding to h > 0 in Eq. (30)) and the static or 0th harmonic
nu
(a) FE model of a cracked plate; (b) Convergence of term. In this case the BLMs, along with the quasi-statically
residuals of BLMs with respect to first POM for various determined deflection due to prestress, form an adequate pro-
BLM algorithms; (c) Nonlinear forced responses near first jection basis for the dynamics. However, this assumption
Ma
bending mode for various ROMs: 2385 DoF FE (—), regarding the decoupling of the statics and dynamics is not
140 DoF CB-CMS (×), 140 DoF Hintz CMS (O), 150 free always true, especially for prestressed structures with inter-
system normal modes (), 3 POMs (), and 3 BLMs (◦) mittent contacts where frictional effects are significant. Such
ed
a case was studied in [92], where it was determined that in

order to formulate accurate ROMs which captured such dy-
and assumes that the structure enters the free and gross slip namics, more vectors were required in the projection basis
pt
stage exactly once every period as shown in Fig. 19. The in addition to the BLMs and the quasi-static deflection. The
motion is linear at all times. During the free and gross slip role of these additional vectors is to capture the effect of the
ce
stages, the motion may be completely described by Φ f and dynamics on the statics. This was achieved, by analyzing the
Φ g . It is assumed that the transition, between the stages oc- fictitious normal static frictional forces which would be gen-
erated at the contacts if the deflection of the structure resem-
Ac
curs very fast, and therefore any motion corresponding to

partially closed contacts may be ignored. Consequently, the bled the BLMs. At the ith node-pair these fictitious normal
motion during the transition is spanned by a the columns force NBLM,i may be expressed as:
of the matrix Φt which is a subset of the spaces spanned
by Φ BLM . Numerically, Φt is obtained as the left singular NBLM,i = kz,i vBLM,i (37)
vectors corresponding to the few largest singular values of
Φ BLM . The piecewise linear periodic response is then solved
in reduced coordinates of the basis corresponding to the ap- where vBLM,i is the component of a BLM mode expressed
plicable linear condition, while enforcing compatibility cri- in relative coordinates along the normal direction at ith con-
teria at the transition times. This allows the determination of tact node-pair. A vector of these fictitious forces fBLM,N may

Copyright (c)
then2019 by ASME;for
be formulated reuse license CC-BY
all nonlinear 4.0 entries cor-
DoFs, whose
respond to NBLM,i at the appropriate locations and zeros ev-
erywhere else. A static deflection (SD) q0BLM for the entire
structure, may be calculated based on the application of these
fictitious forces for each BLM as follows:

fBLM,N
q0BLM = K−1
f (38)
0
When considered together, the quasi-statically determined

displacement q0PS , the BLMs themselves Φ BLM and q0BLM ’s
d
calculated for all BLMs may be used to formulate the projec-
ite
tion ROM. This SD+BLM ROM, as it is referred to in [92], Fig. 20. Generation of boundary conditions (BCs) for
performed well in replicating the nonlinear dynamics for a piecewise linear modes (PLMs). The motion along
blade-like cracked plate when regular BLMs were insuffi- dominant directions is used to calculate the normal relative
ed
cient. Note that the static solution in Eq. (38) may be carried displacement at each contact node pair and predict an open
out in reduced coordinates if a reduction (such as CB-CMS) or closed BC locally.
py
has been pre-applied to the linear DoFs as discussed in sec-
tion 5.1.
BLMs are based on information generated from only value of α, a set of linear BCs is obtained over the entire in-
Co
two limiting linear cases of a structure with contact nonlin- terface, with linear normal contact stiffnesses being enforced
earity which is piecewise linear. Though sufficient in many only for nodes in contact. αmin and αmax are determined
cases, complex structural motion and preload distributions at such that no new BCs are predicted beyond these values. By
enforcing the BCs obtained for the entire range of α, one
ot
the interfaces may render this bilinear assumption invalid if
various distinct spatial sub-regions of the contact interface may obtain the piecewise linear systems and consequently
the PLMs which likely contribute to the response. Note that
tN
open and close single or multiple times during the motion,
with different sub-regions possibly undergoing the transi- the BCs appear as stiffness constraints only since the mass of
tion at different times during the cycle. Under such circum- the structure remains unchanged during contact. The PLM
φ PLM for the BC corresponding to a given α and dominant
rip
stances, the modes of other linear conditions must be con-

sidered for inclusion into the ROM projection basis. Aptly mode may be obtained as normal modes of the constrained
called piecewise linear modes (PLMs), these are the modes system by solving the generalized eigenvalue problem:
sc
of all piecewise linear systems (observed at different time

instances of nonlinear motion) which contribute to the non- KPLM φPLM = λPLM M f φPLM (40)
linear dynamics. The creation of ROMs using PLMs was
nu
discussed in [95]. The challenging aspect of determining

the PLMs is the identification of the specific linear systems where KPLM is the constrained stiffness matrix correspond-
corresponding to time varying BCs at the interfaces. If the ing to a specific BC and λPLM is the eigenvalue associated
Ma
structure only has localized contact nonlinearities, even its with φ PLM . The reduction basis is then formulated by col-
nonlinear motion is dominated by a few linear modes at any lating all such φ PLM for which λPLM lie in the frequency
specific excitation frequency. Hence, the BCs may be esti- range of interest. As these φ PLM are not linearly independent,
conditioning (such as SVD-based conditioning) might be re-
ed
mated by examining the kinematics of the contact assuming

motion along these dominant modes as illustrated in Fig. 20. quired to prevent numerical problems during simulations.
In [95] the PLM ROM was validated for various structures
pt
Given a static normal relative displacement due to pre- with intermittent contacts such as a cracked plate and con-
stress v0PS,i at the ith contact node-pair, the total estimated tacting coaxial cylinders considering cases with and without
ce
normal displacement v̂i along the same node-pair due to the preloads.
prescribed kinematics is:
Ac
5.4 ROMs for microslip using linear modes

Projection ROMs for microslip contacts share many of
v̂i = v0PS,i + α vDOM,i (39)
the ideas related to ROMs for intermittent contacts discussed
in section 5.3. The complexity of the ROMs are often predi-
where vDOM,i is the component of the dominant mode φ DOM cated on the complexity of the full order nonlinear dynamics,
expressed in relative coordinates along the ith contact node- specifically the number of dominant linear modes in the non-
pair in the normal direction and α ∈ [αmin αmax ] is a scalar linear motion. For instance, in blisks with ring dampers the
value representing the assumed modal amplitude. If v̂PLM,i > frequency separation between full stick and gross slip modes
0, the ith node-pair is estimated to be in contact (slip), or is relatively small. Consequently, the overall motion of the
otherwise it is assumed open (free). Consequently, for each blisk itself does not vary much in the microslip regime be-

Copyright (c) 2019
tween bystick
full ASME; reuse slip
and gross license CC-BY
[5, 62, 4.0 is due to the
79]. This motion along multiple modes p̄1eq , their individual elements
simple geometry of the ring damper and also its location near γC,eq and kC,eq may be pre-calculated as single dimensional
the root of the blade, where the motion is generally small functions of α.
compared to the blade tips where the blisk motion is usu-
ally the highest. Hence, using an argument similar to that for
BLMs, ROMs may be obtained for blisks with ring dampers
by projecting the dynamics onto Φ ROM = [Φ Φs Φ g ], where Φ s
and Φ g represent a subset of the stick and gross slip modes
in the frequency range of interest respectively [5, 62]. More-
over, for tuned blisks, only the modes with the same ND as
the EO of excitation need be considered.
d
It was shown in [79] that due to the simplicity of the
reduction basis, it is possible to obtain an equivalent linear
ite
representation of the nonlinear dynamics for given modal
amplitudes. A ROM may be formulated by approximating
ed
the nonlinear friction forces projected into the reduced do-
main in terms of equivalent stiffness and damping terms as
follows:
py
Φ TROM f̄C,eq
1 1
≈ ḡC,eq ΓC,eq ◦ KC,eq + KC,eq ]p̄1eq ;
= [iΓ
Co
ΓC,eq = ΓC,eq (p̄1eq ) ; KC,eq = KC,eq (p̄1eq ) (41)
1 1
ot
where f̄C,eq and ḡC,eq are the equivalent first harmonic fric-
tional force vectors in the full order and reduced order do-
mains. p̄1eq is the equivalent modal displacement vector in
tN
the reduced domain. ΓC,eq is the equivalent damping ma-
trix. KC,eq is the equivalent stiffness matrix, and ◦ represents
the element-wise (Hadamard) product of two matrices. Af-
rip
1
ter substituting ḡC,eq in Eq. (32), the reduced system may be
solved for the first harmonic to obtain p̄1eq whose amplitude
sc
is approximately equal to that of the nonlinear system for

a given frequency. Prestress effects can also be addressed
using this method through inclusion of an additional stiff-
nu
ness term in the reduced dynamic equation, details regarding Fig. 21. Equivalent stiffness and damping ROM for blisks
which may be found in [79]. with ring dampers. Modal hysteresis loops are obtained by
ΓC,eq and KC,eq are functions of p̄1eq , and are full matri- inducing quasi-static system motion along stick and slip
Ma
ces in general. General individual entries of these matrices modes with different amplitudes. Equivalent,
γC,eq and kC,eq respectively represent the equivalent damping amplitude-dependent stiffness and damping quantities are
and stiffness due to the nonlinear force encountered along generated to match average elastic energy stored and the
ed
one reduction mode due to motion along another mode. The total energy dissipated during a period.
procedure for the calculation of these elements is shown in
Fig. 21. First, a quasi-static harmonic motion is applied to
pt
the blisk along a reduction mode with amplitude α. This is This procedure enables the creation of very fast ROMs,
similar to the modal amplitude based estimates used in the where the nonlinearity is captured by equivalent single har-
ce
PLM procedure discussed in section 5.3. However, unlike monic calculations. The need for AFT is also completely
the static approximation of modal amplitude used for PLM, eliminated as the equivalent nonlinear forces may be calcu-
Ac
the motion is applied for an entire harmonic period. Based on lated directly in the reduced coordinates in the frequency do-
this motion, a hysteresis cycle is constructed in the modal remain. Another advantage of this ROM is that full knowledge
duced coordinates, and the average elastic energy stored and of the contact model and its parameters is not required. The
the total energy dissipated during a period are calculated. A contact may be treated as a black box which outputs fric-
work-energy equivalence is then applied, where these dissi- tional forces for enforced displacements. Results from the
pated and stored energies are equated with equivalent quanti- successful application of this ROM to a tuned blisk with a
ties for a linear system which are expressed in terms of γC,eq frictional ring damper are shown in Fig. 22, where the non-
and kC,eq respectively. From this equivalence, γC,eq and kC,eq linear frequency domain responses of the ROM are compared
may then be determined as functions of the modal amplitude to the results from the full order FE model obtained using
α. Note that although ΓC,eq and KC,eq are functions of the time marching [79].

Copyright (c) 2019 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0
Fig. 22. Comparison of reduced order and finite element
d
model responses for blisk with ring damper (results
ite
from [79])
ed
Unlike blisks with ring dampers, the motion of blisks
with other types of microslip contacts may be much more Fig. 23. Generation of intermediate linear systems for the
py
complex. For instance, shrouded blisks are designed to be adaptive microslip projection (AMP) procedure. Boundary
frictionally damped by contacts between shrouds attached to conditions are estimated by applying artificial static
the blades near the tips. The full stick and gross slip modes displacements along dominant directions and comparing the
Co
of shrouded blisks are very different from each other and are normal and tangential friction forces at contacts.
well separated from each other in terms of their natural fre- Intermediate linear systems are generated by applying these
quencies [11]. Consequently, the change between the full stick-slip boundary conditions by manipulating entries of
stick and gross slip motion with changes in microslip level the stiffness matrix corresponding to the contact DoFs.
ot
is much more gradual than in the case of shrouded blisks
than it is for blisks with ring dampers. Hence, coherences
tN
in the nonlinear dynamics of the shrouded blisk in microslip v0PS,i is the normal component of q0PS at node-pair i, which is
are not spanned by the union of Φ s and Φ g and other pro- obtained assuming contact at gross slip, and hence does not
jection bases are required for reduction. A method for cre- have tangential components. The predicted BC may then be
rip
ating ROMs for such shrouded blisks and other structures obtained by comparing µN̂i and T̂x,i at each node-pair. Node-
which show such gradual transition during microslip, using pair i is predicted to be in stick when T̂x,i < µN̂i or slip other-
wise. Based on these BCs, one may then mask the diagonal
sc
an adaptive microslip projection (AMP) basis was proposed

and validated in [80]. The procedure for obtaining the AMPs stiffness matrix ∆Ks which is the difference between the lin-
is illustrated in Fig. 23. ear stiffness of the fully stuck (Ks ) and free (∆K f ) structure
nu
The AMP procedure is very similar to the one for PLMs and may be expressed in relative coordinates as:
as both were developed somewhat concurrently for different

..

applications. The AMP method focuses on estimating the
Ma
. 0 ··· ··· · · ·
tangential BCs at the contact interfaces (which were ignored 
 0 kx,i 0 0 · · ·
for PLMs). These BCs may then be used to obtain the inter- 
 ..


mediate linear systems between the full stick and gross slip ∆Ks = ∆Ks − ∆K f = 
 . 0 ky,i 0 · · · (43)
ed

whose normal modes can approximate the nonlinear dynam-  .
 .. 0 0 kz,i

ics. Similar to PLMs, due to the localized nature of contact  · · ·
.. .. .. .. ..
nonlinearities some dominant bulk motion φ DOM (usually a . . . . .
pt
mode belonging to Φ s or Φ g ) is assumed and applied to the

structure with some modal amplitude α ∈ [αmin αmax ] in addi-
As illustrated in Fig. 23, the tangential stiffnesses may be
ce
tion to the deflection due to prestress q0PS . Then, the statically

removed or retained from ∆Ks based on the estimated BC at
estimated forces at contact interfaces due to this assumed de-
the corresponding node-pair, to formulate the matrix ∆KAMP .
flection may be calculated at each node-pair i in the normal
Ac
The stiffness matrix corresponding to the intermediate linear

and tangential directions as follows:
system may be obtained as KAMP = K f + ∆KAMP and the
AMP reduction mode φ AMP may be obtained by solving the
N̂i = kz,i (v0PS,i + α vDOM,i ) ; T̂x,i = kx,i (α uDOM,x,i ) (42) following eigenvalue problem in the frequency range of in-
terest:
where N̂i and T̂x,i are the estimated normal and tangential
forces respectively, expressed in relative coordinates at con- KAMP φ AMP = λAMP M f φ AMP (44)
tact node-pair i. vDOM,i and uDOM,x,i are the respective nor-
mal and tangential components of φ DOM at the same location. where λAMP is the eigenvalue associated with φ AMP . The

Copyright (c) 2019φby ASME;
modes reuse
obtained license CC-BY
by repeating 4.0
this procedure for mul-
AMP
tiple φ DOM and various values of α may be collated into a
reduction basis. When used directly without any validating
full order or experimental results available for comparison,
convergence studies might be required to determine the ideal
number of AMP modes that should be retained in the reduc-
tion basis. However, for many cases it is sufficient to calcu-
late more AMP vectors than strictly necessary (since the lin-
ear calculations are fast) and use SVD conditioning (which
is also recommended for numerical conditioning) to obtain a
smaller basis which can capture the dynamics [80].
d
Results for the application of the AMP procedure to a
mistuned shrouded blisk with 27 sectors is shown in Figs. 24
ite
and 25. Fig. 25. Comparison of AMP ROM with baseline under
high microslip in a high modal density region
ed
other may be seen in Fig. 24. Since the blisk is mistuned,
py
each plotted line representing the frequency response ampli-
tude of each blade is different. Figure 24 also shows the lin-
ear modes at the contact DoFs corresponding to the full stick
Co
frequency peaks and the spatial FFT of a vector of modal am-
plitudes for identical nodes at each sector. For a tuned blisk,
the spatial FFT would only have a single non-zero compo-
ot
nent corresponding to its ND. However, for this blisk which
has small stiffness mistuning, multiple ND components are
seen in the modes. There are also 3 modes with dominant
tN
ND1 patterns in a narrow frequency range, which can only
occur for a mistuned blisk as the ND1 nodes for tuned blisks
appear in pairs. At high microslip levels, all these modal ND
rip
components also interact with each other at the nonlinear in-

terfaces to give rise to very complex dynamics. However,
sc
as shown in Fig. 25 the AMP ROM is able to reproduce the

nonlinear response with only 238 reduction modes and of-
fers significant computational time savings compared to the
nu
original FE model with more than 50,000 DoFs.

For the AMP procedure, the same reduction basis is used
to reduce EOMs of all harmonics. Details regarding domi-
Ma
nant mode selection and the generation of the basis for cases
where higher harmonics (h > 1) have significant dynamic
contribution is provided in [80]. An alternative reduction
ed
technique called the Jacobian projection (JP) is described

in [100]. The method for generating the BCs is the same
Fig. 24. Full stick and microslip response of a mistuned for AMP and JP. However, in the JP method, the BCs are en-
pt
shrouded blisk in a high modal density region (circled in the forced not on the linear system (as it is for AMP) but instead
modal frequency plot) obtained using a baseline CB-CMS on the system represented by the multi-harmonic Jacobian
ce
ROM. In frequency response plots each line represents one (BDiag(Dh ) in Eq. (30)) after a static condensation. The
blade. Spatial FFT of the full stick linear response at peaks JP method was validated for a cantilevered shrouded blade
(corresponding to linear modes) shows contribution from
Ac
in [100], which also provides an error metric for assessing

multiple NDs indicating mistuning. In microslip all these the accuracy of the ROM without a convergence study.
modal ND components interact and response is significantly
different from the stick case.
6 Summary and discussion
This main goal of this paper is to discuss recent advance-
The frequency response of the full order baseline blisk ments in creating nonlinear reduced order models for bladed
model under full stick (linear) and a high level of microslip disks (blisks) with contact interfaces which are widely used
to an EO 1 excitation in a high modal density region where in industrial turbomachinery such as jet engines or power
natural frequencies of the system are clustered close to each generating gas and steam turbines. The harsh operating con-

Copyright (c) 2019and
ditions by ASME; reuse
high cyclic licenseencountered
stresses CC-BY 4.0by blisks dur- this dominant bulk motion, to predict the most likely bound-
ing operation renders their design against failure especially ary conditions at the interface and the corresponding linear
challenging. Hence, extensive research into the dynamics systems, whose modes are then used in a basis to achieve the
of these structures has been carried out over the past half- reduction.
century. There are inherent uncertainties associated with These reduction methods do not require a-priori nonlin-
blisk manufacturing and its operating conditions which may ear full order calculations and are often orders of magnitude
have significant unwanted effects on their dynamic charac- faster than high fidelity models. The models are also physics-
teristics. Presently, the probabilistic approach to blisk design based rather than data-driven and are hence reasonably ro-
is the preferred method, which requires simulations of many bust in terms of accuracy when relatively small changes are
blisk models to characterize the effects of these uncertainties. made to the properties or structure of the blisk, making them
Limits on available computational power have placed a pre- excellent candidates for use in probabilistic analyses.
d
mium on fast, adaptable and accurate reduced order models Reduced order models are also based on certain assump-
for such studies. tions and approximations. For instance, the presence of dom-
ite
More recently, with improvement in simulation tools inant nonlinear spatial correlations is assumed. The models
and methods, researchers have also begun to realize the im- lose accuracy when these conditions are not satisfied and are,
ed
portance of accounting for nonlinearities such as contact therefore, not broadly applicable to every type of nonlinear-
damping mechanisms or cracks in these blisks. The state ity. In addition, the accuracy of the models depends on the
of the art in the modeling of such intermittent and frictional quality of the contact models which are employed. These
py
contact nonlinearities using both high fidelity and reduced contact models often have significant assumptions which
order models was discussed in this paper, and a summary limit their range of applicability.
of the technical background and important developments in There is scope for future research in establishing math-
Co
the field were provided. The cyclic symmetric nature of a ematical bounds on reduced order model accuracy and con-
nominal blisk and the characteristic linear dynamics of such vergence and establish guarantees of performance. Combi-
structures were discussed. The effect of uncertainties and the nation and evolution of ideas from various available reduc-
ot
linear reduced order models employed to study them were tion techniques discussed here is also possible for broaden-
described also. ing their application to other types of systems and nonlin-
tN
All the nonlinear reduction techniques discussed here earities. Currently, reduced order models are almost always
focus on obtaining an accurate basis of reduction vectors developed based on some high-fidelity computational model
onto which the nonlinear dynamics may be projected. It has of a blisk. A lot of time and effort is required to accurately
rip
been known that if the nonlinear motion is captured by the characterize these large models. Determining the contact pa-
projection basis to a sufficient extent, the reduced dynam- rameters at the interfaces is especially challenging. Often the
ics can achieve the desired accuracy. The challenge lies in accuracy of a reduction method is rendered moot by the in-
sc
predicting these motions without any a priori nonlinear full accuracies in the high fidelity model that is being reduced.
order simulations, which would defeat the purpose of such An example is the need for advanced contact models, either
reduced order model generation. To address this problem, microscopic or at the mesoscale. Hence, future research in
nu
the piecewise linear nature of these systems may be lever- the area may be trending toward creating sufficiently flexible
aged, where at different instants of time during the nonlinear and capable reduced models which may be tuned directly us-
Ma
motion, the system is in different linear conditions. When ing experimental results. It is also often difficult to identify
change in the localized contact conditions occurs fast, and all the sources of nonlinearities in a complex structure like a
the system spends most of the time in one of two limiting blisk, based on limited experimental measurements. Newer
linear conditions (eg., fully open or closed contact interface system identification methods and advancements in neural
ed
for a crack), it is sufficient to use these linear modes for re- network technology might hold the key to creating black-box
duction. In other cases, due to the geometric properties of the or grey-box models for these systems wherein not all model
structure, prestress and other factors, the nonlinear behavior parameters might be easily accessible or interpretable. Cor-
pt
might be more complex. Modes from multiple intermedi- respondingly, the paradigm for model reduction techniques
ate systems corresponding to intermediate contact boundary may need to evolve to address such models in the future.
ce
conditions (eg., a partially open crack) may interact at the in-

terfaces to give rise to these complex dynamics. It becomes
Ac
difficult to predict which intermediate linear systems are re- Acknowledgements

sponsible for the dynamics. However, due to the localized The authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Adegbenga
nature of contact nonlinearities, dominant motions observed Odofin, Dr. Seunghun Baek and Dr. Weihan Tang for kindly
in the overall nonlinear response of the system are similar providing explanatory materials for their work which is dis-
to the linear modes of the systems under the limiting condi- cussed in this paper.
tions. Although these modes approximate the bulk motion,
using them alone for projection leads to inaccuracies as they
do not accurately capture small motions at the interfaces, References
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tional and Nonlinear Dynamics, 2(3), pp. 249–266.
py
Co
ot
tN
rip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

Copyright (c)
List2019 by ASME; reuse license CC-BY 4.0
of Figures 19 Bilinear amplitude approximation (BAA)
1 Schematic and finite element sector models . 5 basis and nonlinear periodic motion. The
2 Schematic and finite element full blisk models 5 basis representing the transition states is a
3 Frequency vs. number of nodal diameters . . 7 subset of the span of the free and gross slip
modes under the assumption that the dynam-
4 ND 1 mode-pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ics is linear while contact conditions are un-
5 ND 8 mode-pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
changed, and the structure enters the free and
6 Traveling wave excitation with EO 5. Ex- gross slip stage exactly once every period. . . 18
citation is applied as a spatially distributed 20 Generation of boundary conditions (BCs) for
loads on blades around the blisk which vary piecewise linear modes (PLMs). The mo-
circumferentially as given by Eq. (11). . . . . 8 tion along dominant directions is used to cal-
7 Tuned vs. mistuned response for an EO ex-
d
culate the normal relative displacement at
citation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 each contact node pair and predict an open
ite
8 Comparison between the cumulative distri- or closed BC locally. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
bution function (CDF) of amplification fac- 21 Equivalent stiffness and damping ROM for
tors (AFs). Monte-Carlo distribution ob-
ed
blisks with ring dampers. Modal hystere-
tained from 1,000 cases and 20 Weibull fits sis loops are obtained by inducing quasi-
to different sets of 50 cases (a case refers to static system motion along stick and slip
py
an instance of a randomly generated mistun- modes with different amplitudes. Equiv-
ing pattern). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 alent, amplitude-dependent stiffness and
9 Variation of amplification factor with mis- damping quantities are generated to match
Co
tuning level. Circles represent individual average elastic energy stored and the total
cases of mistuning patterns. Lines represent energy dissipated during a period. . . . . . . 20
percentile values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 22 Comparison of reduced order and finite el-
ot
10 1D and 2D contact models . . . . . . . . . . 12 ement model responses for blisk with ring
11 Absolute and relative coordinates . . . . . . . 13 damper (results from [79]) . . . . . . . . . . 21
tN
12 Alternating frequency-time procedure. 23 Generation of intermediate linear systems
Fourier (FFT) and inverse Fourier (IFFT) for the adaptive microslip projection (AMP)
transforms are used to alternate between procedure. Boundary conditions are esti-
rip
frequency and time domains to allow the mated by applying artificial static displace-
calculation of nonlinear quantities such as ments along dominant directions and com-
frictional forces in the time-domain while paring the normal and tangential friction
sc
solving the dynamics in the frequency domain. 14 forces at contacts. Intermediate linear sys-
tems are generated by applying these stick-
13 Nonlinear contacts in a blisk [79, 80, 120] . . 14
slip boundary conditions by manipulating
nu
14 Linear contact conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 15 entries of the stiffness matrix corresponding

15 Typical nonlinear response of a structure to the contact DoFs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
with intermittent contacts. The response of a
Ma
24 Full stick and microslip response of a mis-

cracked plate is shown. Details can be found tuned shrouded blisk in a high modal density
in [173]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 region (circled in the modal frequency plot)
16 Typical nonlinear response of structure with obtained using a baseline CB-CMS ROM. In
ed
microslip contacts. The response of a blisk frequency response plots each line represents
with ring damper is shown. Details may be one blade. Spatial FFT of the full stick lin-
found in [79]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 ear response at peaks (corresponding to lin-
pt
17 Bilinear mode (BLM) reduction basis formu- ear modes) shows contribution from multi-
lation by selectively choosing normal modes ple NDs indicating mistuning. In microslip
ce
of the linear systems corresponding to the all these modal ND components interact and
free and gross slip conditions . . . . . . . . . 17 response is significantly different from the
Ac
18 BLM ROM for a cracked plate (results from stick case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

[91]): (a) FE model of a cracked plate; 25 Comparison of AMP ROM with baseline un-
(b) Convergence of residuals of BLMs with der high microslip in a high modal density
respect to first POM for various BLM al- region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
gorithms; (c) Nonlinear forced responses
near first bending mode for various ROMs:
2385 DoF FE (—), 140 DoF CB-CMS (×),
140 DoF Hintz CMS (O), 150 free system
normal modes (), 3 POMs (), and 3 BLMs
(◦) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Dynamic Modeling and Projection-Based Reduction Methods For Bladed Disks With Nonlinear Frictional and Intermittent Contact Interfaces

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Dynamic Modeling and Projection-Based Reduction Methods For Bladed Disks With Nonlinear Frictional and Intermittent Contact Interfaces

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Applied Mechanics Reviews.

Received July 14, 2018;

Dynamic Modeling and Projection-Based

in material or geometric properties across blades, known as HFT Hybrid frequency-time

contacts. SD Static deflection

SVD Singular value decomposition

AF(s) Amplification factor(s) ¯ Quantity in frequency domain

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v Relative normal displacement of node-pair S1 Contacting surface 1 degrees of freedom

α Estimated scalar modal amplitude t Transition between systems

η Vector of displacements in generalized reduced

modes S Sector level matrix

Ω Rotational speed bomachinery experience high thermal and cyclic structural

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approximately determining the natural frequencies of a sys- nonlinear blisks.

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tion based reduced order models for blisks are provided.

2 Nominal cyclic symmetry in linear blisk dynamics

2.1 Cyclic coordinates

tors Sn (n = 1, 2, . . . , nmax ). Each sector contains interior

The corresponding full system stiffness matrix K is

where, 0’s represent a matrix of zero elements of the appro-

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in Eq. (9) to the free sector stiffness matrix KS in Eq. (1) as

where BDiag(.) represents an operator, which constructs a

··· and mass matrices in cyclic coordinates K̃ p and M̃ p are the

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transforms, an alternative but consistent nomenclature may

ranged in plots such as the one shown in Fig. 3 where the

exhibited by the corresponding modes. Figure 3 shows such

to every natural frequency except for modes with ND 0 or 12.

ing to ND 1 and ND 8 respectively. Within a family, there

density where the natural frequencies are very close to each

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3 Mistuning and its consequences

3.1 Mistuned modes and responses

ics. Variations in different material properties such as mass,

have been studied in literature [4, 5, 8–14, 27, 105–107]. The

KSn = KSo + ∆KSn ; K = Ko + ∆K ; ∆K = BDiag(∆KSn ) (14)

Fig. 6. Traveling wave excitation with EO 5. Excitation is

applied as a spatially distributed loads on blades around the

blisk. The transformation to cyclic coordinates do not yield

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subset of nominal modes (SNM) to obtain the model reduc-

all blades across frequencies also increases when mistuning

response introduces an element of uncertainty in the analy-

unknown at the design stage. The amplification may be un- ΦH Φo = Φ H

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reduction to the slave DoFs to reduce them to some gener-

a more specialized formulation of CMM ignores the addi-

jection onto a set of nominal cantilevered blade modes. The

directly in the reduced space, and the participation factors

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sets of 50 cases. It is seen that these estimated CDFs are

fewer simulations for each mistuning level. Figure 9 shows

blisk with randomly generated stiffness mistuning. For many

robustness. and uses a penalty stiffness as well as a Lagrange multi-

able to strike a balance between accurately capturing dom-

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where µ is the coefficient of friction, kx,i is the appropriate

during most of the cycle [46,147]. For both models, penetra-

force components in the 2D model may be given by:

q = qS2,a  = R R 0 qr ; qr =  qS1,l  (27) hmax