Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Final Biochemistry
Final Biochemistry
MAI NHI
1. Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy
available from carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
aerobes and anaerobes alike. Base on what you have learnt and your best
understanding towards the mentioned process, investigate the direct and
indirect glycolysis as well as give concrete examples, where possible.
● Glycolysis is an energy conversion-breaking down glucose to form ATP (1
glucose molecule is split to 2 pyruvate molecules, about 5% amount of energy
stored in 2 ATPs molecules and NADH molecule). Glycolysis location is in
the cytosol of all cells.
● Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy
available from carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes (cells have no
organelles) and eukaryotes (cells process a true nucleus), aerobes (an
organism that grows in the presence of molecular oxygen) and anaerobes (an
organism that grows in the absence of molecular oxygen) alike.
● In anaerobes, glycolysis is the only significant source of energy from
carbohydrates. It is an ATP production and can recycle NADH by making
lactate.
● In aerobic organisms, the function of glycolysis is to convert glucose to
pyruvate and ATP. Pyruvate can be burned for energy (TCA) or converted to
fat (fatty acid synthesis).
● Glycolysis produces energy in the form of ATP and NADH. The intermediate
products of glycolysis can be used for other pathways.
● The pathway of glycolysis consists of 2 phases: first 5 steps are energy
investment phase in which 1 molecule of glucose is converted into 2
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (2 ATPs are used), the last 5 steps
are energy payoff phase in which 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
are converted into pyruvate or lactate (4 ATPs and 2 NADHs are produced).
● Glycogen in the liver is synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate via
glucose-l-phosphate and UDP-glucose. Glucose-6-phosphate can be formed in
the liver either by the direct phosphorylation of glucose or via
gluconeogenesis from three-carbon intermediates (C3). Recently however,
Katz and McGarry and Katz et al. postulate that liver cannot utilize glucose
efficiently, and that postprandial glycogen replenishment is mostly brought
about through the operation of an indirect pathway that requires prior
degradation of glucose to compounds located at the level of triose phosphates
or lowers down the glycolytic pathway. The carbon from these intermediates
of glycolysis is then converted via gluconeogenesis to glucose-6-phosphate,
glucose- 1 -phosphate, and ultimately ends up in the glucosyl units of newly
synthesized glycogen. This metabolic route for hepatic glycogen synthesis has
been termed the "indirect pathway" to distinguish it from the more
conventional "direct pathway". Further, the futile breaking down of glucosyl
units followed by their resynthesis from the indirect pathway has been cited as
evidence for either intracellular compartmentation of pathways or functional
"zonation" of the liver.
2. Show your understanding upon glycolysis and summarily figure the outcome
of the glycolysis.
Understanding upon glycolysis:
● Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting
it into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Glycolysis is found in the
great majority of organisms alive today.
● In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of
this process. However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many
anaerobic organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen—also have this
pathway.
● Over the course of glycolysis' nine steps, the 6-carbon molecule glucose is
broken down to two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. The reaction does not
occur spontaneously: 2 ATP molecules must be broken down to drive the
splitting of glucose into the 2 pyruvates. However, in the course of the
breakdown of glucose, the glycolysis reaction produces four ATP, resulting
in a net gain of two ATP for the entire process. Glycolysis also results in the
production of 2 NADH molecules, which eventually play an important role in
the production of additional ATP in the electron transport chain. Glycolysis
itself is an anaerobic process. After a cell has completed glycolysis and
depending on the circumstances in which the cell finds itself, that cell can
either move into the process of aerobic respiration and commence the citric
acid cycle or continue with less efficient anaerobic respiration in a process
called fermentation.
Summarily figure the outcome of the glycolysis:
● Glycolysis starts with one molecule of glucose and ends with two pyruvate
(pyruvic acid) molecules, a total of four ATP molecules, and two molecules
of NADH. Two ATP molecules were used in the first half of the pathway to
prepare the six-carbon ring for cleavage, so the cell has a net gain of two
ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules for its use. If the cell cannot catalyze
the pyruvate molecules further (via the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle), it
will harvest only two ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose.
● Mature mammalian red blood cells do not have mitochondria and are not
capable of aerobic respiration, the process in which organisms convert energy
in the presence of oxygen. Instead, glycolysis is their sole source of ATP.
Therefore, if glycolysis is interrupted, the red blood cells lose their ability to
maintain their sodium-potassium pumps, which require ATP to function, and
eventually, they die. For example, since the second half of glycolysis (which
produces the energy molecules) slows or stops in the absence of NAD+,
when NAD+ is unavailable, red blood cells will be unable to produce a
sufficient amount of ATP in order to survive.
● Additionally, the last step in glycolysis will not occur if pyruvate kinase, the
enzyme that catalyzes the formation of pyruvate, is not available in sufficient
quantities. In this situation, the entire glycolysis pathway will continue to
proceed, but only two ATP molecules will be made in the second half (instead
of the usual four ATP molecules). Thus, pyruvate kinase is a rate-limiting
enzyme for glycolysis.
3. When an inadequate amount of carbohydrate source from the daily diet is
met, how does human body mobilize needed fuel source of glycolysis for the
demand of the entire activity of human body, especially the brain.
Glycogen stores can be depleted such that they no longer supply glucose to the
blood. In this case, glucose can be produced by protein catabolism and further
catabolism of glucogenic amino acids. On the other hand, in the absence of
carbohydrates in the diet, the brain switches to the use of ketone bodies as an energy
source.
● When you stop eating carbs for several hours, liver glycogen is broken down
into glucose and released into the bloodstream to prevent blood glucose from
dropping too low. Although far more glycogen is stored in your muscles than
in your liver, it remains in the muscles to meet their energy needs and cannot
be released into the bloodstream to raise blood glucose.
● After going 24-48 hours without any carbs, glycogen levels become depleted
and insulin levels decrease.
● At this point, the liver steps up its production of water-soluble compounds
known as ketones, created by the breakdown of fatty acids. The source of
ketones comes from either the fat you eat or the mobilization of body fat out
of your fat stores. The resulting ketones can cross the blood-brain barrier to
provide the brain with an additional source of energy.
➔ This means that there’s another fuel source available for the brain when the
body runs low on stored carbohydrates.
DIỆU HUYỀN
4. Why does human body require a certain amount of carbohydrates in daily
diet? Exemplify case by case.
Carbohydrates are all about energy and are found in foods like fruits, vegetables,
bread, pasta, and dairy products. Carbohydrates are the body's main source of
energy. In their absence, your body will use protein and fat for energy. It may also
be hard to get enough fiber, which is important for long-term health. Healthy
sources of carbohydrates, such as higher fiber starchy foods, vegetables, fruit and
legumes, are also an important source of nutrients, such as calcium, iron and B
vitamins.
In the case of cutting out carbohydrates, it leads to 3 results that harm health :
a. Muscles rely on carbohydrates as their main source of fuel when you
exercise. A diet that is low in carbohydrates can lead to a lack of energy during
exercise, early fatigue and delayed recovery.
b. Replacing carbohydrates with fats and higher fat sources of protein could
increase your intake of saturated fat, which can raise the amount of cholesterol in
your blood – a risk factor for heart disease.
c. When you're low on glucose, the body breaks down stored fat to convert it
into energy. This process causes a build-up of ketones in the blood, resulting in
ketosis. This can cause headaches, weakness, feeling sick, dehydration, dizziness
and irritability.
5. The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes the
oxidative degradation of fatty acids, amino acids, and monosaccharides. Base
on your understanding, clarify the above statement.
- Citric acid cycle, or TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle – is a
series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy
through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins,
into ATP and carbon dioxide.
- Fatty acid degradation: process in which fatty acids are broken down into their
metabolites, in the end generating acetyl-CoA which then enters the citric acid cycle
to produce ATP.
● In many tissues (especially the heart and skeletal muscle), fatty acids are
broken down through a process known as beta-oxidation, results in the
production of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA, which can be used in the citric acid
cycle.
● Acetyl-CoA is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle. With each turn of the
cycle, one molecule of acetyl-CoA is consumed for every molecule of
oxaloacetate in the mitochondrial matrix and is never regenerated.
- Amino acid degradation is breaking down the amino acids.
● Oxidative deamination is the first step in this process. The amino group is
removed. The remaining amino acid is oxidized to alpha-keto acid, which
then proceeds into the TCA cycle → produce energy. The acid can also enter
glycolysis to make pyruvate which is then converted into acetyl-CoA to enter
the TCA cycle
● Transamination has the same end result as deamination: the remaining acid
will undergo either glycolysis or the TCA cycle to produce energy that the
organism's body will use for various purposes.
● In addition, TCA cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as
the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions
→ The citric acid cycle is the final common pathway for the oxidation of amino
acids, fatty acids, and monosaccharides. They are degraded in cells to yield acetyl
CoA which is oxidized in the citric acid cycle and release energy
6. Show your understanding and figuring out the oxidative phosphorylation of
utilizing the chemical energy of those reduced molecules from glycolysis and
Citric Acid Cycle to produce ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation happens in the mitochondrion, which is the process in
which electrons from the reduced cofactors NADH and ubiquinol are funned in a
stepwise manner to oxygen. Electrons flow much like electricity through the
concomitant formation of a proton gradient. In the end, the investment of reduced
cofactors results in the production of ATP.
Reduced electron carries NADH and ubiquinol are produced during glycolysis and
citric acid cycle, as well as oxidation pathway. During the cellular process of
respiration oxidative phosphorylation utilize the chemical energy of these reduced
molecules to produce ATP.
NGỌC TÚ
7. Show your understanding and exemplifying the roles of NADPH in the all
related issues of concern.
- One of the functions of NADPH in the cell is to prevent oxidative areas. NADPH
plays an important role in biological processes (energy metabolism, immune system
function, cell aging, cell death).
- 3 main functions: contributes to antioxidant systems and is used during reactions
(acting as a substrate) of a NADPH oxidase to make reactive oxygen species
(NADPH oxidase)
- In cancer cells: NADPH is essential for scavenging of reactive oxygen species
mainly derived from oxidative phosphorylation required for ATP generation. Thus,
metabolic reprogramming of NADPH homeostasis is an important step in cancer
progression as well as in combinational therapeutic approaches.
- In diabetes mellitus type II. Regeneration of Glutathione by Glutathione –
reductase, so it detoxifies the hydro peroxide that diffuses from the mitochondria to
the cytosol converting it into water and molecular oxygen. This process will help
lower the rate having type 2 diabetes.
8. Briefly summarize (both texts and figures) the interrelation between PPP and
diabetes mellitus diseases, then give examples where possible
Pentose Phosphate Pathway and diabetes mellitus diseases:
- Diabetes mellitus disease is a set of related disease in which the body cannot
regulate the amount of sugar (specifically glucose) in the blood. These are 2 main
types of diabetes mellitus: Type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
- The pentose phosphate produces glucose, then it is released into the
Figures:
9. Briefly summarize (both texts and figures) the interrelation between PPP and
cancerous diseases, then give examples where possible
- PPP, also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt or the
phosphor-gluconate pathway, is the set of reactions that produce NADPH and
ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) from glucose-6-phosphate.
- Characteristic of cancer cells: In most of tumors found in humans and other
animal, their cancerous cells grow under hypoxic conditions. So, in order to
make the same amount of ATP, glucose uptake and glycolysis proceed in
cancerous cells about 10 times faster than in non-cancerous cells.
In addition, glucose-6-phosphate is one of the most important material in glycolysis
to generate ATP for cancer cells.
--> PPP as well as glycolysis under the cancerous condition are overactive in order
to produce enough material for the cell growth proliferation in tumor tissues.
QUỐC TÍNH
10.Show your understanding upon the glycogen metabolism and exemplify
where possible.
Glycogen metabolism is divided into 2 main processes: synthesis and degradation
• Glycogen degradation: consists of three steps
(1) the release of glucose 1-phosphate from glycogen
(2) the remodeling of the glycogen substrate to permit further
degradation
(3) the conversation of glucose 1-phosphate into glucose 6-phosphate
for further metabolism.
- The glucose 6-phosphate derived from the breakdown of
glycogen have 3 fates:
(1) It is the initial substrate for glycolysis.
(2) It can be processed by the pentose phosphate pathway to NADPH
& ribose derivatives.
(3) It can be converted into free glucose for release into the
bloodstream
- This conversion takes place mainly in the liver and to a lesser extent
in the intestines and kidneys.
• Glycogen synthesis:
+ Glucose 6-phosphate is converted to glucose 1-phosphate in a
reversible reaction catalyzed by phosphoglucomutase
+ Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP -> UDP-glucose + pyrophosphate
catalyzed by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
+ Glycogen synthase catalyzes the transfer of glucose from
UDP-glucose to glycogen with the formation of an alpha 1-> 4 link.
+ Branch points are formed by glycogen branching enzyme (amylo
1-4 -> 1-6 transglucosylase).
11.Describe how regulation of glycogen metabolism involves the
phosphorylation status of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen metabolism is regulated by the activities of glycogen synthase and
glycogen phosphorylase.
Phosphorylation by protein kinases activates glycogen phosphorylase and inactivates
glycogen synthase.
The phosphorylation is reversed by phosphoprotein phosphatase activity.
Glucagon and epinephrine increase glycogen breakdown by activating adenylate
cyclase. This produces 3’5’-cyclic AMP which activates protein kinase A.
Regulation by glycogen phosphate
Glycogen phosphorylase catalyses sequential removal of glucose units of glycogen
by the addition of orthophosphate to form glucose 1 phosphate.
Glycogen phosphorylase is present in two forms a and b. Form a is active form and
b is the inactive form. Glycogen phosphorylase is activated by binding of
epinephrine and glucagon to 7 -transmembrane receptors. This binding leads to the
activation of adenylate cyclase by the alpha subunit of G protein. Activated
adenylate cyclase produces CAMP. Then, CAMP activates protein kinase A.
Further, protein kinase A activates Phosphorylase kinase by phosphorylation. Then
phosphorylase kinase phosphorylase glycogen phosphorylase b form active form of
glycogen. phosphorylase a. Phosphate groups are added to serine and threonine
amino acids.
Regulation by glycogen synthase
Glycogen synthase catalyses the addition of UDP glucose on the growing end of
glycogen.
During glycogen breaks down protein Kinase-A activated by binding of glucagon
and epinephrine, inhibited glycogen synthase enzyme by the addition of phosphate
group. Along with protein kinase-A, other enzyme called glycogen synthase kinase
also inhibit glycogen synthase by phosphorylation
12. Describe and exemplify the functions of the pentose phosphate pathway as
in detailed notes as possible.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway is primarily catabolic and serves as an alternative
glucose oxidizing pathway for the generation of NADPH that is required for
reductive biosynthesis reactions such as those of cholesterol biosynthesis, bile acid
synthesis, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and fatty acid synthesis.
The PPP can also function as an anabolic pathway that utilizes the six-carbon of
glucose to generate five-carbon sugars. particularly ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) that is
required for purine and pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis. The PPP can, under
certain conditions, completely oxidize glucose to CO2 and water. The primary
function of this pathway.
To generate reducing equivalents, in the form of NADPH, for reductive biosynthesis
reactions within cells.
To provide the cell with ribose-5-phosphate for the synthesis of the nucleotides and
nucleic acids.
Although not a significant function of the PPP it can operate to metabolism dietary
pentose sugar delivered from the digestion of nucleic acid as well as to rearrange the
carbon skeleton of dietary carbohydrates into glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Viết như trên hoặc có thể viết ntn
BẢO KHUYÊN
13. Show your understanding and discussing all about the known functionalities
of fatty acids in the human body.
Fatty acids
- Building blocks for triglycerides and phospholipids
- Contain a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl group at the
alpha end and a methyl group at the omega end.
Important roles of fatty acids:
1) signal-transduction pathway
- Fatty acids act as second messengers in the pathway:
+ Because their concentration can change very fast in order to react with
the binding of specific agonists to plasma membrane receptors.
+ Can replace the classical second messengers of the inositol
phospholipid and the cyclic AMP signal transduction pathways.
- Fatty acids are modulators because they act in a reversible process at a
precise intracellular location for a very short time to amplify, attenuate or
deviate a signal.
2) cellular fuel sources
3) the composition of lipids
- Lipids: Building blocks for triglycerides and phospholipids
+ Triglycerides: are formed when 3 fatty acids attach to glycerol backbone
+ Phospholipids: are modified form of triglycerides where 1 fatty acid is replaced
by a phosphate group
4) formation of cholesterol in liver
Cholesterols in our body help to produce sex hormones like testosterone and
estrogen, help in production of vitamin D which are needed to keep bones, teeth and
muscles healthy, and produce bile acids which help the body digest fat more easily.
So the formation of cholesterols is very important.
14.Discuss and exemplify roles of amino acid catabolism.
- Amino acid catabolism helps the body to remove the toxins (such as
ammonia, urea, etc.) via urine through deamination which occurs in the liver.
Sometimes, the toxins (particularly in the muscle) can be transported to the
liver for removal via blood in the form of alanine.
- Forms glutamate, a very important neurotransmitter. Glutamate plays a
crucial role in sending signals between nerve cells, and supporting in learning
and memory improvement.
- Break down the carbon skeletons of glucogenic amino acids to form glucose
for energy or convert the glucogenic amino acids into glycogen or fatty acids
for energy storage.
15. Where does the deamination occur? Show the general outline chemistry of
deamination. What would happen to the liver and human health if the
deamination process is somehow disordered in a certain period.
Deamination occurs in the liver.
Outline chemistry of deamination:
- Amino acid is deaminated into ammonia and organic compounds which are
used for respiration.
- The ammonia, which is very toxic, is then reacts with CO2 to form urea
(H2NCONH2)
- The urea H2NCONH2 will be transported to kidney and then be removed out
of the body via urine (excretion)
Disorder of deamination process
Deamination is the removal of nitrogen from amino acids, the aa carbon skeleton in
the deamination process have several roles that both precursors for Krebs cycle and
gluconeogenesis and be recycled or oxidized for energy.
Nitrogen is toxic for the human body and it must be removed. Since the deamination
helps the body to eliminate the ammonia, if the process is disordered, the removal of
amino acid and formation of urea will be interrupted and may lead to toxic
accumulation of ammonia. Therefore, ammonia is still kept in the body. The high
amounts of ammonia can cause brain damage, coma and eventually death. This
matter is called Urea Cycle Disorder.
Some symptoms of Urea Cycle Disorder
- Often feel tired and don’t want to eat, especially meat.
- Nausea and vomiting
- Metal weakness, easy to get angry and stress.
MINH THU
16. Showing and understanding upon the roles of lipids in the human body as
well as the required conditions for the entire lipid digestion and absorption.
The role of lipids in the human body:
● Structural function in biomembranes.
● Major energy source.
● Provide essential fat-soluble vitamin, fatty acid prostanoids, leukotrienes and
steroid hormones.
● Insulators: thermal (adipose) and electrical (myelinated nerves).
● Form second messengers (PI) - (PI or phosphatidylinositol, a minor
component of membrane lipids). This molecule serves as a source of the
second messenger compounds.
● Defects in lipid metabolism lead to major clinical problems.
The required conditions for the entire lipid digestion and absorption
Lipid is a fat-like molecule that does not have the ability to dissolve in water
(hydrophobic). The enzymes that are necessary for lipid digestion and absorption are
called lipase. There are three types of lipase:
● Lingual lipase (from the tongue).
● Gastric lipase (from the stomach).
● Pancreatic lipase (from the pancreas).
17. Show your understanding and exemplifying the important biomolecules in
Biochemistry
Biomolecules are organic molecules, not fundamentally different from other. They
are the same types of molecules, react in the same ways, and obey the same physical
laws.
The four main classes of biomolecules in biochemistry are carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. Many biological molecules are polymers: in this
terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together
to create large macromolecules, which are known as polymers. When monomers are
linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called
dehydration synthesis.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or
compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. In layman’s terms, we acknowledge
carbohydrates as sugars or substances that taste sweet. They are collectively called
saccharides. Depending on the number of constituting sugar units obtained upon
hydrolysis, they are classified as monosaccharides (1 unit), oligosaccharides (2-10
units), and polysaccharides (more than 10 units). They have multiple functions viz.
they’re the most abundant dietary source of energy; they are structurally very
important for many living organisms as they form a major structural component,
e.g. cellulose is an important structural fiber for plants.
Proteins
Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules that make up around 50%
of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the
form of polypeptide chains. The structure of proteins is classified as primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary in some cases. These structures are based on the
level of complexity of the folding of a polypeptide chain. Proteins play both
structural and dynamic roles. Most enzymes are proteinaceous in nature.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the
hereditary information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids
namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main
function of nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of
proteins by processes known as translation and transcription. The monomeric unit of
nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose
sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester
bond. The nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide distinct.
There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.
Lipids
Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents,
are related to fatty acids, and are utilized by the living cell. They include fats,
waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids, etc.
Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric
molecules. Lipids play a great role in the cellular structure and are the chief source
of energy.