Human Physiology
Final Examination
Cell physiology
1. Gene expression and its role? Organs involved in gene expression.

_ ​Gene expression​: Process from gene to protein (transcription -> translation -> protein
modification)

+ Transcription​ (take place inside ​nucleus​)

+ Translation​ (take place ​cytosol​)

+ Protein modification​ (take place ​endoplasmic reticulum​)

_ ​Role​: produce ​structural protein​ (constructing new membrane and new protein components
of organelles) and ​functional protein ​(go to the blood system and functions as hormone or
enzymes)

2. Function of Organeles
_ ​Plasma Membrane​: separating ​Intracellular fluid (ICF)​ and ​Extracellular fluid (ECF)​,
control movements of molecules into and out of cell.

_ ​ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)​:

+ ​Rough ER​: ​protein synthesis​ (mRNA moves to ribosome on rough ER to start Protein
synthesis creating functional protein + structure protein)

+ ​Smooth ER​: ​lipid synthesis​, serves as transport vesicle, store calcium (In some cell,
smooth ER secretes lipid-derived steroid hormone.)

_ ​Centrosome​: ​establish the microtubules​ for cell division (​gamma tubulin + alpha tubulin
protein​ on the surface of centrosome makes the microtubules)

+ If the microtubules are destroyed, cell division stops and gets stuck at metaphase.

_ ​Mitochondria -> ​producing energy in form of ATP for cell, the process of ATP production
consisting of ​3 phases​:

+ ​Glycolysis​ (taking place in ​cytosol​) -> breaking down ​ONE glucose​ into ​TWO PYRUVATES
->produce ​2ATP
+ ​Kreb Cycle​ (take place in ​mitochondrial matrix​) -> produce ​2ATP

+ ​C.A.C​ (oxidative phosphorylation takes place in ​Mitochondrial inner membrane​) -> produce
28ATP

Total energy: ​32ATP

_ ​Golgi complex​: store proteins​ in Golgi sacs +​ select protein​ synthesized from ER (đóng vai
trò như nhà máy chế biến Protein, chế biến lại Protein được tạo ra từ ER và phân loại, đóng
gói, phân loại và xuất ra khỏi tế bào thông qua quá trình Exocytosis, as opposed to
Endocytosis, export material outside the cell​),.

_ ​Cytoplasm​: consists of ​Organelles​ (exclude Nucleus) and ​Cytosol​ (fluid)

_ ​Lysosome​: functions as digestive system of the cell, ​digest extracellular material​ going into
the cell by ​phagocytosis ​(​Endocytosis ​is the process by which extracellular materials are
enclosed by plasma membrane)

_ ​Peroxisome​: store oxidative enzyme that gets rid of waste or toxic products

_ ​Nucleus​: store genetic materials (DNA)

_ ​Nucleolus​ (located in the nucleus): synthesize ribosome

3. Size of Somatic cell

_ 10-15 or 10-20 micrometers

4. Which of those embryos are capable of forming a human beings (baby)?

_ Fertilized embryo (Invitro fertilization)

_ Cloning embryo
_ Parthenogenesis embryo
_ Androgenesis embryo
_ Tetraploid embryo

_ ​Fertilized embryo + Cloning embryo​ are ​capable​.

The ​3 others​ are ​impossible​ since:

+ ​Parthenogenesis embryo​: trophectoderm develops very poorly in placenta + consisting only

maternal gene, lose paternal gene (imprinted gene) in ICM (inner cell mass) -> cannot become
human beings.
+ ​Androgenesis embryo​: consisting of only paternal gene, lose maternal gene (imprinted
gene) -> cannot become human beings.

+ ​Tetraploid embryo​: cannot establish ES lives -> cannot produce baby.

5. First day of embryo (in zygote)​: consisting of 2 pronucleus -> male pronucleus + female
pronucleus

+ ​Male pronucleus (in big size due to chromosome decondensation)

+ ​Female pronucleus (in small size due to chromosome condense)

Chromosome decondense or condense related to Histone phosphorylation. High

phosphorylation -> condense. Low phosphorylation -> decondense.

6. What is epigenetic?

+ DNA methylation
+ Histone methylation
+ Histone acetylation
+ Histone phosphorylation

+ ​Male pronucleus is High transcription -> high DNA methylation, high histone
methylation, high histone acetylation
+ ​Female pronucleus is Low transcription -> low DNA methylation, low histone
methylation, low histone acetylation

7. What is imprinted gene?

Gene are expressed by only mother or father. (One is active, one is silent). Ex:
If gene from father is imprinted, only gene from mother express and vice versa.

8. Preimplantation process: ​is the process by which ​zygote becomes blastocyst​.

Sperm enters the uterus and then move to oviduct to fertilize with egg. Afterwards,
fertilized eggs will move from oviduct back to uterus to become blastocyst through the
process 2-cell stage, 4-cell stage, 8-cell stage, morula.

9. Diabetes type 2: ​due to ​Life style (daily activities) and ​Genetic (aging). ​Beta cell
produces Insulin.

10. In transgenic animal, why people transfer gene to male pro-nucleus? ​since male
pro-nucleus has high level of gene expression (chromosome condensation), so we
transfer foreign DNA to male pro-nucleus.
 11. Difference between Transgenic and chimeric animal
_ Chimera is one that is composed of cells or genes obtained from two or more different species
(e.g ​mouse chimera​ may contain a human liver in a mouse)

_ Transgenic animal is one in which all the cells contain the same genetic information. But in
addition to the original genetic information, it contains genetic information for a certain human
protein (e.g the production of human insulin by bacteria)

12. Technique to make chimeric animal: ​Embryo fusion​ + ​inject ES cell

The cell cycle
**​ ​Cell cycle:​ is control by ​MPF (Maturation promoting factor).

MPF ​is composed of ​Cyclin​ + ​Cyclin dependent kinase (CDK)

Dephosphorylation​ increases CDK -> ​active MPF

Phosphorylation​ inhibits CDK -> ​inactive MPF

** Interphase​: G1, S, G2

_ ​G1 phase​:
+ Chromatin -> maximum decondensation
+ Heterochromatin -> maximum condensation
_ ​S phase​: DNA duplication
_ ​G2 phase:
+ Nuclear membrane break down
+ Chromosome condensation
+ Centrosome moves to one end and another
+ High MPF -> High phosphorylation

**Meiosis​: relates to spermatogenesis + oocytogenesis

_ Cumulus cell: control oocyte maturation (egg maturation), produce cyclin AMP (CAMP) and go
to gap junction -> inhibit CDK -> Inactive MPF (high cumulus around egg)
⇨ Meiosis is not able to happen.
_ As cumulus cell separate from oocyte (egg) -> CAMP down -> active MPF -> go to 1​st​ meiosis
( low cumulus around egg)

_ As cumulus is removed from egg -> chromosome mature, cytoplasm not mature

**Basic development of embryo

+ ​First meaning of your life: sperm + egg fusion, egg activation.

+ When 2​nd​ meiosis occurs: sperm enter the egg.

+ ​First differentiation​: the embryo loses its totipotent ability or totipotent is changed into
pluripotent (​ICM + TE cell, ICM: Inner cell mass, TE: trophectoderm​)

**Major zygote gene activation ​is in 2-cell embryo​.

**How is embryo (zygote) compacted to blastocyst?​ ​Due to the E-cadherin.

**When and where does oct-4 gene express?

Oct-4 gene expresses in the first day, specifically 6 hours after fertilization, oct-4 gene just
detected in nucleus only.

Oct-4 gene is in 1-cell, 2-cell, 4-cell and 8-cell embryo + Morula.

**The first differentiation in mouse: ​is at late 8-cell embryo

** Application of late 8-cell embryo​: for diagnostic test (check genetic disease)

** Embryo transferring technique:

+ If ​fertilized egg​: transfer to ​Oviduct ​( để egg nó di chuyển từ oviduct và phát triển thành
blastocyte tại uterus)

+ If ​blastocyte​: transfer to ​Uterus (​ nếu egg đã thành blastocyte rồi thì chuyển thẳng vào
Uterus)

Cell membrane
_ Osmolarity of the cell: 215 – 310

_ How to increase/reduce the size of cell: review hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic. What
happens if cell is in hypotonic state? Isotonic and Hypertonic?

➔ Hypotonic: solute outside less than solute inside => water moves into cell => cell
swelling -> size increase
➔ Hypertonic: solute outside greater than solute inside => water moves out cell =>
cell shrink -> size decrease
➔ Isotonic: solute out and inside equal => no movement of water
_ Control osmolarity by adding salt/water

_ Different between Passive transport and Active transport ( review in slide 5. Plasma
membrane + Membrane Potential)

_ Carrier transport (slide 5. Plasma membrane + Membrane Potential)

Nervous system ( review in slide 7,8, 9)
_ Structure of neuron ( star morphology)

_ Central nervous system (CNS): consisting of Brain + Spinal cord.

_ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

_ Functional classes of neurons

_ Different between Afferent (transfer signal) and Efferent (receive signal)

_ ​Sympathetic nervous system, Parasympathetic nervous system <- writing

_ Somatic nervous system

_ Autonomic nervous system

_ Cerebral cortex

_ 90% neuron in human are Interneuron

_ Neuroglia (Glial cells): Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes. Microglia, Ependymal cells

_ Hypothalamus

Reproductive system (review in slide 12. Physiology of

Reproduction)
_ Feedback system

_ Testes and ovaries

_ Granula cell

_ 3 cases of monozygote twin

_ Abnormal implantation

_ Summary of different structures of 3 embryonic germ layers: Ectoderm,

Endoderm, Mesoderm -> writing

_ ICSI # ROSI (ICSI: intracytoplasmic sperm injection, ROSI: round spermatid injection)

_ ​Telomerase expression​ (​review in slide 16. Telomeres and aging​)

+ active in stem cell

+ inactive in somatic cell

_ Genetic errors of human development: lose ability to make new mRNA at 2-cell
embryo.