Child and Adolescent Review
Basic concepts and issues on Human Development
- the process of development involves beginnings and
endings.
- researches on human development continue to as
existing theories get corrected, complemented or
replace.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENET: Meaning Concepts and
Approaches. (1)
Human development is a pattern of movement or
change that begins at conception and continues
through the life span.
MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.
1. Relatively Orderly - understanding ( about learners
and effective instructional) the characteristics develop,
accurate and useful predictions about learners and
effective instructional strategies base on knowledge
development.
Proximodistal pattern. - The muscular control of the
trunk and arms comes earlier as compared of the hands
and fingers.
Cephalo-caudal pettern. - During infancy, the greatest
growth always occurs at the top.
2. Likely to be similar but vary - Invidual differences in
developmental characteristics and variation in the ages
when people will experience events that will influence
their development.
3. Gradually - wont develop into primply teenagers
overnight.
4. Process is complex - it is the product of Biological,
Cognitive, Socio- Emotional process (Santrock, 2002).
Biological Process - changes in the individual physical
nature. (eq. Gaining weight and Hight)
Cognitive Process - changes in individual's thought,
intelligence, and language.
Socio emotional Process - changes in individual's
relation with other people.
These biological, cognitive, and socio emotional process
are inextricably intertwined.
TWO APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Traditional approach - extensive change from birth to
adolescent and little or no change adulthood.
Life-Span Approach - even in adulthood development
changes takes place as it does during childhood.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
1 Life long - does not end in adulthood. No
development stage dominates development.
2. Multidimensional - consist of biological, cognitive
and socio emotional dimensions.
3. Plastic - Development is possible through the life
span.
4. Contextual - individuals are changing beings in a
changing world.
THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL
TASK. (2)
Developmental stages
The eight (8) development stages cited by Santrock are
the same with Havighurst's six (6) development stages
only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
The developmental task (Santrock, 2002)
1. Prenatal ( from conception to birth) - tremendous
growth from single cell to an organism complete with
brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy ( from birth to 18-24 months) - extreme
dependence on adults. Psychological activities are just
beginning language symbolic thought sensorimotor
coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood ( end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade
1) - learning become more self sufficient care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend
many hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and Late childhood ( 6-11 years of age the
elementary school years) mastered the fundamental
skills. Exposed to the larger world and its culture.
5. Adolescence - ( 10- 12 years of age ending up to 18-
22 years of age) - physical changes. More logical and
idealistic. More time spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood ( from late teens or early 20's lasting
through the 30's) establishing personal and economic
independence.
7. Middle adulthood ( 40 to 60 years of age) expanding
personal and social involvement and responsibility.
Maintaining satisfaction.
8. Late adulthood ( 60s and above) adjustment to
decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement
and adjustment to new social roles.
Issues on Human Development (3)
1. Nature vs. Nurture
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
3. Stability vs. Change
Freuds Psychological Theory (5)
Freud is the most popular psychologist. Most
controversial. Psychosexual development includes
include five distinct stages. Freud identified specific
erogenous zones for each stage of development. These
are specific "pleasure areas". If needs not met along
area, a fixation occurs.
Oral Stage ( birth to 18 months) the erogenous zone is
the mouth. Focused on oral pleasures (sucking). To
much or too little satisfaction can lead to an oral
fixation. This type of personality may be oral receptive ,
that is have a stronger tendency to smoke, dink alcohol,
over neat, or oral aggressive that is with a tendency to
bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip
as a result these person may become too dependent on
others, easily fooled and lack leadership traits.
Anal Stage ( 18 months to 3 years) focus of pleasure in
this stage is the anus. The child needs to work on toilet
training. the child favorite word is "No" fixation on this
stage anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control or anal expulsive where the
person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage ( ages 3 to 6 ) . The pleasure or erigenous
zone is genital . Interest in what makes boys and girls
different. Boys develop unconscious sexual desire for
their mother. Castration Anxiety. Oedipus Complex
psychoanalysts also believed that girls also have similar
experience sexual attraction towards their
father .Electra Complex. A fixation at this stage could
result in sexual deviances and weak or confused sexual
identity according to psychoanalysts
Latency Stage ( age 6 to puberty) sexual urges remain
reppresed. Focus is acquisition of physical academic
skills.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards) psychosexual
development begins at the start of puberty when
sexual urges are again awakened.
Freud Personality Components
Id, Ego, Superego.
The three components and personality adjustment.
Freud said that a well adjusted person is one who has
strong ego, who can help satisfy needs of the ID
without going against the SUPEREGO while maintaining
the person sense of what is logical, practical or real. If
the ID exerts too much power over the EGO, the person
becomes too impulsive and pleasure seeking behavior
takes overs one life. Freud believed that the personality
of an individual is formed early during the childhood
years.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
The Unconscious - most what we go through in our
lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep
within are not available to us at a conscious level. Most
of what influence us is our unconscious.
The Conscious - all that we are aware of is stored in our
conscious mind. In our everyday life, we are only aware
of a very small part of what makes our personality:
most of what we are is hidden out of reach.
The Subconscious - part of us that we can reach if
prompted, but is not in our active conscious.
PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (6)
Piaget called his general theoretical framework
"genetic epistemology" because he was interested in
how knowledge developed in human organisms.
Piaget examine the implications of his theory not only
to aspects of cogniton but also to intelligence and
moral development.
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
Schema - refers to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.
Assimilation - the process of fitting a new experience
into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
Accumodation - this is the process of creating new
schema. He now adds new file in his filing cabinet.
Equilibration - is achieving proper balance between
assimilation and accumodation. When our experience
do not match our schema (plural of schema) or
cognitive structures. We experience COGNITIVE
DISEQUILIBRIUM. This means there is discrepancy
between what is perceived and what is understood.
Cognitive Development involves a continuos effort to
adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation an
accommodation.
Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other
constructivist perspectives of learning bruner and
Vygotsky.
PIAGETS STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.
Stage 1. Sensori Motor Stage - from birth to infancy. A
child initially reflexive in gasping, sucking and reaching
becomes more organized in environment and activity.
Focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle
movement. Teachers should aim to provide a rich and
stimulating environment with appropriate objects to
play with.
OBJECT PERMANENCE - ability of the child to know an
object still exist even when out of sight.
Stage 2. Pre Operational - covers from about 2 to 7
years old. The child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now
ever closer to the use of symbols.
SYMBOLIC FUNCTION - ability to represent objects and
events.
EGOCENTRISM - this is the tendency of the child to only
see his point of view and to assume that everyone also
has his same point of view.
CENTRATION - Refers to the tendency of the child to
only focus on one aspect of thing or event and exclude
other aspects.
THE EIGHT PSYCOSOCIAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT.(7)
IRREVERSIBILITY - children still have the inability to
reverse their thinking .
ANIMISIM - tendency of children to attribute human
like traits of characteristics to inanimate objects.
TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING - this refers to the pre -
operational child's type of reasoning that is neither
inductive not deductive.
Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage. - this stage is
characteristics by the ability of the child to think
logically but only in terms of concrete objects. 8-11
years or the elementary school years.
DECENTERING - this refers to the ability of the ability of
the child to perceive the different features of objects
and situations.
REVERSILIBITY - During the stage of concrete
operations. The child can now follow that certain
operations can be done in reverse.
CONVERSATION - this is the ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number, mass, volume. Or
area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Ability of decentering and also
reversibility.
SERIATION - ability to order or arrange things in a
series based on one dimension such as weight, volume
or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage - 12 to 15 years.
Thinking becomes more logical. They solve abstract
problems and can hypothesis.
HYPOTHERICAL REASONING - ability to come up with
different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and
weight data in order to make a final decision or
judgement.
ANALOGICAL REASON - perceive the relationship in
one instance and then use that relationship to narrow
down possible answer in another similar situations or
problem.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING - this is the ability to think
logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.
Syntonic Dystonic Malignancy Maldaptation Virtue

Trust Mistrust Withdrawal Sensory Hope

maladjustment

Autonomy Shane and doubt Compulsiveness Impulsiveness Will power

Initiative Guilt Inhibition Ruthlessness Courage

Industry Inferiority Inertia Narrow virtousity Competency

Ego Identity Role confusion Repudiate Fantaticism Fidelity

Intemacy Isolation Exclusion Promiscuity Love

Generativity Stagnation Rejectivity Overextension Capacity for caring

Ego Intergrity Despair Disdain Presumption Wisdom

KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (8).

Level Stages Description

PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL. 1 PUNISHMENT/OBEDIENCE. one is

motivate by fear of punishment. He will
moral reasoning is based on the act in order to avoid punishment.
consequence/result of the act, not on
the whether the act itself is good or bad.

2 MUTUAL BENEFIT. one is motivate to

act by the benefit that one may obtain
later. You scracth my back, ill scracth
yours.

CONVENTIONAL 3 SOCIAL APPROVAL. one is motivated by

what others expect in behavior good
Moral reasoning is based on the boy, good girl. The person acts because
conventions or norms of society. This he/she values how he/she appear to
may include approval of others, law and others.
order

POST CONVENTIONAL 4 LAW AND ORDER. one is motivated to

act in order to uphold law and order.
Moral reasoning is based on en during The person will follow the law because it
or consistent principles. It is not just is the law.
recognizing the law, but the principles
behind the law.

5 SOCIAL CONTRACT. laws that are wrong

can be changed. one will act based on
social justice and the common good.

6 UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES. this is

associated with the development of
ones conscience.
Observations of Teaching-Learning in Actual School Environment
THE SCHOOL AS A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this activity, the learner should be able to identify
appropriately a school environment that provides social, psychological,
and physical environment supportive of learning.
DISCUSSION
A school environment is broadly characterized by its facilities,
classrooms, school-based health supports, and disciplinary policies and
practices. It sets the stage for the external factors that affect students. A
positive school environment is defined as a school having appropriate
facilities, well-managed classrooms, available school-based health
supports, and a clear, fair disciplinary policy. It recognises that students
learn in many different ways in very different contexts. Since learners
must do the learning, the aim is to create a total environment for
learning that optimises the ability of students to learn.
Physical Environment
The physical environment refers to the level of upkeep, ambient noise,
lighting, indoor air quality and/or thermal comfort of the school’s
physical building and its location within the community. The physical
environment of the school speaks to the contribution that safe, clean,
and comfortable surroundings make to a positive school climate in which
students can learn. Physical environment appears in contemporary
studies as an influence on behavioral and academic outcomes.
Psychological Environment
Beyond the physical arrangement of a classroom a psychological
environment is also created, based on the interaction of key players in
the classroom, namely students and teachers. It particularly
concentrates on student class participation rates, teacher support, and
communication of learning goals.
Social Environment
Social environment refers to how they the students are encouraged to
interact with and relate to others (e.g., classmates, the teacher). For
example, they advocate that students be encouraged to share their
ideas and to seek clarification until they understand the concept. To
achieve this kind of classroom, teachers need to establish an
atmosphere of mutual trust and respect. When teachers build such an
environment, students understand that it is acceptable to struggle with
ideas, to make mistakes, and to be unsure. This attitude encourages
them to participate actively in trying to understand what they are asked
to learn because they know that they will not be criticized personally,
even if their mathematical thinking is critiqued.
Learning Domain 2
THE SCHOOL AS A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this activity, the learner should be able to identify
appropriately a classroom environment that provides social,
psychological, and physical environment supportive of learning.
DISCUSSION
Classroom environment encompasses a broad range of educational
concepts, including the physical setting, the psychological environment
created through social contexts, and numerous instructional
components related to teacher characteristics and behaviors.
Classroom environment is one of the most important factors affecting
student learning. Students learn better when they view the learning
environment as positive and supportive (Dorman, Aldridge, & Fraser,
2006). A positive environment is one in which students feel a sense of
belonging, trust others, and feel encouraged to tackle challenges, take
risks, and ask questions (Bucholz & Sheffler, 2009). Such an environment
provides relevant content, clear learning goals and feedback,
opportunities to build social skills, and strategies to help students
succeed (Weimer, 2009). Children are likely to learn better when in safe,
comfortable buildings with sufficient space and adequate facilities.
Improving physical facilities is therefore a key factor in improving
education delivery.
LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS AND NEEDS
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this activity, the learner should be able to differentiate
learners based on the varied learning characteristics and needs.
DISCUSSION
Teachers support school readiness by helping young children develop
physical, social, emotional, and cognitive needs that contribute to school
success.
Beyond the basic needs, in order to become functioning members of
society, children need support in developing and learning important and
useful skills ad needs. In social skills, children develop into people who
must live and work with others. For this they need to learn the rules of
society. They need to be able to communicate their ideas and desires. In
physical needs, gross motor development refers to physical skills that
use large body movements, normally involving the entire body. On the
other hand, fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more
precise movements, normally using the hands and fingers. Fine motor
skills are different than gross motor skills which require less precision to
perform. In emotional needs, children’s responses to the different
feelings they experience every day have a major impact on their choices,
their behaviour, and on how well they cope and enjoy life. Emotional
development involves learning what feelings and emotions are,
understanding how and why they happen, recognizing one’s own
feelings and those of others, and developing effective ways of managing
them.
Observation Guide for Learner’s Characteristics and Needs
Physical
1. Observe their gross motor skills. How they carry themselves. How
they more, walk, run, go up the stairs, etc.
2. Are gross movements clumsy or deliberate/smooth?
3. How about their fine motor skills? Writing, drawing, etc.
Social
1. Describe how they interact with teachers and other adults.
2. Note how they also interact with peers. What do they talk about?
What are their concerns?
Emotional
1. Describe the emotional disposition or temperament of the learners
(happy, sad, easily cries, mood-shifts)
2. How do they express their wants/needs? Can they wait?
3. How do they handle frustrations?
4. Describe their level of confidence as shown in their behavior. Are they
self-conscious?
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND LEARNING
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this activity, the learner should be able to acquire better
understanding of the management of time, space, and material
resources necessary to create an environment conducive to learning.
DISCUSSION
Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and
techniques that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly,
focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive during a class.
When classroom-management strategies are executed effectively,
teachers minimize the behaviors that impede learning for both individual
students and groups of students, while maximizing the behaviors that
facilitate or enhance learning.
It is also defined as the methods and strategies an educator uses to
maintain a classroom environment that is conducive to student success
and learning. Although there are many pedagogical strategies involved in
managing a classroom, a common denominator is making sure that
students feel they are in an environment that allows them to achieve.
Classroom management includes classroom rules, procedures, daily
routines, seating arrangement, and handling misbehavior/off-tasks
behaviors.