In 

physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form

of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. Radiation is a
energy emitted by a source in the form of rays or high speed particles and then travels through
a medium, such as air, until it is absorbed by matter. This includes:

 electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible

light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ)
 particle radiation, such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), and neutron
radiation (particles of non-zero rest energy)
 Acoustic radiation, such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves (dependent on a
physical transmission medium).

All matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are made up of various parts; the nucleus contains
minute particles called protons and neutrons, and the atom's outer shell contains other
particles called electrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge, while the electrons
carry a negative electrical charge. These forces within the atom work toward a strong, stable
balance by getting rid of excess atomic energy (radioactivity). In that process, unstable nuclei
may emit a quantity of energy, and this spontaneous emission is what we call radiation.

Physical form of radiation:

Matter gives off energy (radiation) in two basic physical forms. One form of radiation is pure
energy with no weight. This form of radiation — known as electromagnetic radiation — is like
vibrating or pulsating rays or "waves" of electrical and magnetic energy. Familiar types of
electromagnetic radiation include sunlight (cosmic radiation), x-rays, radar, and radio waves.

The other form of radiation — known as particle radiation — is tiny fast-moving particles that
have both energy and mass (weight). This less-familiar form of radiation includes alpha
particles, beta particles, and neutrons.

Radiation can be described as two basic types, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
a) Non-ionizing radiation:
People use and are exposed to non-ionizing radiation sources every day. This form of radiation
does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. Microwave ovens, global
positioning systems, cellular telephones, television stations, FM and AM radio, baby
monitors, cordless phones, garage-door openers, and ham radios all make use of non-ionizing
radiation. Other forms include the earth’s magnetic field, as well as magnetic field exposure
from proximity to transmission lines, household wiring and electric appliances. These are
defined as extremely low-frequency (ELF) waves.

b) Ionizing radiation:
Some types of radiation have enough energy that they can knock electrons out of their orbits
around atoms, upsetting the electron/proton balance and giving the atom a positive charge.
Electrically charged molecules and atoms are called ions. The radiation that can produce ions is
called ionizing radiation.

There are many types of ionizing radiation. The following are some of the relevant ones:  

Alpha radiation: Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, and since they have
no electrons, carry a positive charge. Due to their size and charge, alpha particles are barely
able to penetrate skin and can be stopped completely by a sheet of paper.

Beta radiation: Beta radiation consists of fast moving electrons ejected from the nucleus of an
atom. Beta radiation has a negative charge and more penetrating. However, it can still be
stopped by a small amount of shielding, such as a sheet of plastic.

Gamma radiation: Gamma radiation is a very penetrating type of radiation. It is usually emitted
immediately after the ejection of an alpha or beta particle from the nucleus of an atom.
Because it has no mass or charge, it can pass through the human body, but will be absorbed by
denser materials such as concrete or lead.

X-rays: X-rays are a form of radiation similar to gamma radiation but they are produced mainly
by artificial means rather than from radioactive substances.

Neutron radiation: Neutron radiation occurs when neutrons are ejected from the nucleus
by nuclear fission and other processes. The nuclear chain reaction is an example of nuclear
fission, where a neutron being ejected from one fissioned atom will cause another atom to
fission, ejecting more neutrons. Unlike other radiations, neutron radiation is absorbed by
materials with lots of hydrogen atoms, like paraffin wax and plastics.
Sources of ionizing radiation
People are constantly exposed to small amounts of ionizing radiation from the environment as
they carry out their normal daily activities; this is known as background radiation. We are also
exposed through some medical treatments and through activities involving radioactive
material. Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of
electromagnetic waves or particles.

 People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as in soil, water, and
vegetation, as well as in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.
 Ionizing radiation has many beneficial applications, including uses in medicine, industry,
agriculture and research.
 As the use of ionizing radiation increases, so does the potential for health hazards if not
properly used or contained.
 Acute health effects such as skin burns or acute radiation syndrome can occur when doses
of radiation exceed certain levels.
 Low doses of ionizing radiation can increase the risk of longer term effects such as cancer.

Sources of Natural background radiation

People are constantly exposed to small amounts of ionizing radiation from the environment as
they carry out their normal daily activities; this is known as natural background radiation.
Radiation has always been present and is all around us. Life has evolved in a world containing
significant levels of ionizing radiation. Our bodies are adapted to it.

The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)
identifies four major sources of public exposure to natural radiation:

a) cosmic radiation
b) terrestrial radiation
c) inhalation
d) ingestion
 Procedure Average effective dose (mSv) Range reported in the literature (mSv)

Bone density test+ 0.001 0.00–0.035

X-ray, arm or leg 0.001 0.0002–0.1
X-ray, panoramic dental 0.01 0.007–0.09
X-ray, chest 0.1 0.05–0.24
X-ray, abdominal 0.7 0.04–1.1
Mammogram 0.4 0.10–0.6
X-ray, lumbar spine 1.5 0.5–1.8
CT, head 2 0.9–4
CT, cardiac for calcium scoring 3 1.0–12
Nuclear imaging, bone scan 6.3
CT, spine 6 1.5–10
CT, pelvis 6 3.3–10
CT, chest 7 4.0–18
CT, abdomen 8 3.5–25
CT, colonoscopy 10 4.0–13.2
CT, angiogram 16 5.0–32
CT, whole body variable 20 or more
Nuclear imaging, cardiac stress 40.7
test

a) Exposure from cosmic radiation

The earth's outer atmosphere is continually bombarded by cosmic radiation. Usually, cosmic
radiation consists of fast moving particles that exist in space and originate from a variety of
sources, including the sun and other celestial events in the universe. Cosmic rays are mostly
protons but can be other particles or wave energy. Some ionizing radiation will penetrate the
earth's atmosphere and become absorbed by humans, which results in natural radiation
exposure.

b) Exposure from terrestrial radiation

The composition of the earth's crust is a major source of natural radiation. The main
contributors are natural deposits of uranium, potassium and thorium which, in the process of
natural decay, will release small amounts of ionizing radiation. Uranium and thorium are
“ubiquitous”, meaning they are found essentially everywhere.

c) Exposure through inhalation

Essentially all air contains radon , which is responsible for most of the dose that Americans
receive each year from natural background sources. Most of the variation in exposure to
natural radiation results from inhalation of radioactive gases that are produced by radioactive
minerals found in soil and bedrock. Radon is an odourless and colourless radioactive gas that
is produced by the decay of uranium. Thoron is a radioactive gas produced by the thorium.
Radon and thoron levels vary considerably by location depending on the composition of soil
and bedrock. Once released into the air, these gases will normally dilute to harmless levels in
the atmosphere but sometimes they become trapped and accumulate inside buildings and are
inhaled by occupants, so exposure to natural radiation can occur from indoors as well as
outdoors. On average, it is the largest source of natural radiation exposure.

d) Exposure through ingestion
Trace amounts of radioactive minerals are naturally found in the contents of food and
drinking water. For instance, vegetables are typically cultivated in soil and ground water which
contains radioactive minerals. Once ingested, these minerals result in internal exposure to
natural radiation. Water contains small amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, lead and
all organic matter (both plant and animal) contains radioactive carbon and potassium. These
radioactive and non-radioactive elements are used in building and maintaining our bodies.
Internal Radiation
All people have internal radiation, mainly from radioactive potassium-40(Bananas) and
carbon-14 inside their bodies from birth. The human body also contains several radioactive
isotopes. Humans also emit non-trivial amounts of ionizing radiation. The table below contains
a list of some of the isotopes naturally found in the body.
Artificial sources of radiation
Atmospheric testing: The atmospheric testing of atomic weapons from the end of the Second
World War until as late as 1980 released radioactive material, called fallout, into the air. As the
fallout settled to the ground, it was incorporated into the environment. Much of the fallout had
short half-lives and no longer exists, but some continues to decay to this day. People and the
environment receive smaller and smaller doses from the fallout every year.

Medical sources: Radiation has many uses in medicine. The most well known use is X-ray
machines, which use radiation to find broken bones and diagnose disease. X-ray machines are
regulated by Health Canada and provincial authorities. Another example is nuclear medicine,
which uses radioactive isotopes to diagnose and treat diseases such as cancer. These
applications of nuclear medicine, as well as the related equipment, are regulated by the CNSC.
The CNSC also licenses those reactors and particle accelerators that produce isotopes destined
for medical and industrial applications.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use uranium to drive a chain reaction that
produces steam, which in turn drives turbines to produce electricity. As part of their normal
activities, NPPs release regulated levels of radioactive material which can expose people to low
doses of radiation. Similarly, uranium mines, fuel fabrication plants and radioactive waste
facilities release some radioactivity that contributes to the dose of the public.
Radioactivity: French scientist Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. The
spontaneous emission of radioactive rays from radioactive element is called radioactivity. Due
to radioactivity the nucleus of the element transformed into the nucleus of a new element so
the radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel ( Bq).
decay
1 Bq=1
Second
Earlier a unit named Curie (Ci) was used for radioactivity.
decay
1 Ci=3.7 x 1010 =3.7 x 10 10 Bq
Sec
Radioactivity is two types of kind.
1) Natural
2) Artificial

Natural radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiations from unstable nuclei is

known as natural radioactivity.

Artificial radioactivity: Not all nuclear reactions are spontaneous. These reactions occur
when stable isotopes are bombarded with particles such as neutrons. This method of inducing a
nuclear reaction to proceed is termed artificial radioactivity.

Properties of radioactivity: The properties of radioactivity are

1) Radioactive substance radiatesα , βandγ rays.
2) Atomic number more than 82 is radioactive element.
3) Nuclear phenomena.
4) It is a spontaneous, aimless phenomena and it is not influenced by external process like
pressure, heat, electricity or magnetism.
Properties of α , β∧γ Rays
 Properties of α Rays
a) α −¿Ray’s are positively charged. Their charge is 3.2 x 10−19 .
b) These rays are deflected by Magnetic and electric fields.
c) These rays can produce ions.
d) Penetrating power is small.
e) At normal temperature and pressure they can be stopped by few centimeter of air and a
thin metal foil.
f) These rays can affect photographic plate.
g) It is helium nucleus.
h) The mass of this particle is four times than that of hydrogen atom.
i) These particles are emitted with high velocity.
 Properties of β Rays
a) These rays are negatively charged.
b) These rays are deflected by Magnetic and electric fields.
c) These rays are emitted very fast. Its speed is about 75 % of the speed of the light.
d) These rays are steam of very high speed electrons. Their mass is equal to the mass of
electron i. e .9.1 x 10−31 Kg .
e) They can affect photographic plate.
f) These rays can produce fluorescence.
g) The penetrating power of these rays is more than α −¿rays and can penetrate 1 cm aluminium
foil.
h) These rays can produce ion in gas.
i) When passing thorough any material these rays are deflected.
j) Their trajectory is curved and they have no range in the air.
 Properties of γ Rays
a) These rays are electrically neutral and have no mass.
b) These rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
c) The velocity of these rays equal to that of the light.
d) The penetrating power of these rays is much greater than that of α ∧β rays. It can
penetrate about few centimeter of lead sheet.
e) Less ionization power.
f) Can affect photographic plate.
g) These rays can produce fluorescence.
h) These are electromagnetic waves.
i) Wavelength are very short so highly energetic.
Radioactive decay Law:( Elster and Geitel)
“The rate of radioactive decay of radioactive atoms is directly proportional to the number of
intact atoms present at that time”. Let at the beginning of the counting time when t=0 ,the
number of atoms of a radioactive material is N o . Now if dN number of atoms decay during
dN
infinitesimal time dtthen the rate of decay of atom is .
dt

dN
Now → ∝−N
dt
¿−λN
Since with the passage of time the number of atoms of the material is decreasing so the
negative sign has been used, here λis called the radioactive decay constant of that material.
Radioactive exponential law:
If the decay constant of a radioactive substance is λand the number of intact atoms at time
t is N then

dN
∝−N =−λN
dt
dN
∴ =−λdt
N
At the beginning t=o , N =N 0 at t=t and N=N .
Now →
N t

∫ dN =− λ∫ dt
N N
0 0

∴ [ lnN ] N =−λ [ t ] t
N0 0
∴ lnN −ln N 0=−λt
N N
∴ ln =− λt∴ =e− λt
N0 N0
∴ N =N 0 e− λt

Half-life: The time required for one half of the radioactive substance to decay is called half life
of that radioactive substance. The time during which the number N number of atoms of a
N
radioactive substance decays into numbers is the half life. We know,
2
− λt
N=N 0 e

t=T 1 N0
When then N=
2 2
N0 −λ T 1

¿> =N 0 e 2

2
1
¿> ln
2 []
=−λ T 1
2
1
¿>− λ T 1 =−ln
2
2
¿> λT 1 =0.693
2
¿> λT 1 =0.693
2
0.693
∴ T 1=
2
λ

Mean life:“The some of the life of each atom of a radioactive substance divided by the
number of atoms at the beginning is called radioactivity mean life”
life of 1 st atom+life of 2 nd atom+−−−−−+life oft h e N 0 t h atom
τ=
N0

We can write →
∞
dN t
τ =∫ −−−−(i)
0 N0
We knew,
dN
=−λN
dt
∴ dN=− λNdt
∴ dN=− λ N 0 e−λt dt −−(ii)

Now from equation (i),

∞ ∞
dN .t t . λ N 0 e− λt dt ∞ t . λ N 0 e− λt dt ∞
τ =∫ =∫ =∫ =∫ (λt )e− λt dt
0 N 0 0 N 0 0 N 0 0
∞
dx
¿ ∫ xe−x
0 λ
∞
1
¿ ∫ e−x . x 2−1 dx
x 0
1
¿− . Γ 2
λ
 1
¿ Applications of radioactivity:
λ

1) Nuclear radiations like γ -rays have been utilized for the preservation of food. Food-stuff
mainly meat, poultry, fish fruits etc are exposed to γ -rays from cobalt-60 or caesium-137. A
dose of about 2 to 5 million reads is sufficient to destroy almost all bacteria in food. This
increases the shelf-life of the food-items without refrigeration.
2) Radiation is also being used for insect disinfection of wheat and flour.
3) Radiation is also used for producing new and improved varieties of plants. This is achieved
by plant mutations produce by radiation. Radioisotopes can also be used to raise crop-
yields.
4) Gamma radiations from radioactive sources like cobalt-60, iridium-192 are used in industrial
radiography i.e., for investigating the interiors of metallic castings for detecting any flaws of
defects.
5) Radiations can be also used as pesticide. Population of insects which causes considerable
damage to both plant crops and livestock can be controlled by irradiating the male
members of these insects which render them sterile.
6) Gamma radiation from Cobalt-60 is used in hospitals to sterilize materials like hypodermic
syringe, surgical instruments, dressings etc.
7) A carefully prepared radio-thorium with zinc sulphide exhibits a more or less permanent
luminescence and is used for coating the pointers and figures of clocks and watches.
8) Medical applications.
Adverse effects of radiation:
a) Drop in the number of blood cells, called aplastic anemia. This may result in infections due
to a low amount of white blood cells, bleeding due to a lack of platelets, and anemia due to
too few red blood cells in the circulation.
b) Skin problems, some people who receive radiation therapy experience dryness, itching,
blistering (bitter), or peeling (loss of outer skin).
c)  Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and abdominal pain.
d) Neurological symptoms such as dizziness, headache, or decreased level of consciousness.
e) Trouble with memory and speech.
f) High radiation doses can cause DNA damage.

Problems:
1) How long does it take for 60 percent of a sample of Radon to decay, where the half-life of Radon is
3.82 days?
2) The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30 days. Calculate
a) The radioactive decay constant.
4
b) The time taken for of the original number of atoms to disintegrate and
5
3
c) The time for of the original number of atoms to remain unchanged.
4