By: Mohammed A . & Belete M.

March, 2021
lecture 2: Fundamentals of Traffic Flow

Contents to be cover:
Basic Concept

Traffic Flow Modelling

Traffic flow elements

Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models

Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters

Mathematical relationships between traffic flow elements

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lecture 2: Fundamentals of Traffic Flow

 Basic Concepts

Demand Vs. Capacity

Demand: refers to number of vehicles that desire to travel a specific
highway stretch during a specific time period.
Capacity: refers to the maximum number of vehicles that could
travel a specific highway stretch during a specific time period.
What happens when the Demand exceeds the Capacity??
 Delays
 Traffic System
 Failure

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lecture 2: Fundamentals of Traffic Flow

 Basic Concepts

Mobility Vs. Accessibility

Mobility: refers to the ability to travel to many different

destinations.

Accessibility: refers to the ability to gain entry to a particular site or

Area.

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2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling

Two types of Traffic Facilities

Uninterrupted flow
Traffic steams at roadway sections without operational
controls.
Freeways where there are no intersections at grade, no
STOP & YIELD signs, etc.
Interrupted flow
Incorporate fixed external interruptions such as traffic
signals, STOP & YIELD signs, etc.

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 2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling
A model….
 Is a simplified representation of the world or the representation
of an object or system in another form.
 Models can be..
 Quantitative (with numbers) or qualitative (without)
 static (relating to states or conditions) or dynamic (relating to
processes)
 Causal (why something happens) or simply correlative
 Aggregate or disaggregate
 Transparent (to aid understanding or explanation) or a black
box
 Predictive (what will happen) or prescriptive (what should
happen)
 Empirical (based directly on data) or synthetic (based on a
25/03/2021 relationship derived from the data) 6
By: Mohemmed A. & Belete M.
2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling

Purpose of a model…
 to help understand how the system works

 to help explain or communicate how the system works

 to help predict usage and performance of the system in

various possible future circumstances

 to help design or manage facilities and services

 to help evaluate possible investment options

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2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling
Stages of a modelling…
 Model Specification:
 Independent or explanatory variables

 Dependent or response variable

 Form of relationship (e.g. linear, exponent etc.)

 Model Calibration:

 Quantify parameters using observed data

 Model Validation:

 Consider others situations by using different data from

different locations or time periods.
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2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling
simple model example…..

 Oh= a + bEh+ cCh

–Where:

• Oh= number of trips made by household h

• Eh= number of workers in household h

• Ch= number of cars owned by household h

 Oh is the dependent or response variable

 Eh and Ch are independent or explanatory variables

 a, b and c are parameters.

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 2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling
Traffic Flow Modelling…..
 What?
 Mathematical abstraction of traffic stream Parameters/characteristics
in uninterrupted flow situations.
 Traffic stream Parameters can be….
 Macroscopic :- describe the traffic stream as a whole.
 Volume or flow rate
 Speed
 Density (Concentration)
 Microscopic:- describe behavior of individual vehicle or pairs of
vehicles in a stream.
 Speed of individual vehicles
 Headway
 Spacing

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2.1. Traffic Flow Modelling
 Why?
Objectives of traffic flow modelling:
 Planning and Policy Analysis
 Design Evaluation
 Operations Management
 Real-time decision support system
 How? Traffic Flow Modeling approaches:
 Macroscopic Approach: considers the traffic stream at a
given section as one unit (similar to the flow of fluids).
 Microscopic Approach: consider spacing and speeds of
individual vehicles. Modeling individual vehicles
behavior ultimately results in an aggregate traffic stream
behavior.

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2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
 Key Macroscopic Variables
& Relationships
 Flow (q): number of
vehicles per time unit
(veh/hr)
 Speed (u): average
speed (km/hr)
 Density (k): number
of vehicles per unit
length (veh/km)
 Key relationship:

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2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
 Flow (q) is defined as the number of vehicles passing in
an interval of time.
 the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicle pass a point on
a highway during a time period less than 1 hr.
 Unit is often vehicle per hour (Veh/hour), but other units
are also possible (Veh/day, Veh/minute, etc.)
 It can be calculated by:

Where n is the number of vehicles and T is the time period

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 2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models

 Density (k)
– sometimes referred to as
concentration
– the number of vehicles
traveling over a unit length of
highway at an instant in time.
– the unit length usually 1 mi, Density =
thereby making vehicles per # vehicles/Distance
mile (veh/mi) the unit of
density.
– The unit is usually Veh/km
– It is difficult to measure
density directly.
 It can be calculated by:

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2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
Speed(u)
– Speed might be defined as the relationship between
distance and time when an object is moving.
– The unit for speed is kilometer per hour (km/h) or
meters per second (m/s)
– U (km/hr) = u(m/s) *3.6
– U (m/s) = u(km/hr) /3.6
– (1 hour = 3600 seconds and 1km = 1000m)
 Example:
 72 km/hr = 72/3.6 = 20m/s
 30m/s = 30*3.6 = 108 km/h
 5 km/hr = 5/3.6 = 1.4 m/s (typical pedestrian speed)

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2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
 Two types of speed:-
 Point speed
• Is measured at a point (short distance)
• An average point speed is also known as Time Mean Speed
(TMS).
• Often measured by inductive loops or radar.
• the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time.  Where:
• is found by: n = number of
vehicles passing
a point on the
highway
ui = speeds of
the ith vehicle

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2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
 Two types of speed:-
 Section speed
• Is measured over a longer distance.
• Section speed is also know as travel speed or space speed.
• An average section speed is also called Space Mean Speed (SMS).
• the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time.
• It is dependent on the average of individual travel times for each
vehicles.
 where
• Is found by:
n = number of vehicles
ti = the time it takes the ith
vehicle to travel across a
section of highway
ui = speeds of the ith
vehicle
L = length of section of
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highway 17
2.2 Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models
the time mean speed is always higher than the space
mean speed

the difference between these speeds tends to decrease as

the absolute values of speeds increase.

it has been shown from field data that the relationship
between time mean speed and space mean speed can be
give as:

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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model
 Fundamental Diagrams
 the relationship between the density and the corresponding
flow of traffic on a highway generally is referred to as the
fundamental diagram of traffic flow.
 It was developed by Greenshield in 1934.
 This model considers there is linear relationship between
Primary elements Traffic Flow Elements
 Importance of fundamental diagrams:
estimation of capacity
relation with level of service
to take remedial measure related to level of service
 The fundamental diagrams can be:
Speed vs. Density
Speed vs. Flow
Flow vs. Density 19
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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model
a) Speed vs. Density Relationship
 When there are no vehicles on
the highway, the density is zero.
 When density is zero there will
be little or no interaction
between vehicles, therefore
drivers are free to travel at max
possible speed.
 Further continuous increase in
density will then result in
continuous reduction of speed,
which will be zero when
density is equal to the jam
density
 Free Flow Speed (uf) is speed
that vehicles will travel on a
roadway when the density of
vehicles is zero.

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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model
b) Speed vs. Flow Relationship
 When flow is very low, there is
little interaction between
vehicles, therefore drivers are free
to travel at max possible speed.
 The absolute max speed is
obtained as the flow tends to zero
(Mean Free Speed uf ).
 Continuous increase in flow will
result in a continuous decrease in
speed.
 A point will be reached when
further addition of vehicles will
result in the reduction in the
actual number of vehicles that
pass a point on the highway
(reduction of flow).
 At this point congestion is
reached and eventually both
speed and flow become zero.
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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model
b) Flow vs. Density Relationship
 When there are no vehicles on the
highway, the density is zero and
flow is also zero.
 As density increase flow also
increase.
 When density reaches max. (jam
density Kj), the flow must be
zero because vehicles will tend to
line up end to end.
 It follows that as density
increases from zero, the flow will
also initially increase from zero
to a max. value.
 Further continuous increase in
density will then result in
continuous reduction of flow,
which will be zero when density
is equal to the jam density.
 Jam Density is density at which traffic The slop of flow- density graph
stops or flow is becomes zero. is mean free speed.
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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model

 Unique Model Parameters:

 Capacity (qmax): Max Flow

 Critical Speed (uc): Speed

corresponding to max flow

 Jam Density (kj): Max Density

 Critical Density (kc): Density

corresponding to max flow

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 Greenshield Traffic Flow Model

 Unique Model Parameters:

 Capacity qmax Estimation:  At Capacity qmax:

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 Calibration of GreenShield Traffic Flow Models
 Linear Regression Analysis:  Minimizing the square of the
differences between observed and
expected values of a dependent
variable.

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Calibration of GreenShield Traffic Flow Models
 Linear Regression Analysis:
 How to assess the model goodness of fitness?
 Coefficient of Determination R2

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Greenberg Traffic Flow Model
 It was developed by Greenberg in 1959.
 This model considers there is logarithmic relationship
between Primary elements Traffic Flow Elements
Fundamental Diagram

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Greenberg Traffic Flow Model
 It was developed by Greenberg in 1959.
 This model considers there is logarithmic relationship
between Primary elements Traffic Flow Elements
Fundamental Diagram

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Underwood Traffic Flow Model

 It was developed by Underwood in 1961.

 This model considers there is Exponential relationship

between Primary elements Traffic Flow Elements

Fundamental Diagram

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters

 Microscopic – describe behaviour of individual vehicle or

pairs of vehicles in a stream.
 Speed of individual vehicles
 Headway
 Spacing
 Clearance and gap
 Lane occupancy

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Spacing (s)
 the distance between
successive vehicles in a
traffic lane measured from
one common reference point Spacing
on the vehicles, such as front
bumpers of front wheels.

 Front bumper to front

bumper distance between
successive vehicles S1-2

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Headways…..

 space headway (d):

– The distance between vehicles.
– the distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle.
– it is usually expressed in feet.
– It is also called distance headway
– Can be found from time-space diagram at specified time (t).
 Average space headway is given by:

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Headways…..
 Time headway (h):
– Is the time interval between vehicles
– the difference between the time the front of a vehicle arrives at a
point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle
arrives at the same point.
– the time headway is usually expressed in seconds.
– Can be found from time-space diagram at specified time (t).
 Average time headway is given by:
1
h= = average time headway
𝑞

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Headways…..
• Time/distance between successive vehicles passing a fixed point

T=3sec
h1-2=3sec

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Clearance (c) and Gap (g):
 Front bumper to back bumper distance and time

Clearance (ft) or Gap (sec)

Lavg
gavg  havg 
vavg Spacing (ft) or headway (sec)

cavg  gavg * vavg

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 Microscopic Traffic Stream Parameters
 Lane Occupancy, LO:
 Ratio of roadway occupied by vehicles

L3 L2 L1

L i D
LO  i
D
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 Mathematical relationships between traffic flow elements
 The general equation relating flow, density and space mean speed is
given as:
 Other relationships:
 Space mean speed = (flow) x (average space headway)
but
 Density = (flow) x (average travel time for unit distance

 Average space headway = (space mean speed) x (average

time headway)
 Average time headway = (average travel time for unit
distance) x (average space headway)
1 1
q k
h s
37
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 Mathematical relationships between traffic flow elements
 Basic Relationships:

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 ?
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