Towards Inclusion of All Learners Through Science Teacher Educat 2018

Towards Inclusion of All Learners through Science Teacher Education
Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn, Christopher L. Atchison, and Tiffany A. Wild - 978-90-04-36842-2
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STUDIES IN INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION
Series Editor
Roger Slee (University of South Australia, Australia)
Editorial Board
Mel Ainscow (University of Manchester, UK)

Felicity Armstrong (Institute of Education, University of London, UK)
Len Barton (Institute of Education, University of London, UK)
Suzanne Carrington (Queensland University of Technology, Australia)
Joanne Deppeler (Monash University, Australia)
Linda Graham (University of Sydney, Australia)
Levan Lim (National Institute of Education, Singapore)
Missy Morton (University of Canterbury, New Zealand)
ඏඈඅඎආൾ 36
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/stie
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Towards Inclusion of All
Learners through Science
Teacher Education
Edited by
Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn,

Christopher L. Atchison and Tiffany A. Wild
LEIDEN | BOSTON
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Cover illustration: Drawing by Mindi Rhoades
All chapters in this book have undergone peer review.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Koomen, Michele, editor.

Title: Toward inclusion of all learners through science teacher education /
edited by Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn, Christopher L. Atchison
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Description: Boston : Brill Sense, [2018] | Series: Studies in inclusive
education | Includes bibliographical references and index.
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Subjects: LCSH: Science--Study and teaching (Elementary)--United States. |
Science--Study and teaching (Secondary)--United States. | Science
teachers--Training of--United States. | Inclusive education.
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Copyright 2018 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf,
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
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Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923,
USA. Fees are subject to change.
This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi
Sami Kahn and Michele Koomen
Section 1: Listening to the Inclusive Voices of Students with Disabilities

in the Science Education Classroom
Introduction to Section 1 3
1. Inclusion “Insight”: Voices of Students with Visual Impairments in the

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Lisa Johnson
2. '++9RLFHV
Lisa M. Dembouski (with Kaitlyn Mielke, Johanna Lucht, Julie Pleski,
Norb Biderman and Misty Schomberg)
3. Tanglde in Tetx: :KDW,:DQW<RXWR.QRZDERXW0\'\VOH[LF6HOI

Merrie Koester
A Good Teacher Makes Science Light-Hearted: Experiences in Learning

6FLHQFHIURP$OHMDQGUR
Alejandro and Michele Koomen
,QFOXGLQJ6WXGHQWVZLWK$XWLVP6SHFWUXP'LVRUGHULQD.&ODVVURRP
Kourtney Bakalyar
6. Looking through the Window to Help Teach Others: Science Stories of

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Lauren Madden, Amy Schuler, Melissa Friedman, Shanaya Panday
and Danielle Koehler
Synthesis of Voices from the Field: Implications for Practice 69

Tiffany Wild
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CONTENTS
Section 2: Visions of Inclusion and Access: UDL, Strengths-Based

Approaches, and Online Learning
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8. 5HGH¿QLQJ,QFOXVLRQLQ(GXFDWLRQDO6HWWLQJVDFURVVWKH/HDVW5HVWULFWLYH
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Kathleen M. Farrand
9. Applying a Universal Design for Learning Framework to Mediate the

Language Demands of Science 91
Cathy Newman Thomas, Delinda van Garderen, Kate Sadler,
Mary Decker and Deborah Hanuscin
10. From Access to Assets: Strength-Based Visions for Inclusive Science

(GXFDWLRQ
Sami Kahn
11. Inclusive Online Science Education: :KDW7HDFKHUV1HHGWR.QRZ

Sheryl Burgstahler
12. Universal Design for Learning in Science: A Framework That Supports

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Sarah Summy and Marcia Fetters
Section 3: Developing Disciplinary Core Ideas and Science Content

Knowledge
Introduction to Section 3 139
13. )URP$FDGHPLFLDQ¶V2൶FHWR3K\VLFV/DEIRU6WXGHQWVZLWK6SHFLDO
Needs: $*XLGHIRU7UDQVIRUPDWLRQ
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Crosscutting through Science Education: Opportunities for Inclusion

5HVXOWLQJLQ([FHSWLRQDO/HDUQLQJIRU$OO
Terri Hebert, Jannike Jakobsen Seward and R. Lee Smith
Learning Frog Calls When You Can’t Hear: Fieldwork with High School
6WXGHQWV:KR$UH'HDIDQG+DUGRI+HDULQJ
Lacey D. Huffling, Aerin W. Benavides, Catherine E. Matthews,
Mary V. Compton, Stephanie Kurtts and Heidi B. Carlone
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CONTENTS
16. “Engineering Is for Everyone”: A Case Study of Elementary Engineering

'HVLJQ
Elaine Silva Mangiante and Adam Moore
Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers through First-Hand Perspectives

RI$ELOLW\LQDQ,QFOXVLYHO\'HVLJQHG6FLHQFH0HWKRGV&RXUVH
Christopher L. Atchison and Christina R. Carnahan
Section 4: Science Practice and Developing Explanations
18. Increasing Science Learning and Engagement for Academically Diverse

6WXGHQWVWKURXJK6FD൵ROGHG6FLHQWL¿F,QTXLU\DQG8QLYHUVDO'HVLJQIRU
Learning 201
Maya Israel, Saadeddine Shehab and Quentin M. Wherfel
19. 6FLHQWL¿F,QTXLU\DQG'HYHORSLQJ([SODQDWLRQVIRU$OO

Kevin D. Finson
20. Learning Science by Doing Science: Developing Scientific Explanations

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Kevin Fleming and Dina Secchiaroli
Section 5: Promoting Literacy in Science
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/HDUQLQJ(QYLURQPHQWV
William Lindquist and Rebecca A. Neal
22. Some of Them Have Problems, Too, Like Me: Science Disciplinary
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Michele Koomen
Section 6: Assessment in Science
23. The Rise of Measurement: Assessing Science and the Implications for
6WXGHQWVZLWK6SHFLDO1HHGVIRU,QFOXVLYH6FLHQFH(GXFDWLRQ
Jonte’ C. Taylor, Karen Koehler, Karen Rizzo and Jiwon Hwang
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CONTENTS
Assessing the Ultimate Goal of Science Education: Scientific Literacy

IRU$OO
Judith S. Lederman and Selina Bartels
Section 7: Advocacy
Oh the Places You Will Go! But How Will You Get There? Examining
the Role of Social Feedback, Mentorship and Role Modelling in
STEM Career Pathways 291
Heather A. Pacheco-Guffrey
26. Exclusion from Participation in Science: Confessions from an Ally on

the Other Side of the Fence 301
Phillip A. Boda
Section 8: Science Teacher Education
Co-teaching for Inclusiveness: How Two Teacher Educators Collaborated

DFURVV'LVFLSOLQDU\%RXQGDULHVLQDQ(OHPHQWDU\6FLHQFH0HWKRGV&RXUVH
Teresa Shume and Keri DeSutter
28. Voices and Practice of SEND in Science Initial Teacher Education 329
Lyn Haynes and Maria Turkenburg-van Diepen
29. A Collaborative Process for Preparing Pre-Service General Education

and Special Education Science Teachers 339
Jenna Porter and Kathy Gee
30. No Student Teacher Left Behind: Lessons Learned from a Science Student
7HDFKHUZLWKD3K\VLFDO'LVDELOLW\
Catherine M. Koehler
31. Conclusion: Bringing the Book Together 363

Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn, Christopher L. Atchison and Tiffany Wild
About the Contributors 369
Index 381
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the many individuals who supported the development of this work
through their efforts, insights, and inspiration. First, we wish to thank the following
scholars who assisted us with proofreading and other editorial tasks:
Tahnee Andrew Rachel Jackson

Leah Chamberlain Helen Meyer
Ying Ting Chiu Ryan Pigman
Diane Clouse Linda Plevyak
Sarah Cross Erin Rumpke
Sarah Everett Marek Samblanet
Danene Fast Matthew Schmidt
Leiflyn Gamborg Mandy Smith
Sarah Good Angela Webb
Susan Gregson Emily Wild
Kristen Haddad
Next, we wish to thank Mindi Rhoades, Assistant Professor of Teaching and Learning
at The Ohio State University, for designing our beautiful cover art. She expressed
through her artistry the power and vision that we hope emanates from our book.
We also wish to thank our families, friends, and colleagues for their encouragement,
patience, and wisdom.
Finally, we thank all of the students, teachers, teacher educators, and researchers
who have inspired us by working to ensure that ALL voices are heard and honored
in science.
With Gratitude,
Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn, Christopher Atchison, and Tiffany Wild

The Editors
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SAMI KAHN AND MICHELE KOOMEN
INTRODUCTION
The idea and urgency for this book began at the national meeting of the Association for
Science Teacher Education in 2011 with a conversation between Tiffany Wild (The
Ohio State University), Sharon Dotger (Syracuse University) and Michele Koomen
(Gustavus Adolphus College). During an Inclusive Science Forum meeting at that
conference we lamented the absence of research and practitioner-based information
and texts regarding inclusion in the science teacher and science education literature.
Many publications have been written with the titles that contain words like “Science
Education for ALL Students”, but only contain a small paragraph or two about
teaching students with special needs.
As professional teacher educators, we were keenly aware of the fact that so
few teachers, whether in-service or pre-service feel prepared to teach all students.
Norman, Caseau, and Stefanich (1998) national survey of 189 elementary, middle
and high school teachers and college and university science educators found that
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with disabilities in the regular science classroom. Parsad, Lewis, and Farris, (2001)
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preparation program, the majority of these teachers felt that they were not prepared to
accommodate students with disabilities or exceptionalities in their future classrooms.
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DGHTXDWHO\SUHSDUHGWRWHDFKVFLHQFHWRVWXGHQWVZLWKVSHFLILFGLVDELOLWLHV1RUPDQ
et al., 1998). More recently and similar to the research of Norman and colleagues,
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WDXJKWVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVDWVRPHSRLQWLQWKHLUFDUHHUVDQGVWLOORIWKHP
had no training on teaching students with disabilities. Many reported that on the
job training was the only instruction they received. Science teachers in the survey
overwhelmingly supported the need for additional training in teaching students with
disabilities. Obviously, the inclusion of students in general education classrooms is
preceding the establishment of training and assistance for teachers and support staff.
This book creates a bold vision for supporting all learners in science and serves
to unify the work of multicultural and special education with a focus on the ability
and strength of all students. Throughout this book, we seek to mediate the gap in the
research and published literature in inclusive science teacher education as a needed
educational resource for learning about how to educate students with exceptionalities
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S. KAHN & M. KOOMEN
in science. We use disability studies in education (DSE) as the conceptual framework

for the book. DSE is an interdisciplinary orientation to educational theory, research,
and practice that works from a social and cultural model of disability and challenges
the medical (or deficit) model to normalize difference.
Our vision for this book centers on the voices and stories of the experts: current
and former K-12 students with disabilities who have experienced education in the
general science education classroom and uses their stories as a platform to develop
insightful educational methods (Jones, 2011). We hope that this book will serve as
an indispensable educational resource by providing pre-service teachers, current
teachers, and teacher educators with leading insights on inclusive and accessible
science instruction.
In the following sections, we build on the call by recent national reform
documents for rigorous science experiences for all students. Throughout we develop
in greater detail our conceptual framework of DSE and make the case for what we
believe is a moral imperative for all science educators: to interpret and implement
inclusive science education in its broadest sense, ensuring access and excellence for
all students no matter where they are educated or by whom they are taught.
NGSS AND THE FRAMEWORK FOR K-12 SCIENCE EDUCATION
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013), and the
Framework for K-12 Science Education upon which the NGSS were based (National
Research Council, 2012), envision a rigorous foundation in science for all K-12
students through the application of three-dimensional learning comprised of
disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts and eight science and engineering
practices. Both documents, in our opinions, make admirable attempts at emphasizing
success in science for all students, particularly students who have been traditionally
underserved within the education system (NGSS, Appendix D). Yet, since both the
NGSS and their supporting conceptual framework were developed during a time, and
in response to, strong emphases on accountability, many teachers may unwittingly
find themselves teaching to tests rather than teaching individual students. To
support teachers, the NGSS offer an introduction to the manner in which the three
dimensions can be integrated and implemented through curricula and instruction
for all students through a series of teacher-centered case studies that provide a
window into successful teaching for students from various underrepresented groups,
including “English Language Learners,” “Economically Disadvantaged,” and
“Students with Disabilities.” We applaud this thoughtful approach that undoubtedly
can provide current and future science teachers with a glimpse into “best practices”
for students who are seen as belonging within each of the delineated groups. Yet we
also acknowledge that such cleanly-organized attempts at presenting the depth and
breadth of human experience within even a single classroom can come up short.
This is true in part because individual students may well identify with more than
one underrepresented group within such an organizational structure. But more
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INTRODUCTION
importantly, because socially-constructed terms, like disability, are ultimately just

shorthand and fail to provide meaningful insight into individual experience. For
these reasons, we felt this book was needed; we wished to give voice to a wide
range of students who have been labelled as having disabilities in order to hear
detail-rich stories of their experiences, and those of their science teachers. We also
hoped to gain insights into ways that key aspects of the Framework and NGSS’
three-dimensional learning can be implemented with all students with particular
attention on their abilities and strengths. We are heartened that the NGSS are devised
around learning progressions that increase in sophistication from grades K-12,
thereby offering “multiple entry points to build and deepen understanding” (NGSS
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PHDQLQJIXODFFHVVLEOHULJRURXVDQGHTXLWDEOHVFLHQFHRSSRUWXQLWLHVE\FDSLWDOL]LQJ
upon all students’ strengths, backgrounds, and experiences.
DISABILITY STUDIES IN EDUCATION
Disability studies in education has attracted scholars from across the globe who are
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educational practices surrounding the phenomenon of disability (Baglieri, Valle,
Connor & Gallagher, 2011). DSE, a relatively new field of research and scholarship,
emerged from disability studies where scholars and practitioners:
Seek to reach beyond the parochial and persistently narrow boundaries within
which disability is all too often conceived. Broadly, the aim of DSE is to
deepen understandings of the daily experiences of people with disabilities
in schools and universities, throughout contemporary society across diverse
cultures, and within various historical contexts. (Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, &
0RUWRQS
Disability studies (DS) emerged over thirty years ago both in the United
Kingdom (U.K.) and in the United States (U.S.). Collins (2013) describes DS as
an interdisciplinary orientation to educational theory, research, and practice that
works from a social and cultural model of disability and challenges the medical (or
GHILFLWPRGHOWR³QRUPDOL]HGLIIHUHQFH´S,QWKH8.'6ZDVLQIOXHQFHG
by sociologists drawing from neo-Marxist philosophy. These DS researchers
theorized a social interpretation and model of disability “in which disability is
primarily understood as a result of oppressive social arrangements” (Connor et al.,
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HTXDOVWDWXVIRUPHPEHUVRIPLQRULW\JURXSVLQFOXGLQJ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZRPHQ
lesbians, and gays, to name just a few, were influential to DS. Both the U.S. and
U.K. models of DS define this paradigm as a “rejection of the medical model of
disability and the advocacy of full inclusion of disabled people in all aspects of
VRFLHW\´&RQQRUHWDOS
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S. KAHN & M. KOOMEN
DSE centers on the following tenets in research, policy, and action:

Contextualize disability within political and social spheres;
Privilege the interests, agendas, and voices of people labeled as disability/
disabled;
3URPRWHVRFLDOMXVWLFHHTXLWDEOHDQGLQFOXVLYHHGXFDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGIXOO
and meaningful access to all aspects of society for people labeled as disability/
disabled; and
Assume competence and reject deficit models of disability (Connor et al., 2008,
S
The practice of DSE recognizes disability as a natural part of human diversity
and oppose context dependent beliefs about what is normal DSE research is an
emancipatory tool that allows those in our society who are underrepresented to
DFKLHYHPRUHHTXDOLW\PRUHLQFOXVLRQDQGXOWLPDWHO\PRUHRIWKHKXPDQGLJQLW\
they deserve (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2012; Connor et al., 2008). DSE scholars define
inclusive education as full participation in general education classrooms with
minimal or no segregation into special education classrooms or services (Connor
et al., 2008). We imagine education as a practice of access that originates in these
considerations:
Perceiving ability and disability, and ideas about mastery and learning as fluid.
Considering how the interactions and settings contribute to the creation of
disability (i.e., make markers of difference/impairment meaningful as dis-
ablement).
Querying how pull-out, tracking, or containment practices both mark individuals
as disabled and/or limit their access to curriculum and learning (Baglieri et al.,
S
,WLVZRUWKQRWLQJWKDWWKLVERRNLVTXLWHXQLTXHLQGHGLFDWLQJLWVHQWLUHILUVWVHFWLRQ
to the “voices” of persons with disabilities. We were steadfast in our commitment
to ensuring that our readers were privy to experiences conveyed by those with
disabilities, not about them. In doing so, we sought both authenticity in the narrative
and empowerment of the storyteller. We were pleased to see that this section
developed as a natural and robust context for the sections on research and practice
which follows it.
In keeping with DSE, this book seeks to lift up and center the stories on persons
labelled with disabilities to understand and consider those experiences as we shape
instructional practices for all. Despite the Individuals with Disabilities Improvement
$FW¶V,'($SROLF\RILQFOXGLQJVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVDQGWKHLUIDPLOLHV
in educational planning, special education often privileges the discourse of the
professional rather than the true expert voices of the students with disabilities
(Section 1). Throughout this book we use people first language to resist labels that
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INTRODUCTION
emphasize the disability first, rather than the person (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2012). In
using person first language we state: “student with disability” rather than “disabled
student” or a “person who is hard of hearing” versus a “hard of hearing person.”
People first language allows us to focus on the whole person, rather than one aspect
of who they are. Some authors within our book go a step further and use language
such as, “students who are labelled with” a particular disability, to emphasize their
view that disability terminology is socially-constructed and put-upon others, rather
than being inherent to the person. In regard to language, we ourselves admit that, at
times during the development of this book, we faced a bit of an existential crisis. We
felt it necessary, for example, to include in our Call for Chapters terminology such
as “student with Autism Spectrum Disorder” or “student with learning disabilities”
recognizing that such language would be deemed “medical model” by many in
DSE circles. We did this in order to ensure that the book welcomed voices of all
VWXGHQWVDQGZLWKIXOOXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKDWQRERRNFDQHYHUDGHTXDWHO\UHSUHVHQWDOO
experiences or escape all social conventions. Ultimately, we found that our collective
editorial voice landed in a place that resists unnecessary ideological fractures.
However, we include “labelled with” in this Introduction to emphasize our DSE
lens. While there are those who view special education and DSE as being antithetical
to each other, we see DSE and contemporary approaches in special education as
mutually beneficial. These approaches must be able to coexist when inclusively-
designed instruction values the totality of the individual and where teachers listen
carefully to the voices of their students. This book attempts to facilitate those
necessary conditions.
REFERENCES
Baglieri, S., & Shapiro, A. (2012). Disability studies and the inclusive classroom: Critical practices for
creating least restrictive attitudes. London: Routledge.
Baglieri, S., Valle, J. W., Connor, D. J., & Gallagher, D. J. (2011). Disability studies in education: The
need for a plurality of perspectives on disability. Remedial and Special Education, 32±
Collins, K. M. (2013). A disability studies response to JTE’s themed issue on diversity and disability in
teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 64±
Connor, D. J., Gabel, S. L., Gallagher, D. J., & Morton, M. (2008). Disability studies and inclusive
education-implications for theory, research and practice. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
12±±
,QGLYLGXDOVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV(GXFDWLRQ$FW86&
Jones, M. M. (2011). Awakening teacher’s strategies for deconstructing disability and constructing ability.
Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 5±
.DKQ6 /HZLV$56XUYH\RQWHDFKLQJVFLHQFHWR.VWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV7HDFKHU
preparedness and attitudes. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25±
National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting
concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next generation science standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press.
Norman, K., Caseau, D., & Stefanich, G. (1998). Teaching students with disabilities in inclusive science
classrooms: Survey results. Science Education, 82(2), ±
xv
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S. KAHN & M. KOOMEN
Parsad, B., Lewis, L., & Farris, E. (2001). Teacher preparation and professional development: 2000.
Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.
Sami Kahn
Department of Teacher Education
Patton College of Education, Ohio University
Athens, Ohio
Michele Koomen
Department of Education
Gustavus Adolphus College
St. Peter, Minnesota
xvi
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SECTION 1
LISTENING TO THE INCLUSIVE VOICES OF
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES IN THE
SCIENCE EDUCATION CLASSROOM
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INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 1
Disability doesn’t make you exceptional, but questioning what you think you
know about it does. (Stella Young)
Research suggests that when teachers feel more competent and believe in the power
of the teaching profession, they are more comfortable with providing instruction
WR VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV %UDG\ :RROIVRQ +RZHYHU UHVHDUFK DOVR
suggests that pre-service teachers that hold stereotypes of disability and have not
had close contact with persons with disabilities are more likely to oppose inclusive
WHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHV&URZVRQ %UDQGHV7HDFKHUVDWERWKWKHSUHVHUYLFHDQG
in-service levels should be given the tools and information to ensure that all students
with disabilities can be included in their classrooms.
In an effort to provide educators with the best information on the topic of
inclusive science education, we sought guidance from those with the highest levels
of experience and expertise in the subject matter: persons with disabilities. We
asked authors to engage and write with persons with disabilities about their science
experiences. Together, they communicate experiences in the science classroom, the
good and the bad, in hopes that teachers will learn from their experiences.
&KDSWHUV±RIWKLVERRNare designed to provide teachers, both pre-service and
in-service, the opportunity to listen to persons with disabilities. Each chapter in this
section offers the voices of students who are not often given a platform for sharing
their personal experiences. Our hope is that by including their stories, teachers will
learn from the abilities of each of the students and not focus on their perceived
disabilities. It is our hope that this first section of the book helps readers to overcome
stereotypes that prevent the development of inclusive environments.
We urge you to read about each individuals’ experiences in the science classroom,
learn from their experiences, and reflect on the practical advice each person offers
while considering your own understanding of what it means to fully participate in the
learning environment and to make your classroom more inclusive of ALL learners.
REFERENCES
Brady, K., & Woolfson, L. (2008). What teacher factors influence their attributions for childrens’
difficulties in learning? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78±
&URZVRQ+0 %UDQGHV-3UHGLFWLQJSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUV¶RSSRVLWLRQWRLQFOXVLRQRIVWXGHQWV
with disabilities: a path analytic study. Social Psychology Education, 17±
© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI 10.1163/9789004368422_001
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LISA JOHNSON
1. INCLUSION “INSIGHT”
Voices of Students with Visual Impairments in the Science Classroom
Microscopes, chemical reactions, rock identification. Lessons in the science

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with visual impairmentsWKLVHQYLURQPHQWSUHVHQWVVRPHXQLTXHFKDOOHQJHV+RZ
can teachers create meaningful, inclusive, learning opportunities for students without
compromising integrity of the work regardless of one’s ability to see? While inclusion
PD\UHTXLUHVRPHLQQRYDWLYHWKLQNLQJLWLVLPSRUWDQWDQGDEVROXWHO\GRDEOH,Q
during an address at the convention of the National Science Teachers Association,
Geerat J. Vermeij, a renowned blind marine biologist stated, “A conscious effort
PXVW EH PDGH DOO WKH WLPH DQG HYHU\ZKHUH DQG E\ HYHU\RQH WR DFTXDLQW D EOLQG
person with those aspects of the environment that cannot be heard, smelled, or easily
grasped by hands and fingers” (Vermeji, 2002).
Our current education system is ridden with examples of “facades of inclusion”
or soft inclusion in which students are put into general education situations but
not expected to succeed or are held to very low expectations (Benson, Wolford, &
Hyland, 2011). This often occurs when curriculum adaptations are decided without
input from students and based on a perception of what a student can accomplish.
Typically, this translates into watered-down educational experiences that do not
SURYLGHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUVWXGHQWVWRH[FHO%UDQWOLQJHU$VDUHVXOWRQHPXVW
be wary of how we embrace inclusion because, in the end, the dominant group still
controls when, how, and for whom inclusion is appropriate. Even when students
are included, exclusion can continue because, as Ferri (2006) wrote, “students can
be physically included but not conceptually included in the mind of the teacher”
(p. 292), exclusion within inclusion. Instead, the ideal inclusive classroom should
be a place where:
students, regardless of ability … are integral members of classrooms, feel a
connection to their peers and have access to rigorous and meaningful education
curricula and receive collaborative support to succeed. It cannot be a surface
thing. It must go beyond providing accommodations but must respond to the
human need to feel as though they belong. Inclusion entails more than just
getting students into regular education classrooms but also involves changing
what we teach and who we think our students are. (Causton-Theoharis &
7KHRKDULVLQ)HUULS
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L. JOHNSON
Scholars in Disability Studies hold strong to the notion that inclusive spaces value
the expertise that individuals with disabilities bring to a situation and therefore
reject the tendency to elevate the expertise of professionals and their “right” to
make decisions related to how students should be educated without considering their
insights (Oliver, 1996).
To better understand the best ways to achieve a more fully inclusive science
classroom, it seemed natural to provide an opportunity for students with visual
impairments to inform our practices. Interviews were conducted with four college-
aged students with varying degrees of visual impairment. Participants were asked
to reflect on both what worked and what didn’t as it related to their experiences
in K-12 science classrooms and provide recommendations for teachers. Data from
these interviews was used to identify common themes that crosscut all student
interviews which, for the purpose of this chapter, will focus on the need to embrace
an inclusive mindset, the value of collaboration, and simple modifications of
materials, environment, and language use that result in more inclusive classroom
environments.
The term “visual impairment” is widely used to label a range of degrees of visual
abilities; therefore, there is not a single approach that will address the diverse needs
RI VWXGHQWV ZLWKRXW ILUVW XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH XQLTXHQHVV RI WKHLU H[SHULHQFHV ³7KH
impact of the visual impairment on individual learning is also tied to the onset, the
severity, and the type of visual loss, as well as to any coexisting disabilities that may
be present” (Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities, 2013). For example, a
student who had vision at one time may be able to conceptualize things like color,
depth, light, and dark because the child will have a visual history of this information,
whereas someone who has never had vision will not have this knowledge from which
to draw. There can be issues related to light sensitivity, lack of depth perception,
blindspots in the visual field, fatigue, or even environment (indoors or outdoors) that
can impact a student’s experiences (Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities,
2013).
To address this variance in visual experience, the students interviewed for this
chapter were selected in order to represent a diverse selection of visual abilities.
Ally identifies as totally blind since birth. She has never experienced color or depth
perception. A Braille user from an early age, Ally uses technology heavily to access
printed material through the use of voice software and a refreshable Braille display
that allows her to read in Braille what appears on the screen. Max also identifies
as totally blind, but unlike Ally, became blind after an accident he experienced at
WKHDJHRI+HRIWHQGUDZVRQKLVDELOLW\WRUHFDOOGHSWKFRORUDQGVSDFH+HDOVR
learned Braille but relied more on the use of screen readers and audiobooks to access
SULQWHGPDWHULDO.DWHLGHQWLILHVDVOHJDOO\EOLQGDQGVKDUHGWKDWVKH¶V:KDW
this means for her is that she has difficulty seeing things in the distance, cannot read
from the board or recognize small details but is able to read large print both from
books and on the computer when she is about three inches away. In environments
of low lighting, Kate is unable to see at all and as such identifies as having night
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INCLUSION “INSIGHT”
blindness. Sarah also identifies as legally blind, though her experience differs from
Kate’s in that she only has residual vision in her left eye. This vision fluctuates from
day to day and can be impacted by dry weather, lighting, lack of sleep, or stress.
6KHWRRFDQUHDGODUJHSULQWEXWWLUHVHDVLO\DQGQHHGVIUHTXHQWEUHDNV6KHUHOLHVRQ
screen reading software while using electronic devices. Ally, Max, Sarah, and Kate’s
varied experiences speak to the diversity represented in the simple phrase, “visually
LPSDLUHG´(YHU\VWXGHQW¶VH[SHULHQFHZLOOEHXQLTXH$OORIWKHVWXGHQWVDJUHHWKDW
WKHEHVWZD\IRUDWHDFKHUWRUHDOO\XQGHUVWDQGWKHLUXQLTXHQHHGVLVWRDVNTXHVWLRQV
HONORING HUMAN DIGNITY
Historically, individuals with disabilities were seen as a burden and forever

dependent on the charity of others. Their flawed minds and bodies resulted in an
inability to succeed on their own accord. Because of their supposed inability to
be self-sufficient, individuals with disabilities needed the able-bodied for support
(Barnes & Mercer, 2003; Goffman, 1963). While there has been increased effort
to move beyond this deficit thinking, students in this study continued to confront
detrimental thinking in their classes. A commonality across all of the student
interviews was a desire to be treated as a valuable asset to the classroom rather than
a drain on resources, or a burden. Ally shared, “I often felt like I was considered
extra work for the teacher.” Max reported feeling the same way, particularly when
his eighth-grade science teacher would “dump” him into a different lab group each
week. He reported feeling like he was passed around like a trophy nobody wanted
because there was this perception that he would slow everybody down.
As someone with a visual impairment, I can recall instances of feeling devalued
and excluded even in my ‘inclusion’ science classes. When a paraprofessional
was available, she would come to class with me. I can recall instances of being
put at a table with my aide and never having any interaction with the teacher
or students. There were days when the teacher would only interact with my
DLGH DQG DFW DV LI , ZDVQ¶W HYHQ WKHUH 7KLV , IHHO FDOOV LQWR TXHVWLRQ ZKDW
inclusion looks like. Inclusion isn’t all the disabled kids sitting at their own
table. Inclusion isn’t allowing a child to be physically present but academically
under stimulated. Inclusion is embracing all students as integral members of
a classroom community. Teachers need to move away from the dichotomous
thinking that there are “my students” and “their” (special education) students.
Kate, the young woman who had difficulty with distance vision but who was able
to independently complete up-close tasks, shared a situation from her tenth grade
Chemistry class.
The teacher always seemed angry that I was even in her class. One day during
an experiment, I didn’t realize that I was near a sink because the lab table and
the sink were both black and I knocked a beaker into the sink and it broke. Even
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L. JOHNSON
though it was an accident, the teacher made a big deal of it. She demanded I
pay for it or I wouldn’t be allowed to graduate. Another time, I was leaving the
classroom and someone tripped on my cane and it broke. Instead of helping,
she just walked away. I felt like I wasn’t worth her time.
Ally recalled a time from her high school Chemistry class when the teacher decided
that working with a flame would be too dangerous. For two weeks, while other
students got to make glass beads, Ally was assigned to write a twenty-page paper
about the properties and uses of glass, all because she was perceived as a danger to
herself and others.
The one thing that these stories have in common is a desire by the students to feel
welcomed and valued. The students were not asking for expensive, time-consuming
accommodations, they wanted to be allowed to learn without fear of judgment. An
LQFOXVLYHFODVVURRPLVQ¶WQHFHVVDULO\URRWHGLQH[SHQVLYHHTXLSPHQW:HVXJJHVWWKDW
an inclusive classroom starts with the teachers adopting the mindset that, regardless
of the visual nature of science concepts, students with visual impairments can and
should be encouraged to learn alongside their sighted peers. They should be able to
do so in an environment that upholds their dignity.
COLLABORATION TO IMPROVE INDEPENDENCE
Inclusion is more than just creating a classroom in which students feel as though
they are valuable members. Inclusive spaces also should embrace a student’s need
for independence, or the ability to work, think, and maintain ownership over oneself
and one’s work. Interviews unveiled variations of the statement, “I don’t always want
to rely on someone else to do things for me that I know I can do myself.” Students
reported feeling disempowered when decisions were made about what was best for
them without asking for their input or when someone did something for them that they
were capable of doing on their own. When teachers recognize students as “experts” of
their own needs, they become the teachers’ best resources. They bring knowledge to a
classroom about their specific visual impairments and what has or has not worked in
the past. When teachers open themselves up to learning from their students with visual
impairments, a collaborative working relationship can develop. While elementary-
aged children may not always be able to articulate what works best, or may not even
realize their needs are different than their classmates who are sighted, taking time
to ask their parents for guidance can still provide valuable information for teachers.
Max described an instance from a freshman year Biology lab when he was not
able to maintain ownership over one of his laboratory assignments because it relied
on the use of microscopes.
I was assigned a lab partner who supposedly was going to help me with our
lab. There were stations set up around the room and we had to move from table
to table and look at slides under the microscope that our teacher had prepared.
Then we were supposed to identify the organism we saw on our worksheet
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and draw a picture of it. I obviously couldn’t see what was there so the teacher
asked my lab partner if he would fill out my worksheet. I mostly just did
nothing. I would ask what he saw but he didn’t really know how to describe
things. I didn’t really learn anything. When I got my paper back after it was
JUDGHG,JRWVHYHUDOTXHVWLRQVZURQJEHFDXVHP\ODESDUWQHUKDGQ¶WGUDZQWKH
right things. I was really mad because, in my head I knew the characteristics of
the one-celled organisms we were working with but I was penalized because I
didn’t have the vision to do this work myself.
Sarah described an experience she had in a high school Earth Science course.
Students were expected to understand and be able to identify the three main rock
types as well as several minerals by looking at attributes like grain size, luster, and
hardness. Eventually, students were to develop an understanding of how Earth’s
processes worked together to create a particular land formation. On four occasions
students took field trips to visit different areas to examine specific geological features
and try to draw a picture and write a story that detailed what geological processes
may have taken place in that location. She stated:
During one of our field trips, I fell into a stream while being led by another
student. Because my cane really wasn’t helpful when we were climbing all over
rocks, the instructor selected someone to be my guide. The person didn’t really
know how to help me and had no experience with how to do sighted guide.
Instead of describing what was in front of me and around me, the student just
pulled me along like I was a little kid. Even though I could see a little, I didn’t
really have a sense of where I was. And then, to fall in a stream. I was wet and
really, really humiliated.
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experiences that could have been avoided had the teachers capitalized on the
expertise that both students brought to the classroom. Max advised:
After going through the lab, I had an idea of how we could’ve done things
differently but I didn’t say that to the teacher because, you know, the teacher
is the expert and I was just a student. I think an easy fix would have been to
have the teacher prepare a written description of what was on each slide and
give that to me ahead of time. Then I could have read the descriptions and used
my own knowledge to figure out what was on the slide.
Max’s feelings represent an all-too-common experience for students and parents of
FKLOGUHQZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV7HDFKHUVDUHSURIHVVLRQDOVDQGLWLVGLIILFXOWWRTXHVWLRQ
their expertise. Even when students are able of offering valuable advice, the
knowledge of the professional is often privileged over that of the disabled (Keefe,
Moore, & Duff, 2006; Oliver, 1996).
One method of developing a more fully inclusive classroom is through the
implementation of collaborative planning sessions between students with visual
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L. JOHNSON
impairments and their teachers. The first step is to identify a consistent meeting time
whether that is weekly, bi-weekly, or even less often depending on course content.
The teacher, student, and other school personnel, if necessary, meet to preview
upcoming class activities. During this time, the teacher describes the lab activities
DQG HTXLSPHQW WKDW PD\ EH XVHG 1H[W WKH VWXGHQW DQG WHDFKHU ZRUN WRJHWKHU WR
anticipate challenges that may come up. For example, in a chemistry lab, the need to
measure chemicals in a beaker that the student cannot see would be problematic. If
handouts will be given or if a PowerPoint will be used, the teacher and student can
discuss how these documents can be shared in an accessible way so the student has
“real time” access. Finally, the teacher and student work together to discuss solutions.
For example, a beaker could be made accessible by using a tactile marking method
to create raised lines, enabling the student to independently perform measurements.
In this way, students are able to contribute successful ideas from past experiences to
support teacher’s content knowledge.
Kate shared a story of how meeting with her teacher ahead of time helped solve
problems and allowed her to participate more fully in her biology labs. She shared:
My teacher and I met each Monday morning to talk about that week’s activities.
She would explain what she planned to do and we would come up with
solutions. Like one week, we were learning about genetics. We brainstormed
and came up with using pipe cleaners and different shapes and sizes of beads to
represent different DNA strands. It helped me so much when we tried it in lab
that the teacher started using pipe cleaners and beads with all of the students.
She also started sending me an electronic copy of handouts so I could bring it
up on my laptop during class and type in my answers.
Sarah shared a similar story from her Earth Science class that affirmed the value
of collaboration.
My teacher and I met to work through a lab exercise and he showed me that I
could use other senses to help identify rocks. Sedimentary rocks if you kind of
put your teeth onto them, leave a gritty feeling. It sounds gross but it helped
me to know the difference between sedimentary rocks versus igneous or
metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks were hard and could cut glass and I could
sometimes feel a little ridge in the glass. Limestone fizzes when you put acid
on it and I could hear the fizz. After our meeting, I was able to bring this
knowledge with me to lab and I was able to help my group more, which was
a great feeling.
SIMPLE MODIFICATIONS, BIG IMPACT
Another way in which we can achieve more fully inclusive science classrooms for
students who are visually impaired is by doing away with the one size fits all mindset.
Regardless of whether students can or cannot see, there are inherent differences in
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the way everyone learns. When the ways in which we set up our classrooms, deliver
content, and assess students’ understanding do not account for these differences, we
do a disservice to our students. By implementing Universal Design for Learning
(National Center on Universal Design for LearningDIUDPHZRUNWRLPSURYH
and optimize teaching and learning for all people, educators:
(A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways
students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students
are engaged; and (B) reduce barriers in instruction, provides appropriate
accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement
expectations for all students, including students with disabilities.
Simple practices can be integrated into a classroom resulting in greater success for
all students. In doing so, we can achieve a more fully inclusive environment for
everyone.
Ally described a time in which simply handling objects allowed her to be more
involved in her fourth-grade science class. She shared:
We were studying properties of matter and I can remember our teacher asking
us to make observations of different objects. I got to do everything tactilely
and by using my other senses. By getting to handle the objects, I could make
P\RZQREVHUYDWLRQVDERXWVL]HZHLJKWOLTXLGRUVROLGWHPSHUDWXUHDQGRWKHU
characteristics. When we were warming things up to see how temperature
changed the state of matter, I could listen for bubbles when water boiled, I
could feel the heat of steam. Or when we made water become a solid, I could
handle the ice. Most of the other students did most of their work through
observation and I thought what I got to do was so much better. I even had a
WDONLQJWKHUPRPHWHUWKDWZRXOGVD\WKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDOLTXLGRXWORXG0\
classmates all wanted to use it, too.
Ally reflected further by saying that looking back on her experiences in elementary
school, the most helpful things didn’t really cost her teacher extra money. “My
teacher had to be okay with me touching things and using my other senses because
that is how I learned about my world.”
Kate also enjoyed the opportunity to use her sense of touch to explore a topic. “My
fifth-grade science teacher had this plastic 3-D model of a plant cell and you could
actually feel the different pieces because they stood out, like the nucleus, the cytoplasm
DQGWKHPLWRFKRQGULD:KHQLWZDVWLPHIRUDTXL]RQWKHSDUWVRIWKHFHOOP\YLVLRQ
teacher created a tactile drawing of a plant cell so I could feel the drawing and label the
parts orally.” Kate went on to say that she would encourage teachers to have models on
hand, or create their own 3D or tactile diagrams for students. She advises that teachers
have these accommodations prepared so that, when a lesson starts, the student with a
visual impairment gets the modified materials at the same time that everyone else in
the class is receiving the traditional materials. “There’s nothing worse than having to
wait until after a lesson is over to get the modified materials.”
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L. JOHNSON
Both Kate and Ally’s experiences speak directly to this concept of Universal
Design for Learning (UDL) in that when teachers employ flexible goals, methods,
materials, and assessments, they meet the varied needs of their students. Through
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teachers are able to get tactile feedback in the hands of learners who are non visual.
Kate, Ally, and Max’s teachers all found ways of creating inexpensive tactile
representations for their students through the use of glue, puffy paint, or even sand
paper and aluminum foil. Max suggests, “It probably will become even easier for
teachers to make tactile models now.” He explained that, when he was younger, 3D
printers were just coming out and his school wasn’t able to afford one so his teacher
relied more on creating drawings from inexpensive materials.
Drawings with glue or puff paint worked but they took time to dry and they
couldn’t be done at a moment’s notice. Now people can buy 3D drawing pens
and print models on 3D printers because they’re less expensive. These tools
will make things so much better for kids like us.
In addition to accessible materials, the way in which a teacher sets up the
environment and provides access to materials can also help facilitate an inclusive
classroom space. Kate shared, “When I was in fourth grade, my teacher took me
around and showed me where things were kept that I would need while in her
class. We also made a deal that whenever we were going to do an activity that used
materials, she would always put mine in a bin in the same place so I would know
exactly where to go to find my materials. No one else even needed to know she was
making that small change for me.”
Max’s high school Physics teacher did something similar. “My teacher gave me a
tour of our classroom. He showed me where the sinks and commonly used supplies
were kept. He also explained how the classroom was set up, by saying, there are
three rows of four tables. At each table, there are four stools. At the front of the
room is a teacher’s table used for demonstrations. On days when we’d be doing
experiments, he’d try to check in with me when I walked in to let me know if there
were materials at the lab table. This gave me a good idea of how the class was set
up. One other thing that he did that was so helpful is that he did not allow backpacks
on the floor in his classroom. Initially he did this for me, so I wouldn’t trip but at the
end of the semester, he made it a rule for all of his classes because it kind of helped
everyone because it isn’t always the blind person that trips on things.”
For Sarah, one small change helped her navigate the classroom without drawing
attention to herself. She explained:
Technology is a big help for people with visual impairments so I started
learning to use a computer when I was in first grade. I used it to type my
work and enlarge things. My third-grade teacher allowed me to choose my
desk so it was close to the computer so whenever I needed, I could get over to
the computer without anyone really noticing. I didn’t have to draw attention
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to myself. I liked this because in sixth grade, my computer was at the front
of the room and every time I needed to use it, I had to walk in front of the
whole class. Sometimes I would just stay in my desk and not use the computer
because I didn’t want to walk in front of everyone and worry about tripping on
something on my way there. It may not seem like a big deal but choosing my
seat so I was close to the things I needed was a big help.
Not only can simple modifications to the environment and the materials facilitate
greater inclusion, but using descriptive language can also help. Ally shared an
example of how this assisted her in her Earth Science course. “At the beginning
of the semester, my teacher would often say things like, ‘look at the image on this
slide and tell me what it is.’ I told him that I couldn’t see the slide and asked if he
could describe it. So, he tried to do this during lectures. He started saying things
like, ‘in this image you will see a dark colored rock with large aligned crystals.’ He
wasn’t always perfect but his descriptions helped a lot.” By simply adding more
descriptions to his language, the instructor was improving access to content for Ally.
CONCLUSION
While science presents some undeniable challenges with its emphasis on the visual,
the stories of Ally, Max, Sarah, and Kate help us understand how we can achieve
more fully inclusive classrooms. We must move beyond the traditionally harmful
thinking of visual disability as deficit and embrace the human dignity and potential
in all students. To do this we must work toward more inclusive classrooms, not by
trying to “fix” our students with visual impairments, but by creating environments,
curriculum, and learning experiences that are designed to optimize the experiences
of every learner regardless of their ability to see.
REFERENCES
Barnes, C., & Mercer, G. (2003). Handbook of disability studies. Minneapolis, MN: Sage Publications.
Benson, B., Wolford, L., & Hyland, M. (2011, July 29). Identity dialogues: Breaking through the silence
of disability. Lecture presented at Minnesota Symposium on Disability Studies at the University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
Brantlinger, E. A. (2006). Who benefits from special education?: Remediating (fixing) other people’s
children. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Causton-Theoharis, J., Ashby, C., & Cosier, M. (2009). Islands of loneliness: Exploring social interaction
through the autobiographies of individuals with Autism. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities,
47±GRL
Ferri, B. (2006). Teaching to trouble. In S. Danforth & S. L. Gabel (Eds.), Vital questions facing disability
studies in educationSS±1HZ<RUN1<3HWHU/DQJ
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Keefe, E. B., Moore, V. M., & Duff, F. R. (2006). Listening to the experts: Students with disabilities speak
out. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
National Center on Universal Design for LearningHow has UDL been defined? Retrieved June
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13
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L. JOHNSON
Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding disability: From theory to practice. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities. (2013). Project ideal: Visual impairments. Retrieved
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Vermeij, G. (2002, March 29). Teaching science to students with visual impairments. Lecture presented at
the National Science Teachers Association National Convention, San Diego, CA.
Lisa Johnson
Nebraska Methodist College of Nursing and Allied Health
Omaha, Nebraska

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LISA M. DEMBOUSKI
(WITH KAITLYN MIELKE, JOHANNA LUCHT, JULIE PLESKI,
NORB BIDERMAN AND MISTY SCHOMBERG)
2. D/HH VOICES
I was the only Deaf student, armed with just a sign language interpreter,
in my entire school. In sixth grade, I joined a special group mission at the
Christa McAuliffe Space Education Center. This trip was like Star Trek, a
simulation game complete with computers, big screens, live actors who joined
us kids, everything. We were directed to sit and listen to our crew assignments
through headphones; the interpreter wore mine and told me I had the job of
Communicator. As the mission progressed, I typed and sent out messages to
my crew, and helped to decode incoming or intercepted messages. At one
point the enemy Romulan Queen was aboard our ship asking me rude and
QRV\TXHVWLRQV,VLPSO\SRLQWHGWRP\HDUDQGVKUXJJHGZKLFKDQQR\HGKHU
so she left me alone. Then our crew captain shouted, “Don’t move!” I didn’t
hear him say that but, looking around, noticed everyone was frozen in place.
I turned to the interpreter and started signing to ask what was happening. She
carefully shook her head and mouthed, “don’t move!” but I didn’t understand.
The students around me hissed to the interpreter that she should not move
or talk, she turned her head to hiss back and say she was sorry, that she was
trying. Then red lights were flashing and an alarm was sounding. My captain
yelled at the interpreter, “Thanks for nothing! Now we’re all gonna die!”
(Kaitlyn, writer)
Kaitlyn and the rest of us, your chapter author and contributors, work as writers,
professors, engineers, parents, office assistants, teachers, and scientists. All of us
are bilingual in American Sign Language (ASL) and English, and most of us spent
the majority of our school years in general education settings. Each of us leads
rich, purposeful, and rewarding lives; we are also deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH).
As students, we experienced a variety of thoughtful and engaging lessons, learning
environments, and events like the “space mission” described above. We will discuss
themes we discovered were common among us in our schooling, and may therefore
reflect the science education experiences of D/HH learners like us. We use these
shared themes of self-advocacy, access and communication, and community as the
framework for this chapter.
We know there are not a lot of us out there and, as a result, we suspect you
are unfamiliar with D/HH topics or what it’s like to not hear in a world where most
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L. M. DEMBOUSKI
SHRSOHGR2OLYDDFNQRZOHGJHGWKLVSKHQRPHQRQREVHUYLQJWKDWWKHJHQHUDO

SXEOLF WHQGV WR QRW NQRZ WKH XQLTXH QHHGV RI '++ SHRSOH DQG WKDW ³«KHDULQJ
people generally don’t know much about deafness [emphasis added]. Further,
a noticeable number of hearing people appear to harbor unflattering opinions
DERXWWKLVPRVWPLVXQGHUVWRRGRIDOOKXPDQSUHGLFDPHQWV´S:HHDFKKDYH
experiences of being the only deaf or hard of hearing person in the room, the school,
or that anyone has met. So, we appreciate if you feel uncertain or uninformed. If you
are D/HH, we attempt to accurately represent you and your experiences here. If you
are not, we hope you will use this chapter to better understand being D/HH, to learn
more about issues common to D/HH people, and, as teachers, to better recognize and
more effectively respond to D/HH student needs.
SELF-ADVOCACY: A CONSTANT NECESSITY
My younger brother and I are both deaf, though our needs are different. It was
a learning experience, figuring out how to advocate for ourselves, especially
during middle and high school. My brother’s hearing loss is more severe than
mine, so he always got an interpreter, whereas I went years without interpreters
before we could convince the school district I deserved and needed them, too.
We often had to explain that what worked for one of us did not always work
that way for the other. We had to prove that D/HH people are individuals, and
should be treated as such. (Julie, teacher of D/HH adults)
The need for strong self-advocacy skills is one we all recognized as critical and
non-negotiable. If we wanted to succeed, we had to look after ourselves and we had
to be proactive. This has not changed much over the years, and, because we rarely
encounter D/HH-inclusive practices in the hearing world, self-advocacy continues to
be a regular and necessary feature of our daily lives.
Having once been hearing and now hard of hearing, I am able to compare
these two ways of being and I can assure you: there is always extra time and
HIIRUWUHTXLUHGDVD'++SHUVRQ,DPUHVSRQVLEOHIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHFODVV
situation, or event, the venue, the schedule, and for anticipating what my needs
ZLOO EH JLYHQ WKRVH SDUDPHWHUV , PXVW UHTXHVW ZKDWHYHU DFFRPPRGDWLRQV
I believe will be necessary for me to access the event, and I must make that
UHTXHVWZLWKDGHTXDWHQRWLFHRIWHQZHHNVEHIRUHKDQG,XVXDOO\PXVWDOVREH
a resource for where to find those service providers in the first place; most
schools or event organizers have no idea how to hire a real-time captioner,
for example. In the case of younger D/HH learners, these details must always
be managed by parents or by educators, without exception, every time. This
level of advocacy and effort is necessary for each situation, every instance,
ad infinitum. It’s such a hassle and so much extra work that I often make do
ZLWK QR VXSSRUW DW DOO HQGXUH LQDGHTXDWH VXSSRUW OLNH LPSURSHU XVH RI WKH
microphone, or I opt out and skip the event altogether. (Lisa, college professor)
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Very commonly, our self-advocacy skills are most necessary when we seek access,
DWKHPHZHH[SORUHPRUHIXOO\ODWHULQWKHFKDSWHU:HZDQW±DQGPXVWUHSHDWHGO\
UHTXHVW±DFFHVVWRWKHVDPHLQIRUPDWLRQRUFRQWHQWRXUKHDULQJSHHUVDUHJUDQWHG
automatically. We believe two reasons for the constant demands on our self-advocacy
DUHEHFDXVHZH¶UHIUHTXHQWO\XQGHUHVWLPDWHGDV'++SHRSOHDQGEHFDXVHVRFLHW\
privileges hearing.
Underestimating Us
We all have memories of the ways we endeavour (ed) to prove ourselves.

Once in a computer science class, the instructor divided us into groups and
handed out a worksheet. I was the only Deaf person [I used an ASL interpreter]
and the only woman in my group; this intersectionality in a STEM class is also
ZRUWKSRLQWLQJRXW,EHOLHYH$Q\ZD\DVWKHPHQGLVFXVVHGWKHTXHVWLRQLW
was clear they were not certain where to begin. I wasn’t sure of my answer,
either, but my instincts told me I had it right, so I went ahead and shared my
thoughts with them. As I finished, they went right back to discussing the
TXHVWLRQDJDLQDVLIWKH\KDGQ¶WKHDUGDVLQJOHZRUG,¶GMXVWVDLG)UXVWUDWHG
I called the instructor over and explained my thinking. He confirmed that my
process and answer was correct, so I added, “These boys don’t seem to agree.”
He then turned to the group and said, “Gentlemen, you’re all baffled, yet she
has the correct answer. I suggest you stop talking and pay attention to her.”
After that they listened, and wrote down my answers. (Johanna, electronics
engineer, NASA)
As Johanna’s narrative shows, many of us feel we must deliberately, explicitly,
and repeatedly demonstrate our capabilities. We regularly encounter negative
DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW RXU DELOLWLHV WKRVH ³XQIODWWHULQJ RSLQLRQV´ 2OLYD S
GHVFULEHG DQG WKLV WHQGV WR KDSSHQ PRUH ZLWK RXU SHHUV LW ZDV IUHTXHQWO\ RXU
classmates’ attitudes we worked hardest to change. Today we continue to expend
considerable energy introducing ourselves, explaining how to work with us and our
respective accommodations, and reassuring others we belong there.
Hearing Privilege
$VPRVWSHRSOHLQDPLQRULW\JURXSZLOOWHOO\RXDFRPPRQEDUULHUWRHTXLW\LVWKH
fact that those in the majority must extend effort to recognize and relate to what
makes us different, what it might be like to navigate the world another way. Most
SHRSOH KHDU W\SLFDOO\ DQG WKH\ DVVXPH KHDULQJ ± WKH LQWDNH RI LQIRUPDWLRQ WKURXJK
WKH DXGLWRU\ FKDQQHO ± LV WUXH IRU DOO$V D UHVXOW D GLVSURSRUWLRQDWH SHUFHQWDJH RI
the world is readily available to those who can hear. This has certainly been our reality,
and it is known as hearing privilege (Grushkin, 2016; Hauser et al., 2010; Krentz,
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L. M. DEMBOUSKI
I’ll always remember “sound waves week” in physics lab, because of how
effectively the teacher excluded me. I happened to have a cold that week,
and my ears were totally plugged up, so any residual hearing I could have
relied upon to at least help me a little was also gone. None of the auditory
demonstrations the teacher did to teach about sound waves translated well
through the interpreter, so none of the lessons made any sense to me. Naturally
,GLGYHU\SRRUO\RQWKHSRSTXL]]HVKHJDYHRQWKLVWRSLFWRR,VLPSO\KDG
not been granted this content or information the same way my hearing peers
had, because the teacher took hearing sound wave patterns as the norm, the
standard. It wasn’t until later, when I got a different teacher who made sound
waves visible through various means (slinky toy, water tables, etc.) that I
actually learned and understood this concept. (Julie)
To move beyond hearing privilege and better understand being D/HH, what is
generally needed for the hearing majority is a dedicated mindfulness, an alternative
focus or mindset, and a willingness to think in ways that are not rooted in typical
KHDULQJ 6XFK HIIRUW DQG WKRXJKWIXO DWWHQWLRQ UHTXLUH SUDFWLFH DV ZHOO DV FRQVWDQW
application on the part of hearing people, which is aggravatingly difficult to achieve.
I used to work in the field of D/HH education, with a team of highly trained
special educators who were veterans in their understanding of hearing
differences and D/HH issues. Despite their experience and knowledge, they,
accustomed only to their “hearingness,” never seemed to notice the racket they
made rattling their keys or slapping the table for emphasis when they spoke. It
ZDVMXVWDVFKDOOHQJLQJWRKHDUDGHTXDWHO\ZLWKWKHPDVZLWKDQ\RQHDQG,KDG
to repeatedly ask them to speak one at a time or not rustle the bag of chips near
my FM microphone. They frustrated me more than most because I expected
professionals in this field to behave better! (Lisa)
Of course, our self-advocacy skills are still necessary in a variety of ways in our lives
today, including as a response to being underestimated and to hearing privilege; we
manage these regular occurrences with as much grace as we can muster. To help
PDNHWKHZRUOGPRUHHTXLWDEOHIRU'++SHRSOHDQGWRUHGXFHGHPDQGVIRUVHOI
advocacy from your D/HH students, please refer to our Top Eight Recommendations
later in the chapter.
ACCESS AND COMMUNICATION: ALWAYS A FOCUS
Because we live in a hearing-centric society where sound is valued as “theoretically

and practically foundational to educational experiences” (Gershon & Appelbaum,
2016), the issues that tend to loom largest for us as D/HH people usually involve
DFFHVV DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ HJ &ODUN ZH KDYH KDG ERWK SRVLWLYH DQG
negative experiences with these issues.
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When I transferred from the deaf school to my neighborhood school, I was

IRUWXQDWH WR KDYH D IDQWDVWLF '++ WHDFKHU DQG DFFHVV WR KLJKTXDOLW\$6/
interpreters; communication was never a barrier for me there. Resources like
these helped my success tremendously, and were conducive to my growing
interest in STEM. (Norb, materials scientist, L’Oréal)
In a world where most people use auditory input and spoken language as the
primary tools for communication, those of us who do not must therefore have that
information conveyed through an accessible format; generally, this happens via
sign language interpreters, real-time captioners and displaying subtitles, and/or
our hearing assistive technologies (HATs). Many of us use a combination of these
accommodations; we explore them further in the next sections.
Sign Language Interpreters
Not all D/HH people are fluent in American Sign Language (ASL); for these
individuals, interpreters would obviously be an inappropriate accommodation. For
many of us, however, interpreters are a regular feature of our attempts to navigate
the hearing world. Each of the chapter contributors has countless interpreter-
UHODWHG H[SHULHQFHV LQFOXGLQJ HYHQWV ± RU IXOO GD\V ± ZLWK QR LQWHUSUHWHU DW DOO
HYHQDIWHUUHTXHVWLQJWKHPZHOOLQDGYDQFHVWUXJJOHVZLWKLQDGHTXDWHO\VNLOOHG
LQWHUSUHWHUVDQGVXIIHULQJWKHEXUHDXFUDWLFKRRSVUHTXLUHGWRVZLWFKWRLQWHUSUHWHUV
who sufficiently understand the content of whatever class or event we’re trying
to access. We pursue appropriate services tirelessly because we have to; if the
interpreter doesn’t understand what the speaker is saying, we won’t understand
either.
When an interpreter is unskilled and the information is literally lost in
WUDQVODWLRQ ZH DUH GHQLHG HTXDO DFFHVV WR WKH VDPH FRQWHQW DV RXU KHDULQJ
peers. Poor interpreting can lead to confusion, then a lack of attention, and
even an aversion to STEM disciplines for D/HH people. In the longer term,
this can result in a loss of interest in the sciences overall and fewer otherwise
capable people being attracted to and desiring to work in the field [see also
0DUVFKDUFN/DQJ $OEHUWLQLSS±@-RKDQQD
In addition to suitable skills and training, we’d like to highlight other salient points
regarding interpreting and using interpreters in STEM classrooms. First, understand
that when we utilize interpreters, we are never getting information directly. Rather,
content is routed through the mind of someone else, someone who is not the teacher
or the person most knowledgeable on the topic. That information is heard, assembled
for meaning in the interpreters’ minds, and then conveyed to us through another
language, ASL. All of this happens in the moment, with a “lag” to account for the
interpreter’s processing time. It is amazing, the work interpreters do, but that lag means
we are always a few steps behind everyone else. We also must trust the interpreters
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L. M. DEMBOUSKI
have understood and correctly conveyed information; oftentimes they have not. Or
we are mentally filling in gaps caused by interpreters’ misunderstandings, lack of
content knowledge, or by confusing English homonyms. Our own processing also
UHTXLUHVH[WUDWLPHDQGNHHSVXVHYHQPRUHEHKLQGWKHUHVWRIWKHFODVVXQOHVVORQJHU
“wait times” are part of a teacher’s pedagogical repertoire.
I often was expected to do five things at once: complete the dissection while
recording my observations while discussing with my partner while watching
the interpreter and watching the teacher! My eyes really can only just be in one
of those places at any given time. (Julie)
Next, and directly connected to processing time, is pacing. Hearing is a fast and
RPQLGLUHFWLRQDO VHQVH LQ WKDW SHRSOH ZLWK W\SLFDO KHDULQJ FDQ TXLFNO\ JDWKHU
auditory information from a full circle around themselves. They can do this while
simultaneously employing their other senses such as vision or touch. In the classroom,
these proclivities translate to demands for student skills like listening to the teacher
while simultaneously taking notes, or following a “popcorn style” class discussion as
ideas are verbally bounced from student to student around the room, often at a very
fast pace.
Vision, on the other hand, has a narrower accessibility arc and works more
slowly than hearing; we can only visually attend to a singular object, anything on
the periphery will be less clear. While we can also use our vision at the same time
DV RWKHU VHQVHV WKH SDFH LV DOZD\V GHWHUPLQHG E\ KRZ TXLFNO\ ZH FDQ YLVXDOO\
focus on, and comprehend, any one thing. If we are watching an interpreter or our
captioner’s screen, we cannot also see what the teacher is pointing at, know who
said what during the fast-paced discussion, or know when it’s our turn to make
DSRLQWRUDVNDTXHVWLRQZHPLVVDJUHDWGHDODQGZHUDUHO\JHWDZRUGLQDVD
result.
It is crucial that teachers not do an action or demonstration and talk at the same
time. Describe what you’re going to do, tell us what to watch for, show us
what you’ll be using, demonstrate or perform the action, wait, then ask your
TXHVWLRQVRUKDYHXVWDONDERXWLW,¶YHPLVVHGVRPDQ\H[SHULPHQWDOUHVXOWVLQ
classes because I was watching the interpreter and did not see the volcano erupt,
the objects glow, or the final result of the speed test. (Kaitlyn)
Lastly, with regard to STEM interpreting, it is worth noting that a large percentage
RI 67(0 YRFDEXODU\ GRHV QRW KDYH DQ$6/ HTXLYDOHQW7KLV FDQ WUDQVODWH WR D
series of extra challenges for D/HH learners and their interpreters, including
GHPDQGV RQ WKH VWXGHQW IRU H[WUD WLPH DQG HIIRUW WKDW LV QRW UHTXLUHG RI WKHLU
hearing peers.
I always had to work more with my interpreters about the signs or fingerspelling
to use with STEM vocabulary and concepts. There was no consistency; I often
would see interpreters on the same team sign the terms differently. I also got
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tired of interpreters voicing wrong for me, of not knowing the vocabulary they
needed to correctly verbalize my thoughts when I signed them. (Julie)
Captioning: Real-Time and Subtitles
Some D/HH people opt for communication across real time translation (CART) as
their means for accessing auditory information. This service provider works much
like a court reporter, whose typed information displays on a screen the D/HH person
reads in real time as the class or event happens. One distinct advantage of CART is
that a transcript is usually available afterward.
I was popular with my peers in statistics classes because I shared my transcripts
with anyone who asked. The international students in those classes often asked
me how they could get CART providers of their own; I so empathized with
them! (Lisa)
5HJDUGOHVVZKHWKHUZHXVH$6/LQWHUSUHWHUVRU&$57ZHDOOUHJXODUO\UHTXHVWWKDW
closed captioning/subtitles be turned on when media is shown. Often this entreaty
is not granted because the film or documentary the teacher wants to show is not
captioned. Or no one wants to pay the costs of getting that media captioned. Or
“automatic captions” are used, which anyone can tell you are awful, distracting, and
typically worse than no captions at all. Auditory information and speech in media
happen exceptionally rapidly, enough to burn out even the best service providers
who can rarely keep up; subtitles are essential.
I had an AP teacher who made the class watch a video with the captions on
DQGWKHVRXQGRIIVRZHDOOKDGHTXDODFFHVV1RRQHFRPSODLQHG,QIDFWDIWHU
WKDWRIWHQLWZRXOGEHRWKHUVWXGHQWVDQGQRWMXVWPHUHTXHVWLQJWKHFDSWLRQV
be turned on. Another teacher of mine also saw many benefits to captioning,
particularly how it helped students take notes; she left the captions on for all of
her classes, not just mine. (Kaitlyn)
Relatedly, when we are watching our accessibility service provider, we are not
watching the screen; so, without closed captioning, we lose a great deal of visual
information and will miss the meteor strike and the baby whale being born every
time. We know subtitles benefit all learners and can mean the difference between
success and failure for D/HH people, as well as our multilingual brethren whose first
language is not English. In our opinion, they should always be on.
Hearing Assistive Technologies (HATs)
There are many kinds of HATs that function in a variety of ways; as

technology advances, you will likely see even more in the coming years. If we use
+$7VZHFDQH[SHFWWRKDYHWRH[SODLQWKHP2IWHQ%RWKKRZWKH\GR±DQGGR
QRW±ZRUN
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L. M. DEMBOUSKI
One teacher I had let us listen to music as we worked independently. I was

able to plug my direct access cable from my cochlear implant sound processor
into the computer. Other students used headphones, with volumes so loud the
teacher would tell them they had to turn it down. Me? I was immersed in a
SLHFHRUFKHVWUDZLWKWKHVRXQGWXUQHGDOOWKHZD\XS±DQGLQVXUURXQG±DQG
nobody but me could hear it! (Kaitlyn)
,ZDVDOPRVWIRUFHGWROHDYHDXQLTXHOHDUQLQJRSSRUWXQLW\RQFHEHFDXVHRIP\
HAT. The session focused on exciting new computer software, very cutting-edge.
However, when I introduced myself to the trainers and asked them to use my FM
mic, they freaked out. None of them had ever seen one before and thought I would
EHXVLQJLWWRUHFRUGWKHVHVVLRQZKLFKZDVDEVROXWHO\IRUELGGHQJLYHQWKHXQLTXH
technology they were planning to demonstrate. I felt great indignation that their
ignorance would cause my exclusion! I’m not sure how I convinced them the
FM was legit, but they ultimately relented and allowed me to stay. (Lisa)
Access and communication tend to be the most common barriers to our inclusion
as D/HH people; we therefore encourage you to devote yourselves to reducing or
removing those obstacles in your own classrooms. For ideas, please refer to our Top
Eight Recommendations later in the chapter.
STEM AND COMMUNITY: KEY ELEMENTS OF OUR SUCCESS
Many features inherent to the sciences served us as D/HH learners extremely

ZHOO LQFOXGLQJ WKH KLJKO\ YLVXDO LQTXLU\EDVHG H[SHULHQWLDO DQG GHPRQVWUDWLRQ
rich features common to STEM content and pedagogy. We also recognized how
essential a supportive community is, and the times the people in those roles helped or
hindered our progress. Family members, special education team members, teachers,
administrators, and peers were all mentioned as particularly key players in our
school lives; we have multiple narratives to illustrate. To begin, teachers naturally
figured prominently in our memories of science schooling:
I remember a wonderful biology teacher in high school who encouraged me
to really consider science. He said I had a knack for it that he did not often
see. He didn’t even care that I was deaf; he looked past that. He also went
above and beyond to include me, asking my parents what worked best, using a
longer wait time so my interpreter could catch up and I could contribute to the
discussion. I would not have entered the STEM field if it hadn’t been for him;
he was awesome. (Julie)
Positive peers were also recognized with gratitude and affection:
After learning we would mainly have labs in 11th grade physics, the teacher
allowed my two good friends and I to remain a group for the whole year
instead of switching it up for every lab. The reason? My two friends knew
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sign, and the teacher recognized that the labs would go smoother with direct
communication, which wouldn’t have been possible if I were in groups with
non-signers. We had a slight advantage, even, especially during the contest-
type labs, as the other teams couldn’t “overhear” us plotting how to build the
best mousetrap car. Even better, my group mates could still hear them; they
always conveyed that information to ensure I was kept in the loop. (Kaitlyn)
One last, and lasting, element of community that we felt deeply was the dearth of
D/HH role models.
The lack of a Deaf role model, especially for those in the STEM field, is a
persistent problem in the Deaf community. I am a Deaf, female engineer and
have never really known anyone like me. Sure, I could have role models from
the history books and, even, from fiction, but it’s not like I can talk to dead
(or fictitious) people, and they cannot impart wisdom in real time. This is so
important! We need Deaf kids to see that Deaf people are capable of great things!
We need to share similar experiences with other Deaf people. These role models
can mentor us and give us tools to survive in the hearing world. (Johanna)
Below we offer our Top Eight Recommendations for ideas that optimize STEM and
supportive communities for your D/HH learners.
WRAPPING UP AND OUR TOP EIGHT RECOMMENDATIONS
Returning to the story that opened our chapter: The good news is Kaitlyn’s crew did
not die. The mission proceeded and everyone had a wonderful time. She remembers
that day positively, referring to it as a “most awesome!” field trip. On some levels,
Kaitlyn was included on that trip (e.g., selected to go in the first place, sign language
LQWHUSUHWHU SURYLGHG ,PDJLQH WKRXJK KRZ PXFK PRUH UREXVW DQG HTXLWDEOH KHU
learning experience might have been had D/HH-inclusive considerations been more
a part of that event. Given what you now know about D/HH learners’ common
experiences, and considering your own reactions when you first read her story,
how might you have more meaningfully and intentionally included Kaitlyn on her
“mission” that day?
Since we assume you are already practicing strong, universally inclusive
classroom pedagogies, we will not suggest those tools of effective teaching here.
Instead, the following suggestions are positioned within our shared themes, and
written on behalf of your D/HH learners:
Our Top Eight Recommendations
Self-advocacy
(GXFDWH\RXUVHOI±DQGDOO\RXUVWXGHQWV±DERXW\RXUXQLTXH'++OHDUQHUV
respond to them as individuals, include them in your decision-making and class
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SODQQLQJ DVN TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKHLU DFFRPPRGDWLRQV DQG OHDUQLQJ SUHIHUHQFHV

collect and use a variety of D/HH-inclusive tools in your teaching like increasing
your use of visuals and allowing for longer wait times.
3HUPLW FRQVLVWHQW ODE DQG VPDOO JURXS SDUWQHUV ZKHQ UHTXHVWHG :KLOH ZH
understand teachers generally want to change partners around, for us it was much
easier to be grouped with people who already knew and understood us, and who
would give us a chance to contribute and show what we could do.
Practice mindfulness with regard to hearing and the auditory demands on students
in your discipline. Are there ways to study echoes or whispers that do not rely on
actually hearing them? Are there alternative tasks a D/HH student can perform
while the hearing children count cricket chirps?
Access and communication

Understand which specific accommodations or technologies your students need,
understand the limitations of those, learn how to use them properly, have a plan
IRU ZKHQ WKH\ DUH XQDYDLODEOH RU QHHG DGDSWLQJ DQG GHOLYHU WKHP ZLWK
FRPSOLDQFHRIWKHWLPH*HWFUHDWLYHDERXWDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VIRUSURYLGLQJ
them (i.e., remote interpreting). Give D/HH students information about the class
or event and allow them input on the best plan for appropriate access (i.e., The
planetarium presentation will be in the dark, what can we do to make sure you see
the interpreter in that darkened space?)
Find and use available resources. If you don’t know where to hire an interpreter
or how to caption your media, there are multiple ways to find out. Do not use
unfamiliarity, discomfort with the unknown, or fear of making mistakes as means
for exclusion.
Community
Play to the strengths of the STEM discipline, which also correlate to typical
strengths in D/HH learners. The hands-on, visual, and demonstration-based
nature of the sciences are well-suited to many D/HH students’ skills, plus do
QRWUHTXLUHDQRYHUUHOLDQFHRQODQJXDJHKHDY\FRQWHQWIRUVWXGHQWVZKRVHILUVW
language is ASL.
Encourage your D/HH students to try a variety of STEM pursuits and provide
multiple opportunities for their success. We might never have entered this contest
RUDWWHPSWHGWKDWLQWHUQVKLSLIVRPHRQH±RIWHQDWHDFKHU±KDGQ¶WVXJJHVWHGZH
do, nor would we have remained interested in the sciences if we had not also
found we could do them, and do them well. You are best positioned to recognize
our strengths; please let us know you see our promise and potential, as it can
greatly influence our career paths!
Provide role models. In our case, we most craved stories about other D/HH people
who were successful in the sciences. Can you invite successful D/HH individuals

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D/HH VOICES
into your classrooms? Are there biographies or stories of famous D/HH scientists
you can add to your class reading list?
CHAPTER CONTRIBUTORS
Norb Biderman is a materials scientist with L’Oréal; Johanna Lucht is an electronics

engineer for NASA; Kaitlyn Mielke is a writer and also works for ThinkSelf Minnesota
Deaf Adult Education; Julie Pleski is a lead teacher for ThinkSelf Minnesota Deaf
Adult Education; and Misty Schomberg is an ASL announcer and scheduler for the
Commission of Deaf, DeafBlind, and Hard of Hearing Minnesotans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am wholeheartedly grateful for a spirited, earnest, conscientious, lively, and often-

hilarious collaboration with this chapter’s gifted group of contributors. It was my true
pleasure and privilege to work with you, and I genuinely appreciate your willingness
to share your time, talents, and memories with us all: PAH! ILY!
REFERENCES
&ODUN-/Where I stand: On the signing community and my DeafBlind experience. Minneapolis,
MN: Handtype Press.
Gershon, W. S., & Appelbaum, P. (2016). Call for papers, special issue: Echoes, reverberations, silences,
and noise: Sonic possibilities in education. Educational Studies, 52±
Grushkin, D. (2016). What are some examples of hearing privilege? Retrieved July 31, 2016, from
KWWSVZZZTXRUDFRP:KDWDUHVRPHH[DPSOHVRIKHDULQJSULYLOHJH
Hauser, P. C., O’Hearn, A., McKee, M., Steider, A., & Thew, D. (2010). Deaf epistemology: Deafhood
and deafness. American Annals of the Deaf, 154±
.UHQW] & Writing deafness: The hearing line in nineteenth-century American literature.
Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press.
Marschark, M., Lang, H. G., & Albertini, J. A. (2002). Educating deaf students: From research to
practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
2OLYD*$Alone in the mainstream: A deaf woman remembers public school. Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University Press.
Lisa M. Dembouski

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MERRIE KOESTER
3. TANGLDE IN TETX
What I Want You to Know about My Dyslexic Self
INTRODUCTION
The signs are there: the mouthing of words while reading; the shutting down
when asked an on-the-spot question; the stumbling and confusion when asked
to read aloud; the poor memory for words; the failing of multiple choice
tests; the failure to complete written homework assignments, especially those
requiring the cold reading of informational text (as in read-the-chapter-and-
complete-this-worksheet/ solve-these-problems-and-show-your-work kinds-of-
assignments); the occasional acting out (Shaywitz, 2003) and yet, how many
science teachers have been trained to recognize the outward manifestations of
dyslexia? I certainly wasn’t.
PROLOGUE
I have never once been confronted by a red-pen-toting-teacher declaring, “Why

are you so lazy? We’ve been over this FOUR times. Why aren’t you listening? I
don’t think you’re even trying! You’ve not finished your homework again?” and
yet, every learner with dyslexia I have interviewed has reported being so demeaned.
In her lyrical text, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek$QQLH 'LOODUG GHVFULEHV KRZ
as a child, she watched in horror as her teacher placed the pulsating cocoon of a
Polyphemus moth into a too-small Mason jar just as it was about to emerge. Like
cocoons trapped in a too-small jar, learners with dyslexia can start to believe there is
no way out. Without intervention, the less likely it will be that their future potential
will unfurl. During the critical developmental period, stuck in that jar (think resource
room being told to “practice” reading and fill out worksheets when you may also
have dysgraphia), the future butterfly/moth’s wings may harden in place against
their backs, and thus, land-bound, the individual is more in peril than ever of meeting
the bottom of an oncoming shoe or predator’s stomach.
For the longest time, I confess that all I knew about dyslexia was that it caused
people to read very slowly, and that, like so many disabilities, came with a stigma
attached. If not for a cast of real-life learners with dyslexia and specialists, I would
still be blind to the privilege my automatic reading ability confers on me. In the
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M. KOESTER
fall of 2012, a middle school science teacher with dyslexia whom I have named
Mr. Marsh helped me to see behind the heavy curtain of dyslexia for the first time
in my life. He had enrolled in my action research study, Project Draw for Science,
sponsored by the University of South Carolina Center for Science Education. In a
TXLHWVHULRXVYRLFHGXULQJRXUVHFRQGVHPLVWUXFWXUHGLQWHUYLHZ0U0DUVKRQHRI
the most verbally fluent individuals I have ever met, shared with me that when he
reads a block of text, “the white space glows and the lines jump around.” To this day,
he has to “hold a line of text still” by keeping his finger under it and cover up all but
the single line he is reading at the moment. He confessed that until the fifth grade,
KHVTXHDNHGDORQJE\PHPRUL]LQJZRUGVZKRVHPHDQLQJKHUDUHO\XQGHUVWRRG%XW
then, he was “found out” by a teacher who confronted him. “Do you even know what
you just read?” she demanded. A battery of tests ensued, and the next thing he knew,
he was labeled BROKEN and DIS-ABLED. Pulled out from his regular classes to
“practice his reading,” a resource teacher (who was not a dyslexia specialist) simply
gave him more time to copy words he did not understand from texts he could not read
onto the lines of countless worksheets. Stranded in an outside portable classroom
away from his classmates, he fell further and further behind.
I was filled with both empathy and distress for Mr. Marsh’s situation and what our
educational system, of which I was a part, too, had done to him and other brilliant
dyslexics. “But you’re here!” I countered. “You made it through. You’re a master
science teacher, for goodness sakes! How have you done this?” Mr. Marsh, who,
like many dyslexics, is also ADHD, smiled broadly. “I am here because my middle
school science teacher ‘got me,’” he announced. “She saved me! She didn’t mark
my papers down when I misspelled words or make me read out loud. She appointed
me her official lab assistant! But mostly, she used art, stories, and the imagination
to help students like me SEE the meanings of words; just like you’re doing, Merrie!
In Project Draw for Science, we’re creating external and internal libraries of images
that can help learners with dyslexia make sense of the words. For students like me,
these drawings are like ‘personal visual memory aids.’ They also give us the context
we have to have to grasp a word’s meaning. You’re using drawing as language that
dyslexics can READ with our mind’s eye. I want to learn to teach this way, too, so
my students with dyslexia never have to suffer like I did.”
I was too moved to even speak at first, but when I finally did, it was to ask Marsh
to share his story during our next whole group reflection session. A few months later,
Ms. Maya, a newly certified teacher in our study, shared the remarkable academic turn-
DURXQGVDFKLHYHGE\0XKDPPDGDVWXGHQWZLWKSURIRXQGG\VOH[LD.RHVWHU
Ms. Maya. Muhammad taught me that all good teaching
begins with and is sustained by care.
He started sixth grade with the science test scores
of a third grader.
He is severely dyslexic.
He spent much of last year
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In the principal’s office for

behavior referrals.
By the end of the year, Muhammad’s science test scores
were at the sixth-grade level.
I asked, “How did this happen, Muhammad?”
Muhammad. Well, Ms. Maya.
I am dyslexic, but I am not stupid.
Also, I tried because you cared.
You drew for me,
even though you were bad at it!
In science, matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up physical
space$ODQ+RGNLQVRQZULWHVRIsafe spaces in education. He weighs in on
physical space (like containers and rooms), but also addresses the phenomenon of
cultural space, within which power drives the nature of interactions. What if, in that
space inside our heads, we do not feel safe to express our natural creativity? What
if we are told there is only “one right way” to do something? To learn something?
What if we discover that in the school science classroom, there is no space or time to
move within metaphorical space, the one where art is born and profound scientific
discoveries are made? What if we feel so shamed in science classes (because we
struggle to read or follow written procedures) that science no longer matters to us?
.RHVWHU
Recently, in an effort to learn more about the impact of reading disabilities on
educational achievement in general, I attended a community forum given by the
advocacy group, Understood.org, whose researchers UHSRUW WKDW LQ FKLOGUHQ
in the U.S. struggle with issues related to reading, writing, math, focus, and
organization (https://www.understood.org/en). Strong performance in all five
areas is practically essential for success in a traditional, test-driven, didactically
oriented science classroom, and yet, each can be incredibly difficult for those
who struggle to de-code words, read them fluently, and understand their meaning.
From my reading of Eide and Eide’s (2012) and Shaywitz’s (2013) ground
breaking texts on learners with dyslexia, I learned that the dyslexic brain cannot
automatically decode words into sounds, in the ways that some eighty percent
of us can accomplish effortlessly. Instead, dyslexic brains devise alternative
strategies in order to read for meaning, recruiting alternative neural pathways,
especially those associated with creative thinking and problem solving. As a
result, many learners with dyslexia have well above average IQ, superior visual-
spatial reasoning, pattern-identification skills, and the ability to make logical,
best-fit predictions based on working hypotheses (Eide & Eide, 2012). These
same abilities are highly prized in the STEM workforce, and yet, how many
science teachers are unwittingly marginalizing some twenty percent of their most
gifted students by presuming that they can automatically make sense of science
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M. KOESTER
vocabulary, delivered primarily through text and talk? I used to be one of these
kind of science teachers, too. I did not know what I did not know.
READERS’ THEATRE PERFORMANCE ETHNOGRAPHY
What follows is a Readers’ Theatre performance ethnography, synthesized from

SRHWLFDOO\ WUDQVFULEHG LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK OHDUQHUV ZKR DUH G\VOH[LF DJHV WR
their families, and reading specialists, each trained in the Orton Gillingham
approach (http://www.ortonacademy.org/approach.php). Through Readers’ Theatre,
the performed narrative serves as framework for entering into a character’s lived
experience and as an opportunity for reflective interpretation. Each interviewee
was asked, “what do you recall your favorite science teachers having done that
connected with you? and what is the worst thing a science teacher can do?” I hope
the performers’ voices will evoke empathy, awareness, and a collective call to action
to create inclusive science curriculum which validates, lifts up, and empowers the
learner with dyslexia.
Imagine a dimly lit stage, revealing eight standing figures, their faces hidden by
rectangular cardboard screens, which resemble closed books with blank gray covers.
The screens dangle from ceiling wires. On hearing her/his name and occupation
announced by the Researcher Learner (heard only as a voice offstage), each actor
steps from behind the dangling screen and takes a confident step forward in the
downstage direction. With a single spotlight illuminating her/his face, each speaker’s
voice fills the dark void, inviting the audience to see with their ears and hear with
WKHLUKHDUWVDVWKH\HQWHULQWRWKH³VXSUHPHRUGHDOV´&DPSEHOOHQFRXQWHUHG
on the hero’s journey. The scene plays out in tableau, with each performer stepping
back behind her/his screen after speaking.
Laney. Forty-seven years old, on welfare, recently enrolled in an inner-city

program for learners with dyslexia – from her own journal, in her own words.
My name is Laney Willis, and
I am determine NOT
to have another child pass through the school system,
graduate from high school AND
still cant read any better
then an elementary student.
That’s what happen to me.
I have ADHD and
I’m also dyslexic.
At the time(in the seventy),
NO ONE KNEW WHAT IT WAS.
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You didn’t hear anything

about learning disability, AND
my teacher didn’t know HOW
to help me.
they thought that
I WAS SLOW, so
they just put me back a grade.
I remember teacher sending notes home
with my report card saying
Laney day dream all the time.
little did they know
I couldn’t concentrate.
As I got older
it became apparent to me that I had
A VERY SERIOUS PROBLEM.
so I did the only thing I could think of,
call it “Fake it till you make it.”
I did whatever I had to, to fit in –
I became a class clown with certain teacher,
and with other,
I was quiet as a church mouse,
terrified they call on me
to read or
answer a question.
My experience with science was pretty much the same with all my subjects.
You get what you pay for.
I mean really –
free public education is just what it is –
it sucks.
And it’s sad that it’s like that.
I’ve always enjoyed learning new things.
Especially when the instruction are clear and precise.
A good day for me was when I could catch on and
keep up with what the teacher was teaching –
Which didn’t happen very often.
But when I did, I latched on like
a cowboy riding a bronco horse.
I love it whenever we got to do fun activities.
Where we can be hands on with our experiments,
in and out the class.
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M. KOESTER
And the instruction are symplified.

Here’s an example.
I can remember the first time
I had to dissect A frog.
The smell was just awful.
Worse than my dog Red Barron breath,
after he eats some unfamiliar items.
The frog was already dead, and
cut open and placed on a tray for us.
The class was in teams of two. We open it up.
We looked at kermit’s organs and parts, discussed it.
And that was it.
Even though I felt that most of the work was done for us.
And that grose smell.
It was still a cool project.
Another project I can remember was where the class
had to draw a picture of the heart.
I really liked that one because it gave me the chance
to show off me creative abilities.
We had instructions to color each section differently.
“Well dah.” I did something different!
Ensted of coloring, I wanted to use glitter,
but I had none.
So I got creative and
cut up construction paper of varius colors.
Put glue on my poster board.
And sprinkled the colored construction paper on it.
Separating the left and right ventricle.
Showing where the oxygenated blood coming into the heart,
and the deoxygenated blood leaving out the pulmonary orties.
It was really cool how my teacher boasted about it to the entire class, and gave
me a big fat “A.”
And that felt great!
I don’t ever remember getting a “A” before or since.
I remember things about the heart better, because I created it.
I drew it, I understood what I need to do, and
how I was going to create it.
But till this day I can’t tell you what else I learned
in science in our work books
nor what the lesson was on.
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Leonie. University visual arts professor.

My dyslexic brain
bends,
breaks, and
bewilders
my attempts to record in writing
my ideas,
insights and
understanding.
It confounds my efforts to
read the writings of others.
When I couldn’t
keep the letters of the alphabet
from rotating,
stepping out of line and
jumping place mid-word,
I would call upon drawing
(my special magic super power)
and my hand and brain would
instantly become
consummate collaborators.
Science and math?
No way!
Nora. In her own words, on the subject of standardized testing – Orton

Gillingham reading specialist and dyslexia awareness advocate.
I freakin’ hate bubble sheets!
When I sit down for a standardized test,
I retreat back to my 6th grade self.
Sweats? Check
Anxiety? Check.
All because of some stupid bubbles.
You would think that filling in
the letter A
would be easy.
Wrong!
Trying to hold that one letter
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M. KOESTER
in your head,
while over analyzing the question and
hoping you are write
is impossibly hard.
I cannot tel you the amount of time that
A ended up as C.
Even as an adult. I recently had to
take a lifeguard test and
the BUBBLES WERE BACK!
Crap.
I am going to fail this test because
I can’t fill in the bubbles and
then there goes my job.
Ok, so maybe no that bad.
I did pass, but the idea of
a bubble test at the age of 27 can
still send me into a downward spiral.
I have learned to cope, but it is still not fun.
At all.
But it takes longer, and
I worry about it, and
I double check it.
Don’t even get me started on
how hard the questions are
to interpret. All with my working memory not
holding them in my brain.
Bubbles and scantrons are
the bain of my existence
Mr. Marsh. Middle school science teacher with dyslexia.

Most of my teachers made
no effort to
DISCOVER
what kind of
learner
I was.
They tried to
explain in
the only way

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they understand or
have been
taught.
I need other ways in.
In the 8th grade,
I loved keeping a
Moon journal.
I felt like Galileo and
started teaching my friends
all about constellations.
Our ancestors looked at
these same stars!
We have to help
students like me find
their own light so that
they can be stars, too.
Dr. Taurus. Oral surgeon with dyslexia, accomplished surrealist painter.

Dyslexia is not a disability –
Just part of a spectrum of what it means to be
NORMAL.
But, if you think about it,
normal is what is average, and
there is no such thing as average,
which means
THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS NORMAL.
We need to get rid of the idea of
normal.
Tolerance for diversity
is what gives a culture
its strength.
Life is a force that
self-perpetuates
and endures because of –
not in spite –
diversity.
Dyslexia and Asperger’s are
important manifestations of the human process of
BEING.

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M. KOESTER
They need to be celebrated and acknowledged

for the extreme benefits they may confer.
When I was a little boy (a very long time ago) my parents
took me to a clinic to be tested because my brother got
straight A’s, and I was getting zeros on English tests.
There was not much known
about dyslexia
back then.
I prayed, “Please, please, PLEASE let them find out
I am
stupid,
so people will get off my back.”
Turns out I was anything but stupid,
but…
I COULD NOT READ!
I became like a bull-in-a-china-shop and
took out my frustrations on the football field.
A line backer, I loved the physical contact.
Did you know some dyslexics have enhanced peripheral vision?
I could actually see the quarterback and the line
at the same time.
I could get a jump on the rush!
And then, I discovered geometry –
It was all about shapes.
I never got anything less than a 100
on a geometry test.
Soon, I was excelling in chemistry.
I could actually SEE those stereoisomers.
As a cleft palate surgeon, I can VISUALIZE the anatomy
in my mind’s eye and then
DRAW out the process of correcting
a malformation.
I have published fifty papers through drawing-out-my-ideas –
but I can’t text without making errors.
Without mentors and advocates in our lives, we can lose
our way very quickly.
My parents never gave up on me.
I have come to regard my dyslexia as a gift.
My brain sees things differently, and this is empowering.
I would not change a thing.
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Billy Bob. Fifth grade student with dyslexia.

I am SO dyslexic that I go
to a special school, where
they really get me.
I know I’m lucky.
At this school, they teach us how
to advocate for ourselves and
about how cool our dyslexic brains are.
My teachers know my strengths.
They don’t make me feel stupid, but
powerful, just like I do
when I play
Minecraft.
In the Minecraft world,
I am in control, and
I always win.
What would I invent if I could,
you ask?
That’s easy.
I would invent the
WriterBot 3000. (Figure 1)
A wire would connect my brain
to a mechanical arm, which
would write my thoughts out
in a way that makes sense to
everyone.
Figure 1. WriterBot 3000 design drawing

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M. KOESTER
Kyle. Seventh grade student with dyslexia, Billy Bob’s older brother.
I am NOT cheating!
I can figure out how to solve
the math problem in my head, but
I cannot show you my work.
Also, why do you treat me like
I’m stupid?
I’m not, by the way.
But everyone THINKS I am when
you ask me to
be the “data recorder”
in our science lab group,
or worse,
the READER!
I am really good at the MAKING stuff part.
Why can’t you just explain the Big Picture first?
Help me see why knowing these hard words
matters.
Help me break your science words apart and sound them out.
Show me what you think good work looks like.
I can’t read your mind!
Trying to read the directions is like
going up stairs with
two broken legs.
Let me use technology! It’s not cheating.
More like a chairlift so I get to ride, too.
I cannot wait for band practice.
Funny girl. Professional improvisational theatre actress.

I am twelve, sitting in a science class, and
the teacher is giving me
ANOTHER worksheet
with printed instructions.
I read and read, and
try my best to understand.
I can’t.
I am copying and writing, and
not one science word has
any meaning for me.
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Unlike religion,
I do not believe without seeing
in science.
When I get uncomfortable,
I make a joke.
My classmates laugh.
As long as you’re funny,
people won’t make fun of you.
In the 6th grade, I started wearing tutus
and funny costumes to school.
I loved being in plays.
All I had to do was hear a script once,
and I had it memorized.
***
Dear Science Teacher,
I appreciate your efforts to
teach me, but
your words, while intelligent sounding,
make no sense.
I NEED YOU TO FIGURE OUT
ANOTHER WAY!
A MORE VISUAL WAY!
I NEED to be able to SEE what
the words mean.
I want to build things,
to make things.
ALL MAKING IS GOOD.
Your kind of science makes my brain hurt.
Did you know
I love being in plays?
Stage lights down
***
EPILOGUE
Each individual I interviewed reported feeling stupid, misunderstood, shamed, and

isolated, especially before their dyslexia was diagnosed and interventions set in
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M. KOESTER
motion. For the learner with dyslexia, being expected to learn a foreign language
(like science) through lecture, note-taking, and following printed procedural
directives is likely to be met with feelings of doom and gloom and academic
outcomes that reinforce feelings of failure.
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³LQWHUURJDWHV FULWLFL]HV DQG HPSRZHUV´ LQ 'HQ]LQ S (LJKW
empowered learners with dyslexia have raised their voices to shape this text.
They have spoken loud truths: (1) They are not broken; (2) They have refused to
become just another post-mortem educational statistic; and (3) They have grit; the
kind Angela Duckworth (2016) describes in her book on the “power of passion and
SHUVHYHUDQFH´S(DFKDFFHSWHGWKHFDOOWRVDYHWKHPVHOYHVDQGWKH\EHFDPH
warriors on a kind of hero’s journey.
All heroes need strong allies and advocates to enter the unknown and survive
WKHMRXUQH\&DPSEHOO6FLHQFHWHDFKHUVFDQEHFRPHLPSRUWDQWPHQWRUVDQG
allies for learners with dyslexia. Mr. Marsh, a science teacher with dyslexia having
felt the sting of marginalization his entire life, gratefully recalls “certain teachers”
ZKRVWRRGDSDUWIURPWKHUHVW.RHVWHU
I had a learning disability as a child, but
certain teachers could
“catch me.”
This is who I want to be.
I seek to
change
negative experiences and
inspire
positive views.
Mr. Marsh is now earning his doctorate in science teaching and learning,
maintaining his full-time job as a middle school science teacher. He begins each new
school year by showing his students his failing report cards. He tells them how he
was labeled disabled and confined to a special ed classroom that felt like solitary. He
will point to the stars and create opportunities for his students to imagine their own
identities, like newly discovered moons: waxing, waxing, waxing to who knows
where.
REFERENCES
&DPSEHOO-The hero with a thousand faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
&RQTXHUJRRG ' 3HUIRUPLQJ DV D PRUDO DFW (WKLFDO GLPHQVLRQV RI WKH HWKQRJUDSK\ RI
performance. Text and Performance Quarterly, 5±
Denzin, N. K. (2003). Performance ethnography: Critical pedagogy and the politics of culture.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
'LOODUG$Pilgrim at Tinker Creek. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.
Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. New York, NY: Scribner.

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TANGLDE IN TETX
Eide, B., & Eide, F. (2012). The dyslexic advantage: Unlocking the hidden potential of the dyslexic brain.
New York, NY: Penguin Group.
+RGNLQVRQ$³6DIH´VSDFHVLQHGXFDWLRQ*KHWWRVRIPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQDQGGRPLQDQFHRUSODFHVRI
HTXDOLW\DQGVRFLDOMXVWLFH"International Review of Qualitative Research, 8±
.RHVWHU 0 Science teachers who draw: The red is always there. Blue Mounds, WI: Deep
University Press.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading
problems at any level. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Merrie Koester
Center for Science Education
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina

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ALEJANDRO AND MICHELE KOOMEN
4. A GOOD TEACHER MAKES

SCIENCE LIGHT-HEARTED
Experiences in Learning Science from Alejandro
INTRODUCTION
8VLQJ D IUDPHZRUN RI QDUUDWLYH LQTXLU\ &ODQGLQLQ WKLV FKDSWHU FRQYH\V
the retrospective experiences and first-person voice in learning science across
elementary, middle and high school from Alejandro, a college graduate born with
³VHYHUH VSDVWLF FHUHEUDO SDOV\´ 1DUUDWLYH LQTXLU\ DVVHUWV WKDW DV KXPDQ EHLQJV
we come to understand and give meaning to our lives through story (Andrews,
6TXLUH 7DPERNRX1DUUDWLYHLQTXLU\EHJLQVLQH[SHULHQFHDV³H[SUHVVHG
LQOLYHGDQGWROGVWRULHV´&ODQGLQLQSDQGLQYROYHVWKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRI
a person’s experiences in relationship both to the other and to socio-cultural factors
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
I WAS BORN WITH SEVERE SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY (CP)
I was actually diagnosed at one, which is most common. I was born three months
premature. I was unable to walk until the age of seven after a surgery called
rhizotomy, which was very experimental at the time. Basically, the rhizotomy is
where you fuse parts of the spine together that aren’t working properly and take out
excess cartilage along the spine. It was very intrusive and very risky surgery. I was
on my stomach for 3 months after the surgery and in the hospital. Then I started
walking and by about age 10, I was able to walk with no assistance. I started with
a walker, and then moved to crutches. I did have braces on and off throughout my
OLIH,KDGQXPHURXVVXUJHULHVDERXWRIWKHPIURPDJHRQXSLQYROYLQJP\OHJ
back, and all lower extremities. I had a couple of eye surgeries as well. CP makes
my muscles contract and they’re just really tight. The way I explain it to my mom is
I would always feel like one tight knot. Like if you have one tight knot in your back,
that’s just what my body feels like a lot. I’m just so used to the pain that I don’t feel
it anymore, it’s just soreness throughout the day if it’s been a long day or if I’ve been
walking or something like that. I was in a wheelchair in first and again in seventh
grades. It’s crazy because I can get my legs sawed open and my bones moved around
and stuff and I’ll be like “Ah man that hurts a little.” And then I’ll get a paper cut
DQGLWZLOOEHOLNHWKLVLVWKHZRUVWSDLQLQWKHZRUOG,ORYHTXHVWLRQVOLNH³+RZGR
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ALEJANDRO & M. KOOMEN
you deal with all of those surgeries?” It’s like, not to be smart or anything, but my
response is always “How do you not deal with those surgeries?” Because I don’t
know, you not dealing with them is the same as me dealing with them because it’s
all that I’ve experienced.
KNOWING MYSELF AS A LEARNER
I am a visual learner. When I think about it, my memory has a lot of visuals: pictures,
graphs, charts. I can see snippets of a reading that I was doing or a picture of a
graph or whatever I was looking at. I can literally picture that visual in my head
and remember the day or what I was writing about in class and look at my notes.
I would have a much better understanding than if I just tried to read a book telling
me the same thing. For me, the visual aid with a description is the centerpiece of
understanding when I am listening in science class or reading a science book.
I remember doing a lot of concept maps for different classes. In science, we did
concept maps to show how things were related. I remember that with cells a lot as
well. Drawing concept maps helped. They helped me remember what the words were
and how they were related to the cell type or whatever we were working on. I knew
what the thing was but I may not remember exactly what its functions or purpose was.
I remembered where it was in relation to other things on the concept map.
SCHOOL SCIENCE EXPERIENCES
From what I remember, my elementary science experience was just a lot of definitions
and reading of power points. It was a long time ago. What I remember in terms of
looking up the definitions came directly from the glossary of the science textbooks
or she’d give us different ways to get on the Internet and look up the definitions.
There was an interactive science website that had all the definitions and stuff. You
got to play different games and do different things. It was a cool new medium to
learn the definitions. So, a lot of the time it was just me sitting there trying to figure
the definitions out. I never really had enough time to talk to the teachers one on one
and try to get them to help me more because they had 30 kids they were trying to deal
ZLWKDQGQRWDOOP\TXHVWLRQVFRXOGEHDQVZHUHG,NLQGRIMXVWZHQWLQWRDVKHOORI
fear of science because I didn’t understand it and felt like I’m never going to get it.
In 6th grade we had an arboretum and we went out and discovered different types
of flowers and were able to categorize them. That was really fun just to be outside
interacting and touching the plants, looking at what makes them different. Most of
the time I was able to walk. But, a big part of being outside came down to endurance
and just being able to keep up with the group the whole time. I mean, you can’t ask
the class to slow down and not see the things they want to see, that’s not right.
Science became more hands on as you got older and had labs and what not. I
began to build up more fear stemming from my motor skills and my inability to be
precise, because you have to get it down to this exact number. I would be like, “Hey,

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A GOOD TEACHER MAKES SCIENCE LIGHT-HEARTED
lab partner. You want to do this and tell me what happens? Because I’m probably
going to mess up.” I had a lot of lack of confidence in my abilities.
My seventh-grade teacher was amazing. She always came in with a smile on
her face ready to explain what we weren’t understanding. She made the learning
environment light-hearted which made the overall ability to really understand the
information a little bit easier because you weren’t so stressed out. I did not have
to think about what does everybody else know that I don’t. I don’t want to ask a
TXHVWLRQWKDWHYHU\RQHHOVHNQRZVWKHDQVZHUWRDQG,¶PWKHRQHSHUVRQZKRGRHVQ¶W
get this concept or whatever the issue may be. So just having that environment, she
PDGHLWFOHDUWKHILUVWGD\WRIHHOIUHHDQGDVNDQ\TXHVWLRQWKDW¶VRQ\RXUPLQGDQG
you’ll have no judgment from her or the students. We all made that pact together.
My experience in seventh grade were mostly observational rather than actual
hands on because I was in a wheelchair and could not do the hands on. I would get
with my partner and write down the notes but then he would actually physically
do the experiment because of the tables. I could just peek over the tables in my
wheelchair. That’s one of my biggest memories of science in seventh grade. We
had a lot of really cool experiments that year, but it was really tough to be in the
wheelchair because you couldn’t really be as engaged with what was going on. And
because it was in the middle of the day, I couldn’t go full days because it was just
too long. I always left right in the middle of science classes. My teacher would give
me a worksheet and then my partner would give me whatever we found. Having my
partner kind of do that helped me tend to withdraw from the actual learning process
that was happening at that time. So, I’d miss a lot of things in the lab. They’d be
explaining it, but it would kind of go in one ear and out the other.
In ninth grade, I had a science blunder. It sticks out to me because I don’t remember
the names of the chemicals I was trying to mix, but I mixed the wrong ones. It
started bubbling a lot, so I was looking around at everyone else, to see if theirs were
bubbling. It was making a “ssssshhhing” sound. It was in a beaker and seemed to
get more condensed and then “Kaboom” it just exploded. Stuff everywhere. We had
safety goggles, lab coat and everything. The whole shebang [to protect students]. The
class reacted with a lot of gasping, everyone jumped back. Then you could hear a pin
drop for about three seconds. Then the teacher came running over asking if everyone
was okay. “Yep we are fine.” “Okay, do you know what you did wrong?” “Yeah, I
mixed the wrong chemicals, I was supposed to put whatever the other chemical is in
there instead of the one that I did.” “Okay well as long as you are okay and you know
what you did wrong, Mistakes happen and we learn from them.” He didn’t diminish
my confidence even more. He could have been: “WHAT ARE YOU DOING! THIS
IS NOT OKAY!” But instead he was like “mistakes happen and as long as everyone
is okay, you know what you did wrong so you learned from it.” That was a really
big thing because that was 9th grade. I was very scared of my abilities to work with
science and math especially. Just to have that and to know that everyone makes
mistakes, it’s okay to make those mistakes as long as everyone is okay. That was a
pretty big confidence boost for me.

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Then about two weeks later he put the same experiment back in front of me
after class one day and he was like “Can you put this together again?” and I did
it correctly. He had the station set up when I got there after class, the different
chemicals we needed to work with were already set out and separated into different
vials. He said “alright I want to make sure that you still know how to do this and
that you are still comfortable with it.” The fact that he used the word comfortable
was a huge thing. He wanted to make sure that my motor skills were good. He
watched really intently to make sure that there were no twitches that would offset
the balance of the chemicals. So, it was a really nice one-on-one. He talked to me a
lot to control my pours more because sometimes I would be pouring too fast or not
paying attention which would lead to undesirable chemicals reactions. So, it was a
really nice moment of how to turn a negative into a positive and learn from it. And
now as someone who understands the realm of the teacher a little bit more, it was a
really cool approach for him to use in terms of how the student was going to react
internally instead of externally. Like I said, if he would have come up and been like:
“WHAT ARE YOU DOING? THIS IS NOT OKAY AND IT IS DANGEROUS!”
it would have been mortifying and disgraceful to me in front of my peers. Instead,
he laid out the safety rules and made sure I knew why the situation was dangerous.
He made sure that I learned from the mistake instead of punishing me for it. I think
that is a positive thing for teachers to do for reacting and relating to their students.
He wanted you to figure it out. If you messed up, like I did with my big Kaboom,
he would stop the class, but he wouldn’t single you out. He would just say, “okay
I notice that this is happening at some stations” or “I notice that some students are
having trouble with this concept.” He would bring the class back and explain it
so everyone would have the knowledge and basic understanding of it. There were
countless times where he could have singled me out as the student who was making
the mistake. But he would say, “okay I see that a couple of students are having
trouble with this. Let’s come back and talk about it. And then go back out and try
it again.” He would make it a whole class learning experience versus singling out
one person in the class.
That experience gave me more confidence within that class of science. With that
WHDFKHU,IHOWWKDWWKHUHZDVQHYHUDEDGTXHVWLRQWRDVN,I,ZDVFRQIXVHG,NQHZ,
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for that class. I think I had a close relationship with that teacher. It went away the
next year when I went into chemistry. That teacher for chemistry was very reserved
from his students and not really engaging. So, I never felt like I could approach him.
%XWWKDWWKJUDGH\HDUZDVQLFH$ORWOLNHP\WKJUDGH\HDU7KHWHDFKHUVOLNHG
what they do, so they brought a lot of action to science. The first thing they always
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DVNWKHVDPHTXHVWLRQDJDLQ,I\RXDUHQRWXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRPHWKLQJ,WLVZRUVHWR
not understand something and try to act like you understand it and move on. It is
EHWWHUWRDVNWKHVDPHTXHVWLRQDJDLQXQWLO\RXXQGHUVWDQGLW´,IHHOOLNHWKDWZDV
very important and comforting.

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ALEJANDRO’S SUGGESTION TO SCIENCE TEACHERS
In our conversations, Alejandro had a number of suggestions for teachers and teacher
education.
Like Kids
As a teacher if you don’t have that desire or that love to teach kids and have them
understand and see them get excited about learning not only are you going to feel
crappy about your own job but you will not have that desire to go to work every day.
It will rub off on kids and I honestly think that’s a huge factor to a lot of kids deciding
to not educate themselves or not aspire to go to school because of the environment or
the role model that they have as teachers and the attitude of the teachers. If the teacher
doesn’t care, why should the student care? That’s always kind of been my philosophy.
Make the Curriculum More Based Around the Students and the Questions
I was one of those children that needed a lot of one-on-one explanation. It was
VRPHWLPHVDFKDOOHQJHWRJHWDOOP\TXHVWLRQVDQVZHUHGEHFDXVH,ZRXOGILQGWKDW
,KDGDORWRITXHVWLRQVDERXWUHDGLQJDZRUGRUKRZWKLVVHQWHQFHILWVLQ,ZRXOG
just sit there with my hand raised and say to myself: “It’s been enough time, I’m just
going to keep going because I’m wasting time and not being productive.” The longer
you have your hand raised and the longer you sit there you start to think that it’s not
DYDOLGTXHVWLRQDQG\RXFDQILQGUHDVRQVQRWWRDVNLW
A teacher can’t call on every student every time that a hand pops up. It would
really be hard to get everything you needed to get done in time. A suggestion I have
LVWRPDNHWKHFXUULFXOXPPRUHEDVHGDURXQGWKHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHTXHVWLRQVWKDWWKH
students have. If the teacher gave everybody the chance to at least ask a couple of
TXHVWLRQVHYHU\FODVVSHULRGDORWRIWKHTXHVWLRQVRUPLVFRQFHSWLRQVVWXGHQWVKDYH
are going to get answered.
Physical Accessibility
There were plenty of field trips where I would fall behind and have to miss something
because I just had to take a rest. Which isn’t fair either, but that was just the way it
was back then. If the landscape’s rocky it’ll be a bit harder, but I would suggest that
the teachers find an alternative way to use a motorized vehicle, to make sure that
a student with physical challenges can be at the same pace as the rest of the class
so they would still be able to see and enjoy the field trip. There are times in which
you just can’t accommodate students with physical challenges for a trip. I’ve had
plenty of friends that had to stay back because they could not accommodate their
wheelchairs to go where we were going, but teachers need to, if that is the case, find
an alternative experience for them on that day to get the same general knowledge.

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Read IEPs
One of my main desires is to get the regular classroom teachers to read the Individual
Education Program (IEPs) and deeply understand them. I know a big thing with my
school is that a lot of my main teachers had not even read my IEP. That’s always
the kind of thing that bothered me. I’ve talked to a lot of teachers who know what
an IEP was, but who had never really read it in depth. Reading the IEP gives the
teacher an opportunity to know the student and how to have the best chance to learn
at the highest level that they can. I would suggest that teacher literally walks up to
someone with an IEP, and says “Hey! We’re going to go through this. Let’s read your
,(3DQGWKHQLI,>WKHWHDFKHU@KDYHDQ\TXHVWLRQV\RXFDQH[SODLQLWWRPH´,¶YH
read my own IEP numerous times.
Educating Teachers and Students on Different Ways to Be Inclusive
Just because someone has a para [paraprofessional: an assistant in a classroom] it

doesn’t mean that they can’t be properly accommodated to complete an assignment,
even if it’s in a different way. I feel that a lot of teachers find that’s hard to do or
they haven’t really thought of a good way to do it, so they just kind of let the aid or
para guide what the student does in the classroom. Educating teachers on different
ways to be inclusive and how you can be more inclusive while still accommodating
is important.
Never Post Grades in Alphabetical Order
Going back to my tenth-grade chemistry teacher, there were three tests that I know
I was the only one that did not pass. He would put our student ID numbers with
our grades on the wall and everybody knows who’s who because the list was in
alphabetical order. You could figure it out as easy as can be. That’s another big
confidence killer. That was another practice that made me withdraw from science
learning. It’s like everybody passed this test but me. I’m not going to waste the
ZKROHFODVV¶VWLPHZLWKPRUHTXHVWLRQV,¶OOMXVWPRYHRQDQGPD\EH,¶OOXQGHUVWDQG
it later.
Create a Positive Classroom Environment
Make sure that it is known to the class that it is okay to work together if someone
doesn’t understand something. That will create a positive classroom environment. In
terms of my personal story, something like that would have helped me to feel less of
an alienated feeling within the classroom. It’s just an alone feeling sitting there with
a blank page and no idea of what you need to be doing. Make sure that students do
not feel bad about sharing information. If somebody knows something and they see
that someone else is struggling, they can share the information. It will help both of

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them. As the teacher, you will have to make a strong distinction of what is cheating
and what is appropriate.
Create a Warm Environment and Get to Know Your Students as People
Really create a warm environment that promotes learning from each other and have
your door open whenever you can. Then if someone needs you they will come to
you. Make yourself as available as you can without burning yourself out. Because if
you burn yourself out you aren’t going to be good for anybody. Just making yourself
as open and available as you can is really the key. Also, try to get an understanding
of who the student is as a person, as well as what their needs are: what do they like
to do in their spare time, or things like that. Really create a warm environment that
promotes learning from each other and have your door open whenever you can.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to acknowledge “Alejandro” for his willingness and courage to share
his insight and perspective on learning science across elementary, middle and high
school.
REFERENCES
$QGUHZV 0 6TXLUH & 7DPERNRX 0 (GV Doing narrative research. London: Sage
Publications.
&ODQGLQLQ ' - /RFDWLQJ QDUUDWLYH LQTXLU\ historically. In D. J Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of
narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodologySS±7KRXVDQG2DNV&$6DJH3XEOLFDWLRQV
Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Michele Koomen

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KOURTNEY BAKALYAR
5. INCLUDING STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

SPECTRUM DISORDER IN A K-12 CLASSROOM
INTRODUCTION
Teens and young adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) enroll in university
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) programs at higher rates
than their typically developing peers and peers from other disability groups (Wei,
Yu, Shattuck, McCracken, & Blackorby, 2012). What draws students with ASD to
STEM programs and the STEM field? How can K-12 teachers foster interest and
love of science for students with ASD?
Two college students shared their experiences with science in the K-12 classroom.
For one student, “Sarah,” this experience led to her pursuing and completing a
bachelor of science in physics, while the other student, “Michelle” chose to pursue a
bachelor of art in music composition and secondary teaching. Both students grew up
in environments rich in science; both of Sarah’s parents are engineers, and Michelle’s
father is a science teacher. One-on-one interviews with both students revealed their
preferences for science curriculum, their positive and negative experiences with
their science teachers and classes, and recommendations they have for pre-service
and current science teachers.
Michelle had an individualized education program (IEP) from kindergarten
through 12th grade. In elementary school, she was in general education for part of
the day and had a paraprofessional who accompanied her to her general education
classroom. Her teachers worked a lot with her on communication, rate of speech,
interactions, and identifying emotions. Once out of elementary school, she wanted
to be “normal” and rarely used her accommodations. Sarah was diagnosed with
Asperger’s Syndrome in sixth-grade and received a few unofficial accommodations
from her sixth-grade teacher; however, it wasn’t until college that she started
receiving formal accommodations.
SCIENCE CURRICULUM
Despite having different paths in college, both students expressed a comfort with
science material and its “straight-forward” concepts that are rule bound. They
enjoyed how classes were taught using visuals, labs, and different modes of learning.
Sarah loved how there was always a “right” answer; however, this bored Michelle.
Both students had more difficulty with literature and history when compared with
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K. BAKALYAR
science because it was more difficult to see the relevance of the material and it could
be subjective. “Learning about other cultures may be difficult for students with
ASD; these individuals already have a hard time understanding this culture. Science
has the opportunity to stay relevant, since it is part of daily life,” shared Michelle.
PLAY AND COLORING: ELEMENTARY SCIENCE
It can be hard for many college students to recall what life was like when they
were in elementary school, but the memories that stick are often because they are
on the extremes, either very good or very bad. Sarah could not recall the teachers
doing much with teaching science; instead the school would bring parents in to teach
science activities, and there were a lot of parents in the STEM field. This helped
keep science interesting during elementary school. Sarah’s life outside of school
was full of science: She would spend family events with her grandpa who showed
her why there are days, nights, and seasons, as well as teaching her Boolean logic.
She warmly remembered one family event where she and her grandfather were lying
on the floor watching the sun stream through the window and her grandfather noted
how the light moved and that was because of how the Earth moved. Her budding
interest in science was fostered by attending her mother’s programming classes and
a program called College for Kids at the local community college from third grade
until the summer before sixth-grade where she was able to work on amateur radio
and circuit diagrams.
Michelle’s elementary experience was different; she had behavioral issues and was
suspended often. She reports she did not have friends and believed she was not good
at anything, including school, swimming, and piano. She noted that her elementary
teachers did not note any of her strengths either or try to build on them. It was hard
for her to feel connected to academics when she struggled with social skills, relating
to others, and feeling like she was being taken advantage of. However, she shared
fond feelings of elementary science with the hands-on activities like using graham
crackers to better understand plate tectonics and coloring a water cycle picture.
For both students, their experiences changed when they continued to middle
school.
Recommendations for Elementary Teachers
Sarah’s suggestions for elementary teachers were to promote science as being fun and
to engage in science in the way young children learn. Her preference is for science
lessons to include a lot of active coloring, getting up and moving, and possibly being
silly and singing. Sarah pointed out that science has the opportunity to be relevant
in everyday life, such as the water cycle, seasons, and life cycles, and science can
be used to bring fun into the school day. Sarah hoped elementary teachers would
help all students learn how to work together, teach social skills, self-awareness, and
make sure kids on the spectrum are not taken advantage of. Michelle’s focus was on

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INCLUDING STUDENTS WITH ASD IN A K-12 CLASSROOM
the content and the social aspects of the elementary classrooms. She desired more
differentiated instruction to allow for more challenging activities for students who
already know the material, as well as wanting teachers to know that some kids will
learn better if they are working alone and that “learning shouldn’t be sacrificed for
working with others.”
HOMEWORK AND GROWTH: MIDDLE SCHOOL
Teachers had a huge impact on both ladies in middle school. The structure of the
classes changed in moving from elementary to middle school. They went from
having one teacher all day to having multiple teachers. Middle school was also the
first time when homework was graded.
Middle school brought confidence for Michelle; her science teacher showed
her she cared by becoming a “safe person” who attended her IEP meeting, asking
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teacher taught her how to pick out the important information and encouraged
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burning peanuts to see how much energy they contained, she found the assignments
frustrating and confusing. The teacher provided open-ended assignments that
focused on exploration and allowed students to provide as much information as they
could. This format caused Michelle to get “stuck” because of the lack of structure
or modeling.
Sarah expressed mixed feelings about her science experience in middle school.
Initially she struggled with completing “busy work” and sitting in class learning
material she already knew. Her sixth-grade teacher worked with Sarah by providing
her with some unofficial accommodations that worked with her strength of working
independently. The teacher would give Sarah all the work on Monday and then allow
her to work on it in the library instead of in class. The teacher wanted advanced
answers, which allowed Sarah to share as much as she wanted on a subject.
The bigger change came when Sarah’s family moved at the end of seventh-grade
and the material taught at her new school in eighth-grade was the same that was
taught at her old school for sixth- and seventh-grade. Sarah’s grades reflected her
reluctance in completing homework and she was placed in less advanced classes
despite her parents advocating for her to be placed in more difficult ones.
In addition to dealing with repetitive content, Sarah’s teacher focused on the basic
understanding of the concepts and didn’t seem open to Sarah’s more expansive and
detailed answers. Sarah recalls her answers being marked incorrect because she
didn’t just “regurgitate” her teacher’s responses. Her parents attempted to intervene
with the teacher, but they did not have success and the teacher continued teaching to
the “middle of the road.”
Sarah presented a very negative view of this teacher and how she presented herself,
the content, or how she interacted with students and her parents. She believed this
teacher’s style only reached those students who were right on track with the science

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K. BAKALYAR
curriculum leaving students who were struggling behind and not providing enough
challenges to more advanced students. She expressed that the teacher did not seem
LQWHUHVWHGLQOHDUQLQJIURPVWXGHQWVDQGPLJKWQRWKDYHEHHQTXDOLILHGWRWHDFKWKH
science class, noting that the teacher “often talked about her difficulties with her
college classes.” Overall, her middle school science classes impeded her interest in
science rather than encouraged it. She was repeatedly “praised for being smart but
criticized for lack of executive functioning.” Executive functioning includes time
management, organization, and breaking large assignments into smaller parts. It was
common throughout middle school for her teachers to criticize her difficulties with
completing homework and “dangle more difficult work and lessons” as rewards for
turning in her homework. Reflecting on this, Sarah noted that this had the opposite
effect on her motivation.
Recommendations for Middle School Teachers
Both students emphasized that their relationship with their middle school teachers
had a bigger impact on their enjoyment of the science material than the science
content. Middle school is a difficult time for many students, especially the social
aspects of it. Teachers can help these students by learning what they are interested in,
the goals they have, and if they have any friends at the school. This relationship can
help students with ASD feel more connected to the school and academics; teachers
can use this relationship to foster peer relationships in the classroom.
SCIENCE CONTENT AND LOTS OF IT: HIGH SCHOOL
The jump to high school brought our students closer to science content and teachers
with greater knowledge of that content. The biggest change for both of them was
having teachers who enjoyed working with students and the subjects they taught.
Michelle battled the ASD misconception that all kids with ASD like STEM classes
GXULQJKHUUHTXLUHGVFLHQFHFRXUVHV+HUODFNRILQWHUHVWLQKHUVFLHQFHFODVVHVZDV
overlooked by her teachers because she still engaged in her science classes by asking
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was never “enthralled” by any science class but liked the higher-level classes because
there were less distractions from students misbehaving. Michelle was successful in
her science classes early on because of the good fit of the specificity of the language
used in her classes and the hands-on lab experiences. The clear explanations and set
procedures helped make lab experiences comfortable and not overwhelming. She
enjoyed her chemistry class but was not sure if it was because of the content or
because her friends were in the class, though she did fondly recall a chemistry lab
where they made colorful marshmallows explode in a vacuum.
After taking two introductory science classes (life science and chemistry),
Michelle took AP biology her junior year and the experience caused her to “burn
out” and not want to have anything to do with science. The teacher used PowerPoint

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presentations for lecture, but the teacher’s spoken words for each slide included
different (sometimes conflicting) information and Michelle did not know what to
prioritize when taking notes. This, combined with too much work and too much
text to read each week on what she perceived as boring content, was overwhelming.
Michelle was especially bored with the make-up of cells. At the time of our interview,
Michelle had not taken a science class in six-years.
Sarah’s experiences improved after middle school; she enjoyed transitioning to
being in classes with other students who liked science and mathematics. While she
hated her first chemistry class in high school, she thought AP chemistry was great, she
thought her ninth-grade biology class was a “blast,” and her best science experiences
came from her life sciences class. She enjoyed learning and being challenged. Sarah
enjoyed the high-level material and difficult curriculum. In contrast to Michelle,
Sarah loved learning about cell biology.
When asked what made a “good” teacher or “bad” teacher, Sarah focused more
on the material and the content. She believed that “good teaching seemed to be
more about the level of the student” rather than the actual teaching. She had “great”
teachers who planned experiments, pushed through the curriculum so the class did
not spend a lot of time on “easy” material, and who knew the material they were
teaching. None of her teachers were “bad” but she described her teacher for her life
science class as “not great” but it did not matter as much for her because the material
was fun.
Recommendations for High School Teachers
Michelle’s focus was still on the curriculum and building in challenge in high school;
she explained that a lot of students with ASD need the challenge to be successful
and that science clubs like robotics and Science Olympiads can allow students to
be with others who like science and mathematics. This time allows students to be
themselves without others judging them. Sarah highlighted the need for more explicit
instruction with prioritizing the material during lecture settings and learning how to
glean knowledge from higher-level readings. She stressed the importance of getting
student buy-in with relevance; students on the spectrum do better when they know
why it is important to learn the material. Labs can help increase the relevance, but she
asks teachers to assign groups or monitor who is picking groups. This can help prevent
the students on the spectrum from feeling as much social isolation or from being made
to do all the work. She also recommended using multiple modalities for learning with
each unit, but desired some level of consistency. She explained that students on the
spectrum like routines and many will have difficulties with deviations to the schedule.
CLASSROOM RECOMMENDATIONS
Our students had recommendations for pre-services and current science teachers
on what they should know about ASD. Both students emphasized the need for

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K. BAKALYAR
building relationships with students with ASD. “It’s so important,” Sarah stated.
Michelle recommended teachers have a meeting at the beginning of the year with
students to learn about the student’s interests, strengths, accommodations, comfort
with communication, preference of how their disability is addressed, and how they
want to interact in class. While many teacher education programs stress first-person
language, Michelle had an alternate viewpoint. Rather than ASD being like using a
wheelchair, she saw the ASD community more like the Deaf or Blind community
and wished her teachers would have asked for her preferences. She explained that
ASD is a disability only because of how the world is set up. Both students would
refer to themselves or others with Asperger’s syndrome as “Aspies.” Sarah had
similar recommendations; she wanted teachers to get to know their students and use
their “fixation” to bring relevance to the material and to “use their fixations to your
advantage.” If students on the spectrum are not bought into a topic then they may
shut out the lessons, but if there are connections they are more likely to pay attention.
Individual meetings can have a large impact on the development of other interests.
They also give the teacher time to learn that these students are like other students
and they may have strengths or be great in an area, or they may not. There are many
stereotypes associated with ASD, but each student is different and has different needs.
This will only become evident by getting to know each student individually. Michelle
pointed out that it is possible for a student to be good at learning and have a lot of
knowledge but also have a lot of issues with executive function; this should not baffle
teachers or be a cause for teachers and schools to withhold advanced classes. Schools
need to look at more than just the grades that students get when assigning classes.
Communication was another area of barrier Sarah and Michelle discussed. They
wanted others to know that communication can be hard and “what you say and
what you mean are different, especially with jokes and sarcasm.” Often students on
the spectrum will take what is said very literally, so if a teacher says something is
“great” it will be taken as such, instead of actually not being great at all. They may
not hear the difference in the teacher’s tone or correctly read the non-verbal cues to
identify the teacher’s intended sarcasm. It opens them up to being teased by their
peers or teachers. Sarah also wanted teachers to know that when a student is not
looking them in the eye, it is not meant to be disrespectful; for some students, this
is very difficult and can take years of work to finally fit into the social norm of eye
contact. Michelle pointed out that this is only an issue because of how our culture is
set up. Students may also do better with providing a forewarning to students before
calling on them; this can be done by either by setting up a signal with individual
VWXGHQWVRUVWDWLQJWKDWWKDWWKHQH[WTXHVWLRQZLOOEHIRU;VWXGHQW7KLVFDQORZHU
the anxiety of being called on.
CONCLUSIONS
Much of what Sarah and Michelle shared follows recommendations provided in the
OLWHUDWXUHRIZRUNLQJZLWKLQGLYLGXDOVRQWKHVSHFWUXP*RRGPDQ :LOOLDPV

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Their stories and recommendations also highlighted that each student with ASD is
different and the only way to know about an individual student is to have one-on-
one meetings with them. Many students with ASD are drawn to the STEM field
DQGLWVFODVVHVEHFDXVHWKHFRQVLVWHQWODZVDQGLQTXLU\EDVHGOHDUQLQJSOD\VWRWKHLU
strengths, but teachers have the power to encourage that interest or stifle it. Michelle
is currently pursuing a career in physics because of her interactions with her high
school and college science classes; however, Sarah withdrew from AP biology and
never wanted to take another science class. It is important to recall their stories and
the challenges they experienced and note that both ladies continued to a university
where one has graduated and the other is a successful senior in the honors college.
Like many students with ASD, they needed teacher support and encouragement
to believe college is even a possibility. For many students with ASD, college is
only recently a possibility because of support programs that help students with the
challenges of independent living, social interactions with peers, instructors, and
staff, and executive function. Students with ASD can now more easily pursue their
interests in the STEM field by attending colleges and universities, building off the
foundations built by their K-12 teachers.
REFERENCES
*RRGPDQ* :LOOLDPV&,QWHUYHQWLRQVIRULQFUHDVLQJWKHDFDGHPLFHQJDJHPHQWRIVWXGHQWV
with autism spectrum disorder in inclusive classrooms. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 39±
Wei, X., Yu, J. W., Shattuck, P., McCracken, M., & Blackorby, J. (2013). Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) participation among college students with an autism spectrum
disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 43±
Kourtney Bakalyar
Autism Center of Excellence
Department of Psychology
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan

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LAUREN MADDEN, AMY SCHULER, MELISSA FRIEDMAN,
SHANAYA PANDAY AND DANIELLE KOEHLER
6. LOOKING THROUGH THE WINDOW

TO HELP TEACH OTHERS
Science Stories of Three Young Women
INTRODUCTION
The study presented in this chapter explores the science learning experiences of
three individuals with diagnosed intellectual disabilities, a group of students that
have traditionally been underserviced in science classrooms. Three young women
with diagnosed intellectual disabilities collaborated with a program administrator
and a science educator to narrate their personal science learning experiences.
Collaboratively, we used their stories to help identify trends in their science learning
experiences. We will compare the trends that emerged to the recommendations
identified by the research literature and offer recommendations for current and pre-
service teachers to use in their own practice.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Prior studies recommend that science instruction for individuals with disabilities
LQFOXGHV FRPELQDWLRQ RI VNLOOVEDVHG LQVWUXFWLRQ DQG LQTXLU\EDVHG VFLHQFH
exploration. Some researchers offer that specific scaffolding strategies allow these
LQGLYLGXDOVWRHQJDJHPRUHFRPSOHWHO\ZLWKLQTXLU\LQFOXGLQJ
direct instruction on vocabulary (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2000);
systematic prompting and feedback (Spooner, Knight, Browder, & Smith, 2012);
using graphic organizers (Dexter & Hughes, 2011);
peer tutoring (Jimenez, Browder, Spooner, & Debase, 2012);
using pictorial graphic enhancers%DNNHQ0DVWURSLHUL 6FUXJJVDQG
differentiating materials (Abels & Markic, 2013).
Some authors advocate for using specific types of curricular materials. For
example, Smith et al. (2013) found that elementary students classified as having
severe disabilities were able to learn and retain science content across four
different subject areas using the Early Science curriculum, which includes scripted
JXLGHOLQHV YRFDEXODU\ DQG LQTXLU\ VNLOO W\SH DFWLYLWLHV LQ D ³SXOORXW´ VPDOO
JURXSLQVWUXFWLRQVHSDUDWHIURPDWUDGLWLRQDOFODVVURRP$EHOVDOVRIRXQG
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L. MADDEN ET AL.
that using scaffolding, both of content and science process assisted with inclusive
middle school chemistry classes’ investigations in small groups. Jimenez, Browder,
Spooner, and Debase (2012) suggested that peer-mediated embedded instruction,
coupled with other more traditional special education modifications, can also help
VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV WR UHWDLQ VFLHQFH FRQWHQW NQRZOHGJH LQ DQ LQTXLU\EDVHG
middle school setting. Miller, Krockover, and Doughty (2013) also considered
LQTXLU\EDVHG OHDUQLQJ LQ PLGGOH VFKRRO VFLHQFH DQG IRXQG WKDW WKH XVH RI L3DGV
(as opposed to science notebooks) led to increased engagement and enthusiasm for
science in students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities.
STUDY PURPOSE
Though prior research provides us with solid guidelines and a framework for
describing best practices in special education for individuals with disabilities, it falls
short of painting a complete picture for a few reasons. For example, most of this
research has been done on students rather than with or by individuals with disabilities.
Generally speaking, past research regarding the effectiveness of science instruction
for individuals with disabilities measures this effectiveness through assessment
of students’ content knowledge, enjoyment, or engagement, using a variety of
TXDOLWDWLYHRUTXDQWLWDWLYHPHDVXUHVUDWKHUWKDQWKURXJKVWXGHQWV¶RZQH[SHULHQFHV
Additionally, the body of literature in this area is focused on elementary and middle
JUDGHV VFLHQFH LQVWUXFWLRQ OHDYLQJ XV ZLWK TXHVWLRQV DERXW KRZ WR EHVW PHHW WKH
needs of teenage and adult learners with disabilities. The data presented in our work
is comprised of the perspectives, opinions, and reflections on science learning across
the educational careers and lives of three adult women with disabilities who serve
as co-authors on this submission. Each contributor offers a personal vignette of her
own science learning experiences from elementary school through adulthood.
METHODOLOGY
Contributors
Three students who are enrolled in the Career and Community Studies (CCS)
program at The College of New Jersey (TCNJ) are the focus of this chapter. The CCS
SURJUDPLVGHVLJQHGWRSUHSDUHVWXGHQWVDJHV±IRUDGXOWOLIHWKURXJKDFDGHPLF
rigor, career discovery and preparation, and peer socialization as part of a diverse
community of learners. Students in the CCS program are highly motivated young
adults who have received extensive educational services in either public or private
schools and would likely have considerable difficulty being accepted or succeeding
in a traditional college degree. The three student co-authors are: Shanaya, a 22-year
old woman who has hearing loss and struggles with reading and is entering her
third year of the CCS program; Danielle, a 21-year old woman who has ADHD and
experienced a delay in speech and is entering her second year of the CCS program;
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LOOKING THROUGH THE WINDOW TO HELP TEACH OTHERS
and Melissa, a 19-year old woman who has multiple disabilities and is entering
her second year in the CCS program. All three student co-authors enrolled in an
enrichment program which explored key elements of global citizenship during the
summer of 2016. Lauren, the faculty co-author taught an environmental science
course as part of this summer enrichment program. Amy, the CCS assistant director
regularly interacts with all the participants for both vocational and student life
purposes.
Data Collection and Analyses
Each of the CCS student co-authors shared her experiences learning science
K-12, at the college level, and in informal/personal settings with Lauren through a
digitally-recorded discussion. Lauren reviewed the recordings and followed up with
D TXHVWLRQQDLUH WR SURYLGH DGGLWLRQDO LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FODULI\ PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV
Lauren then outlined each student’s narrative and the students edited and expanded
the written outlines into a first-person narrative prose format. Lauren and Amy then
edited the narratives and identified trends across the three stories. Lauren made
recommendations for current and future K-12 science teachers based on these trends.
NARRATIVE VIGNETTES
Shanaya’s Story
I’m a 21-year old student in the CCS program at TCNJ. Growing up, I went to
public schools. I really like science but I’ve had some bad teachers and some good
teachers. When I think about learning science in school, I don’t remember learning
anything in elementary school. In middle school, we learned about frogs and how
to dissect animals, which I didn’t like, because I didn’t enjoy dissecting animals.
I liked learning about the environment because it was cool to see how it changes.
In high school, for one of my classes, we made reusable bags and sold them. I liked
that project because it expanded our knowledge on how we could change the
environment. We also learned about how the environment could be affected if we
didn’t take care of it. We watched videos and did experiments. I like learning things
in different ways, like videos, and experiments, not just talking.
I liked science experiments and making the things because they were hands-on
activities. It was really cool to learn about how the explosion happens with mentos
in coke bottles! I am a visual learner, too. So, when teachers actually show us how
something was done, that helps. It was also helpful to have an aide and modified
assignments and tests. Sometimes, it helps when a teacher or an aide explains things
in a different way outside of class, or if they pull me aside. Hearing more than one
explanation is helpful. Being in small classes or small groups helps, too.
The things that made science hard were when teachers didn’t give a lot of
guidance or explanation. When teachers didn’t review what they were doing, I didn’t
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L. MADDEN ET AL.
understand it. Or when they moved on without explaining to me what was going on,
I felt frustrated. I need clear instructions. Also, when they didn’t give me notes, it
was hard because I like to read what the teacher was talking about in class. I don’t
like it when teachers talk for too long, either. It’s harder for me to learn when I don’t
have a chance to actually do activities. I don’t like it when there is too much reading,
either. I find large textbooks and reading really hard to understand. It’s hard when
teachers aren’t clear with what they want us to get out of those assignments. I like
doing homework on the computer and like to try to complete it first on my own
before asking a mentor for help.
When we learned about El Niño this summer, I wish I had more information and
more explanations or videos because I’m a visual learner and I feel like I didn’t have
enough information to really understand it. That was frustrating.
Even though it was hands-on, biology was my least favorite science class in high
school. I didn’t like dissecting animals because it smelled really terrible. I didn’t
like learning about the body parts and where they were in the body. I prefer plants to
animals. I really like learning about how things grow. I went to culinary school for a
year and we grew a garden. It was a lot of fun. I like gardening in my back yard with
my dad. I also liked working at a farm because I tried new things while I was there
and learned about how things work. I enjoy cooking too. It’s one of my hobbies.
There is a lot of science in cooking: you get to measure and experiment, which can
be really fun.
I’m interested in learning more about the earth and environment, and I like it
when people go green because it is helping out the environment. I would like to learn
more about greenwashing because I thought it was really cool. I think good teachers
should make science fun and interesting and let students do a lot of experiments
when they learn and give a lot of clear explanations.
Danielle’s Story
I am a 22-year old student in the CCS program at the TCNJ. I have ADHD, and I
was delayed in speaking and talking. I didn’t walk when other kids walked, but I had
trouble learning my ABCs and 123s. And I didn’t like other kids my own age when
I was a kid. I’ve been a student at public and private schools in Atlanta and in New
Jersey, and I’ve had a lot of different experiences.
In school, I liked English best because you talked about your opinions and
personalities. I like to talk about English because we get to have discussions and
listen to each other. I would always get things right on those tests because I listened
and I studied. It was interesting for me too. I liked art too because you can look at
things in different ways.
When I was in elementary school, it was kind of hard for my mom and my dad
because I didn’t do well in school. I tried a lot of different schools. I had a hard
time focusing in school. Science was hard for me in elementary and middle school
because I didn’t know that stuff the way other kids did. It was hard because of the
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spelling. And I didn’t know much about force, or balance, or things like that. It was
hard for me to understand, so I would just get laid back, and then I’d get behind. I’d
DVNTXHVWLRQVEXWLWGLGQ¶WKHOSEHFDXVH,QHHGVRPHERG\WRWDONWRPHPRUHRIWHQ
I went to private high school with a special program for kids like me and it was
good. Science was hard for me because I didn’t get what the teachers talked about,
and sometimes I failed. I would get anxious in science class when it was time to
speak, so I didn’t listen because I was bored or because I wanted to get out. I would
just daydream instead of doing my work. I feel frustrated in science class when the
teacher does all the talking without the students talking. Especially when the teacher
talked really slow and didn’t try to help us have fun learning about science. I think
if you want to teach science, you need to have energy! Not just talking about it but
helping us build things or explore. Or letting everyone in the class have a chance to
talk, too.
The science I liked best in school was when we would build stuff. I like seeing
things in 3-D and then getting a chance to explain what I saw. It’s cool to see
your hard work paying off when you make something all by yourself. When we
had real examples, in elementary school or high school, it was so much better and
more exciting. I like it when there were many examples and when we would have
conversations where everyone got to say something. When there’s technology, even
just Bill Nye the Science Guy videos1\H/DEV,ORYHLW
I also loved learning about animals. I love animals because I can trust them a
lot more than people. Dogs and horses don’t talk back or say bad things about their
friends. I like to learn about different kinds of animals, and their needs, and how to
help them. Working with animals can teach us how to be nice. And you can learn
so much from working with animals. I had a science teacher who brought different
kinds of butterflies in and we got a chance to watch the butterflies grow. After they
grew, we got to let them go and walk on a nature trail to see all the other things that
live outside. I really loved that.
If I had to tell a teacher about the best ways to teach me science, I would tell them
to be happy and to explain to me why they are excited about science, and explain to
me how to make stuff. I get excited when a teacher says, “Hi everyone! Today we’re
going to look at things in 3-D and build volcanoes, and look at insects!” I get excited
when the teacher is excited, too! If I’m falling behind, I want the teacher to pull me
aside and talk one-on-one about my work. I want them to check in with me so they
can explain. It makes me so happy when a teacher wants to help me because it tells
me that teachers care about me and want me to learn.
Melissa’s Story
I am a 19-year old student in the CCS program at TCNJ. I don’t remember much about
what I learned in science in elementary or middle school. I usually had aides to help
me in the earlier grades. In high school, I had inclusion teachers in my science classes.
I had some teachers that didn’t really work hard to teach me the way that I needed to
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L. MADDEN ET AL.
EHWDXJKW±WKH\ZHUHQ¶WJUHDWDWPRGLI\LQJFODVVPDWHULDOVRUZLOOLQJWRJLYHPHPXFK
one-on-one support during tests or class time. I didn’t like it when teachers talked too
fast, either. But I had some other science teachers that were better, especially after
school. I had one inclusion teacher who had a really good job explaining things in a
different way from the science teacher and hearing things in different ways helps me.
I rather learn by hearing explanations or watching videos. I have a hard time with
JUDSKVDQGGLDJUDPV±,¶PORVWZKHQ,KDYHWRPDNHJUDSKV,UHDOO\GLVOLNHGWKHSDUWV
RISK\VLFVDQGFKHPLVWU\ZKHQZHKDGWRXVHDORWRIIRUPXODVRUEDODQFHHTXDWLRQV%XW
I did like learning about the velocity of roller coasters! I love roller coasters, so I guess
the math is OK if it’s about something I’m really interested in, like roller coasters.
And the teacher gave us the formula for that. We built roller coasters, too. I read about
the new roller coasters at Six Flags this summer, but I didn’t get to ride on them.
I liked some other hands-on activities and labs in high school science, too. In my
junior year, we studied the density of different objects and we got to see how ice
was less dense than water. That was pretty cool to see! The teacher made it fun and
interesting. I like learning explanations for different real-life things.
I like keeping up with new technology, too, like iPads, new phones, and computers.
I read and watch videos about all the new products. I also like learning about new
DSSVOLNH1RWDEOH=85%DSSVDQG5HPLQGHU6HUJLR/LFHDWRKHOS
me keep myself organized.
I think teachers should be passionate about their teaching. If they just make you
use formulas or lecture about boring topics, then I don’t want to learn about science.
If they can get their students excited about a subject, or use things that the students
are interested in, learning is a lot more fun.
TRENDS AND THEMES
All three CCS students shared some similar struggles in their experiences, such as
instruction that focused too heavily on reading. As Shanaya said, “I find textbooks and
reading are really hard for me to read because teachers sometimes aren’t clear with what
they want us to get out of those assignments.” The three also agreed that clear instructions
were essential in science class, as they each found it easy to get distracted. On the other
hand, each of the three CCS students cited specific examples of hands-on activities they
remembered enjoying as students. For example, Melissa reported enjoying building
roller coasters, while Danielle recalled enjoying studying and releasing butterflies.
They also agreed that the assistance of a teacher or aide was critical in their success in
science class, but differed in their preferred approach. For example, Danielle expressed
a preference to meet with a teacher one-on-one outside of class for additional assistance
while Shanaya preferred the assistance of a teacher or aide during class.
0RGLILHGLQTXLU\EDVHGLQVWUXFWLRQLVUHFRPPHQGHGZLGHO\DFURVVWKHOLWHUDWXUH
on science instruction for individuals with disabilities, and this recommendation
supports the CCS students’ preference for hands-on authentic experiences.
Other themes that emerged are also supported by research. For example, Scruggs

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and Mastropieri (2000) suggested using direct instruction on vocabulary, while

Abels and Markic (2013) recommend using differentiated curriculum materials±
both of these strategies would aid in easing the reading focus in some science
instruction. However, though each of the CCS students addressed the importance
of one-on-one teacher assistance, which could be supported by the recommendation
of Spooner, Knight, Browder, and Smith (2012) to incorporate systemic feedback
and prompting by the teacher, none mentioned the assistance or support of peers
as helpful.
(DFKLQGLYLGXDOSDUWLFLSDQWRIIHUHGDXQLTXHRSLQLRQRQEHVWSUDFWLFHVIRUIXWXUH
teachers to use in order to meet the needs of “students like them.” Danielle and
Melissa felt the best way to engage students in science was through expressing
enthusiasm for the subject area. On the other hand, Shanaya offered that teachers
should provide clear explanations of scientific phenomena and class expectations.
Each of the three CCS students thought science instruction should focus on
explaining the world around us. In Melissa’s words: “I like knowing a rollercoaster
has enough energy to go up and down. I like knowing how things work in our
world,” while Shanaya hoped for more information regarding global weather
patterns and cooking.
RECOMMENDATIONS
2XU ZRUN RIIHUV D XQLTXH SHUVSHFWLYH RQ VFLHQFH HGXFDWLRQ IRU LQGLYLGXDOV ZLWK
disabilities by listening specifically to the voices of these individuals. We conclude
by offering future and practicing teachers the following three recommendations:
Listen to your students. Individuals with disabilities can often feel shut down,
silenced, distracted, or confused when learning science. It is at these times that
it is most critical to tune in with your individual students and offer one-on-one
VXSSRUWRUFRQQHFWWRVWXGHQWV¶XQLTXHLQWHUHVWV
Check in with your students frequently. Both inside and outside of class support
can help individuals with disabilities identify interests, clarify misunderstandings,
and engage your students with the content. The onus is on the teacher to structure
and plan these types of check-ins, not the students.
Show enthusiasm for the content! To some, science can seem uninteresting at
best. When instruction becomes tedious, or too heavily focused on vocabulary, or
VROYLQJPDWKHPDWLFDOHTXDWLRQVDOOVWXGHQWVFDQORVHLQWHUHVW6KDULQJWKHUHDVRQV
why you find the content interesting.
CONCLUSION
Though perhaps the recommendations we offer aren’t surprising, rather than

relying on teacher or researcher-based data collection, they offer the perspective
of individuals with disabilities on how to best meet their needs through science

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L. MADDEN ET AL.
instruction. This shift in perspective can empower these individuals and engage
WKHPLQWKHXOWLPDWHSXUSRVHRIVFLHQFH±XQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHZRUOGDURXQGWKHP
REFERENCES
$EHOV66FDIIROGLQJLQTXLU\EDVHGVFLHQFHDQGFKHPLVWU\HGXFDWLRQLQLQFOXVLYHFODVVURRPV,Q
N. L. Yates (Ed.), New developments in science education researchSS±1HZ<RUN1<1RYD
Science Publishers.
Abels, S., & Markic, S. (2013). Umgang mit vielfalt: Neue perspektiven im chemieunterricht.
Naturwissenschaftenim Unterricht: Chemie, 24±
%DNNHQ-30DVWURSLHUL0$ 6FUXJJV7(5HDGLQJFRPSUHKHQVLRQRIH[SRVLWRU\VFLHQFH
material and students with learning disabilities: A comparison of strategies. The Journal of Special
Education, 31±
Dexter, D. D., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A
meta-analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34±
-LPHQH] %$ %URZGHU ' 0 6SRRQHU ) 'HEDVH : ,QFOXVLYH LQTXLU\ VFLHQFH XVLQJ
peer-mediated embedded instruction for students with moderate intellectual disability. Exceptional
Children, 78±
0LOOHU%7.URFNRYHU*+ 'RXJKW\78VLQJL3DGVWRWHDFKLQTXLU\VFLHQFHWRVWXGHQWV
with a moderate to severe intellectual disability: A pilot study. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 50±
1\H/DEVNye Labs online. Retrieved from http://nyelabs.kcts.org/
Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2000). The effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students with
learning and behavior problems: An update and research synthesis. Journal of Behavioral Education,
10±±
6HUJLR/LFHDReminder (2.0) [Mobile application software]. Retrieved from
KWWSVLWXQHVDSSOHFRPXVDSSUHPLQGHUUHPLQGHUVZLWKYRLFHLG"PW
Smith, B. R., Spooner, F., Jimenez, B. A., & Browder, D. (2013). Using an early science curriculum to
teach science vocabulary and concepts to students with severe developmental disabilities. Education
and Treatment of Children, 36±
Spooner, F., Knight, V. F., Browder, D. M., & Smith, B. R. (2012). Evidence-based practices for teaching
academic skills to students with severe developmental disabilities. Remedial and Special Education,
33±
=85%DSSVNotable (Basic) [Mobile application software]. Retrieved from http://notableapp.com/
tour
Lauren Madden
Department of Elementary and Early Childhood Education
The College of New Jersey
Ewing Township, New Jersey
Amy Schuler
Melissa Friedman
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Shanaya Panday
Danielle Koehler

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TIFFANY WILD
7. SYNTHESIS OF VOICES FROM THE FIELD

Implications for Practice
A child is only as disabled as their environment and the beliefs of the people
around them. (Bala Pillai DPTS, PCS)
As the first section of the book focuses on the voices of students with disabilities,
it creates an opportunity for us to synthesize their wealth of knowledge and
suggestions into implications for practice. So often as researchers or teachers, we
rely on the “experts” with the fancy credentials to tell us what to do and forget to
go directly to the source, as pointed out by our students in this section. The students
have taught us what we need to know and understand in order to make science
education better for ALL students.
We have not done a good job in preparing teachers to teach science to ALL
VWXGHQWV ,Q IDFW .DKQ DQG /HZLV IRXQG WKDW PDQ\ WHDFKHUV UHSRUWHG QRW
receiving training to teach the students whose voices are represented in this book
and feel ill-prepared to teach them. It is our hope that by presenting the “Voices of
Students” in this section that we can begin to have conversations on how best to
reach all students in the science classroom and let the true experts teach us all. This
lack of preparation has resulted in some awkward and embarrassing situations for
the students impeding their science learning in the classroom. All of the undesirable
classroom experiences could have been avoided if teachers would have just
listened to their voices and learned from their students. Many wonderful stories of
positive pedagogy and classroom experiences for the students reflect the teacher’s
willingness to work with the student to determine what best worked for him/her
and the student’s full acceptance into the science education classroom. A simple
VHW RI TXHVWLRQV VXFK DV ³:KDW FDQ , GR WR VXSSRUW \RX"´ RU ³:KDW ZRUNV ZHOO
for you?” or “How can I help you?” could have made for a positive, welcoming
classroom environment and helped the teacher avoid frustration for both the student
and him/herself.
As I reflected on the writings of all of the authors of our first section, I was struck
by how the recommendations made by our students, which were not about specific
strategies for making content accessible, focused on making sure that each student
was a fully included member in the classroom.
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T. WILD
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations below seemed to be a top priority of the students.
Listen to Your Students
Both Max and Sarah pointed out that if the teacher had just listened to their suggestions,
embarrassing situations could have been avoided and their learning could have been
enhanced. However, Max and Sarah were not the only ones. Overwhelmingly, the
majority of the students in this chapter simply asked that teachers listen to them.
They asked that teachers get to know their students and to realize that labeling a
student with a specific disability does not dictate how the student is to be taught.
Each person is an individual with individual needs. No general guidelines can
provide a roadmap of how to make things accessible for students with disabilities.
Ask the student what he/she needs and for his/her preferences. Build a relationship
with him/her. A student would rather teachers ask about what is needed in order to
make science classrooms more accessible than rely on a short course or one-time
lecture received as a student in a teacher personnel preparation program.
Read the Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Alejandro pointed out the importance of the IEP. He read his numerous times but
noted that many of his teachers had not. They were aware of the IEP but, had never
read it. It is important for educators to read the IEP for more specific information.
IEPs can be another tool for getting to know not only the academic needs of students
but also the dreams, social needs, and academic history. Remember, by law teachers
DUHUHTXLUHGWRLPSOHPHQWDOODFFRPPRGDWLRQVDQGPRGLILFDWLRQVZULWWHQLQWRHDFK
student’s IEP while working to obtain goals for the student.
Keep Your Expectations High
Michelle emphasized that she wanted to be challenged to be successful in math and

science through science clubs and higher-level readings. Kyle said he was always stuck
with being a recorder when in fact he was good at other tasks in the classroom. A label
does not provide any information on the cognitive capabilities of your students. Do
not be afraid to challenge students in the classroom, including those with disabilities.
Far too often teachers underestimate the full potential of their students. Unless it
becomes apparent that the content is too difficult and that modifications must take
place, do not make changes. The students in this chapter wanted teachers to not be
afraid of setting the bar high for ALL students. They wanted teachers to allow them
to participate in all activities. If a student is struggling, do not be afraid to reach out
to them and his/her intervention specialist to make a plan to ensure that the student is
fully included in activities in the classroom at a level that will ensure success.

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SYNTHESIS OF VOICES FROM THE FIELD
Have Fun!
“…Be happy…It makes me so happy when a teacher wants to help me, because
it tells me that teachers care about me and want me to learn.” (Danielle). Sarah
emphasized having fun and engaging students in science. Alejandro pointed out that
a teacher’s attitude will rub off on the students. Science allows classroom teachers to
EHFUHDWLYHWKURXJKWKHLQTXLU\EDVHGSURFHVVHVHQYLVLRQHGE\WKHNGSS (2013). It
VKRXOGEHWKURXJKWKHLQTXLU\EDVHGSURFHVVWKDWFODVVURRPWHDFKHUVKDYHIXQZLWK
science and pass along this attitude to the students they teach.
Care for ALL Students
Kate said that her teacher seemed angry to even have her in the class. Alejandro said,
³,IWKHWHDFKHUGRHVQ¶WFDUHZK\VKRXOGWKHVWXGHQWFDUH"´7KDWLVDJUHDWTXHVWLRQ
He pointed out that teachers who are not caring toward their students could lead
students not to want to learn or attend school. So often teachers get that class list
the first day and immediately look down the list to see if any of “those” kids appear
on the list. However, all students have individual needs and it is up to the classroom
teacher to get to know the needs of students, to be mindful of those needs and set
the example of care and compassion for ALL students in the classroom. Again, the
teacher should use the expertise of the students as learners. This will lend itself to a
welcoming classroom where all students feel valued. The classroom teacher sets the
example for the way people should be treated.
Make the Content Relevant
Both Shanaya and Danielle pointed out how science suddenly became interesting
for them when the teacher tied the materials to something relevant in their lives or to
what was happening in the world around them. Both students seemed excited when
they got a chance to learn with a real-world connection. It is important to point out to
students why they are learning material and that science is not about a bunch of facts
and vocabulary that need to be memorized. Show students the careers associated
with the lessons being taught, point out the news stories that reflect the content being
learned, invite scientists or researchers to talk to students about their work and how
it relates to real life and the natural world, or show how their communities can be
impacted by the content they are learning.
Clear Expectations and Explanations
Sarah and Michelle both discussed the importance of clear expectations and
explanations. For some students, jokes and sarcasm do not work and they will take
those words very literally. Therefore, it is important to set clear expectations and
provide clear explanations in the classroom. This will allow students to understand

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T. WILD
exactly what they should be doing in order to have a successful outcome. Writing
directions out on the board, projecting them on a whiteboard, or printing them
on the top of the worksheet in addition to verbally discussing expectations can
be very effective. For longer science labs and projects, breaking directions down
into small obtainable tasks lead to the overall larger project/lab goal. Rubrics that
clearly define how students will obtain grades and points for a project or lab are
also valuable. Any tool that clarifies expectations and explanations for students is
invaluable.
Multi-Modalities for Learning
Alejandro pointed out that he was a visual learner and that using visuals during
teaching was very helpful for him. Melissa stated that she liked to listen and watch
videos to better understand concepts. Ally spoke about tactile learning. No matter
the preference, materials and content should be provided to students using a variety
of methods.
Do Not Rely on Readings and Textbooks
Shanaya, Danielle, and Melissa all spoke about the importance of relying on means
other than readings or textbooks to make science accessible. We know that the NGSS
(2013) is aligned with English Language Arts, but that does not mean relying only on
WKHWH[WERRNRUFODVVUHDGLQJVWRWHDFKWKHVFLHQFHFRQWHQW,Q6HFWLRQDGLVFXVVLRQ
on how to incorporate English Language Arts into the science classroom while still
keeping the material accessible for all students will be presented.
Learn Different Ways to Be an Inclusive Teacher
Alejandro recommended that teachers be inclusive and learn different ways to

educate. While he did not provide specific recommendations on modifications
and accommodations for course content, he did spend time talking about making
the classroom and field trips taken as part of the science education experience
of students physically accessible. A good place to begin to search for additional
tips on modifications and accommodations is on the National Science Teachers
Association website. There is a full page dedicated to making science available to all
students (http://www.nsta.org/disabilities). From the main page, you can access tips,
strategies, reference materials, additional websites, and videos to help a teacher learn
more information on this topic.
Everyone Makes Mistakes
Alejandro had a vivid memory of a science experiment that had gone wrong. However,
his teacher never got mad, never made him into an example, but only continued

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SYNTHESIS OF VOICES FROM THE FIELD
to encourage him to learn from his mistakes. This gave Alejandro confidence in
VFLHQFHFODVV+HIHOWPRUHFRQILGHQWWRDSSURDFKKLVWHDFKHUZLWKTXHVWLRQVDERXW
content and to complete his assignment. Classroom teachers have the power to turn
mistakes into learning experiences instead of reacting negatively and shutting down
the learning and communication in the classroom. The simple action of not over-
reacting led to an overall sense of belonging in the classroom, which in turn led
to more enriched learning experiences for all of the students in the classroom and
possibly fostered greater interest in science. All students will benefit by being lifted
up by their teachers rather than humiliated or embarrassed by them.
CONCLUSION
Teachers are the example for students. Classroom teachers need to set the example
of what it means to include all students in the science classroom so that these same
ideals travel with students well beyond the classroom. The basic message that all the
students who voiced their opinions in this chapter wanted readers to hear is that they
want to be fully included, to the best of their abilities, in the classroom.
REFERENCES
Tiffany Wild
Department of Teaching and Learning
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

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SECTION 2
VISIONS OF INCLUSION AND ACCESS:
UDL, STRENGTHS-BASED APPROACHES,
AND ONLINE LEARNING
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In this section, we examine evolving definitions, contexts, and approaches to

inclusive science learning. In Chapter 8, Kathleen Farrand traces the historical roots
of inclusive education that led to its association with general education classrooms.
Farrand argues for a more comprehensive vision of inclusion that is less related to
where a student is educated.
In Chapter 9, Cathy Newman Thomas, Delinda van Garderen, Kate Sadler, Mary
Decker, and Deborah Hanuscin provide insight into the power of using Universal
Design for Learning (UDL) to mediate the language demands inherent to science
OHDUQLQJ 5RVH +DVVHOEULQJ 6WDKO =DEDOD 7KH DXWKRUV SURYLGH KLJKO\
practical applications of the UDL principles to potential language barriers.
Chapter 10 presents Sami Kahn’s argument for strength-based, rather than deficit,
approaches to teaching science using Twice Exceptional, Strength-Based, and
8'/DSSURDFKHV$UPVWURQJ&RRSHU%DXP 1HX5RVH 0H\HU
2002). The author re-envisions the science learning experiences using vignettes that
present practical examples of how individuals’ science experiences could have been
enhanced by capitalizing on their strengths.
In Chapter 11, Sheryl Burgstahler addresses the increasing use of technology to
deliver science courses for K-12 and higher education students with disabilities.
Applying a UDL approach, the author shares teaching strategies for making online
science materials and courses compliant with legal mandates, and ensuring that they
are welcoming to, accessible to, and usable by all students.
Finally, Chapter 12 brings us full circle as Sarah Summy and Marcia Fetters
provide a comprehensive review of the UDL principles as applied to the science
classroom. In addition to providing practical strategies for developing UDL science
OHVVRQVWKHDXWKRUVSURYLGHUHIOHFWLYHTXHVWLRQVWKDWVFLHQFHHGXFDWRUVFDQXVHWR
assess their own lessons using the UDL framework.
REFERENCES
Armstrong, T. (2012). Neurodiversity in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development
need for plurality of perspective on disability. Remedial and Special Education, 32±
5RVH'++DVVHOEULQJ766WDKO6 =DEDOD-$VVLVWLYHWHFKQRORJ\DQGXQLYHUVDOGHVLJQ
for learning: Two sides of the same coin. In D. Edyburn, K. Higgins, & R. Boone, (Eds), Handbook
of special education technology research and practiceSS±:KLWHILVK%D\:,.QRZOHGJH
by Design.
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KATHLEEN M. FARRAND
8. REDEFINING INCLUSION IN EDUCATIONAL

SETTINGS ACROSS THE LEAST RESTRICTIVE
ENVIRONMENT CONTINUUM
INTRODUCTION
The disabilities studies community in the United States and United Kingdom both
agree that the medical model of disability needs to be rejected in support of full
inclusion in society for all individuals with disabilities (Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, &
0RUWRQ7KHTXHVWLRQEHFRPHVZKDWLVLQFOXVLRQLQWRGD\¶VHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP
and how would theorists, such as those from Disability Studies in Education (DSE)
define successful inclusion? Moreover, how might this definition be positioned
within science education? Inclusion, more specifically the setting and the conditions
surrounding the education for a student with disabilities, persists as the most
controversial issue in inclusive education (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher,
2011b).
“Ultimately, DSE’s purpose is to provide advocacy for, as well as the viable
approaches for enacting, meaningful and substantive educational inclusion” (Connor
HWDOS$YLDEOHDSSURDFKIRU³PHDQLQJIXODQGVXEVWDQWLYHHGXFDWLRQDO
LQFOXVLRQ´ UHTXLUHV D UHH[DPLQDWLRQ RI ZKDW LQFOXVLRQ PHDQV EH\RQG HGXFDWLRQDO
placement for a more inclusive perspective of the teaching and learning activities
that support students in successfully making meaning with their peers. One of the
DLPV RI '6( LV WR FULWLTXH WKRVH SUDFWLFHV LQ HGXFDWLRQ WKDW H[FOXGH RWKHUV DQG
by only recognizing inclusion as education that takes place in general education
settings, we are excluding those students whose least restrictive environment (LRE)
is not the general education classroom. In order to ensure that all students with and
without disabilities are included we need to reframe how we define inclusion and
what we value in education.
I will be using a DSE approach to examine disability and inclusive education. I
will reframe deficit-based assumptions about disability and where and how students
should be educated, particularly in science education. Person first language will be
used to support the view of disability as a distinction and not a description of a
SHUVRQ¶VFKDUDFWHU2VJRRG6WXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVZLOOEHUHIHUUHGWRDV
students with special rights throughout this chapter. The term special rights refer to
WKHLQGLYLGXDOULJKWVWKDWHDFKLQGLYLGXDOKDVWKDWPDNHWKHPDXQLTXHPHPEHURI
society.
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K. M. FARRAND
INCLUSION
History of Inclusion
Inclusion is still a fairly new term in education and only began to be coined as a term
LQHGXFDWLRQLQWKHODWHV0F/HVNH\3ULRUWRWKLVHGXFDWLRQFRQVLVWHG
of segregation or mainstreaming for students with disabilities. The segregation of
people identified with disabilities into private and public institutions for formal
LQVWUXFWLRQ ZDV FRPPRQ LQWR WKH V 2VJRRG 'XULQJ WKH V DQG
VHQDEOLQJODZVIRUVWXGHQWVLGHQWLILHGZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVEHJDQWREHSDVVHGWR
DXWKRUL]HVFKRROGLVWULFWVWRGHYHORSVSHFLDOHGXFDWLRQFODVVHVUHTXLUHGVRPHVSHFLDO
education programs be established, and provided some financial support (Osgood,
7KLVLVLPSRUWDQWIRUHGXFDWRUVWRNQRZEHFDXVHWKHVZLWFKWRLQFOXVLRQ not
only as a term but as an educational policy, meant that students with disabilities
were no longer segregated from their general education peers and general education
curriculum. Inclusion also marked a shift in viewing education as a right for students
with special rights, instead of as an honor.
Inclusion in Legislation and Literature
In accordance with the legal mandates of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
$FW,'($, and its predecessor statute, the Education for all Handicapped
Children (+$ LQFOXVLRQ is the placement of students with special rights
in his or her LRE, an educational setting. Using the legal precedent outlined in the
IDEA students with special rights are provided with support aids and services to
meet the child’s individualized needs for appropriate academic and social outcomes,
ZKLFKDUHGHOLYHUHGE\FROODERUDWLYHHGXFDWLRQDOWHDPVVRWKDWWKHFKLOGKDVHTXDO
membership in his or her classroom community and receives a free appropriate
public education (FAPE).
In order to understand the manner in which inclusion was interpreted in the field,
Ryndak, Jackson, and Billingsley (2000) conducted a study to examine how experts
defined inclusion. The majority of the themes identified in their research focused on
the setting, more specifically the general education classroom, as a key component
of inclusion. Their findings were consistent with other definitions of inclusion in
the literature that emphasize the general education classroom as the setting for
inclusion (Kirk, Gallagher, Anastasiow, & Coleman, 2006). In other words, while
the IDEA stressed an individualized approach to identifying settings and practices
that ensured appropriate academic and social outcomes, the interpretation in both
UHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHFRPPXQLWLHVZDVWRVLPSO\HTXDWHLQFOXVLRQZLWKSODFHPHQW
in the general education classroom. Kauffman (1993) cautioned that the belief that
all students belong in general education environments transformed a good idea for
special education into a fanatical idea that no longer acknowledged differing views
or ways that students individualized needs may not be met. I suggest that we return
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REDEFINING INCLUSION IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS
to Kauffman’s notion of focusing on the good intent behind inclusion and marshal
our efforts towards instruction over setting for improved outcomes for students with
special rights.
Inclusion Redefined
Inclusion is redefined here as “students with special rights in an educational setting

found along a continuum of educational placements, co-constructing meaning within
DGLDORJLFFRPPXQLW\RISHRSOHVWXGHQWVDQGWHDFKHUV´)DUUDQGSS±
Note that the setting may have general education students and special and/or
general education teachers. Key inclusion characteristics are students collaborating
and participating, working on academic and social goals, and in science resolving
TXHVWLRQV WKURXJK VFLHQWLILF LQTXLU\ DQG PDNLQJ PHDQLQJ E\ KDYLQJ VKDUHG
experiences and opportunities to reflect. Some may ask why inclusion needs to be
redefined?
Inclusion has become synonymous with deficit language and exclusion, more
specifically students labeled as disabled and of students with disabilities “dis-
belonging” (Baglieri, Bejoian, Broderick, Connor, & Valle, 2011a). Under the new
definition, emphasis shifts to the social practice of learning and the cultural context,
instead of placement, labels, or services, which are often separated from a child’s
cultural knowledge. Learning is a social process where active participants shape
who we are, what we do, and how we interpret the things that we do (Wenger, 1998).
Also, by expanding the view of inclusion as teaching and learning found
DORQJWKH/5(FRQWLQXXPZHFDQIRFXVRQZKDWHDFKLQGLYLGXDOFKLOGUHTXLUHVLQ
the environment that best meets his or her individual needs. The use of the LRE
FRQWLQXXP H[WHQGV WKH ZRUN RI 5H\QROGV DQG 'HQR ZKR GHVLJQHG
educational continuums to describe the placement of students with special rights
in different settings and programs along the continuum of educational placements.
While the setting a student receives his or her education in may change along the
LRE continuum based on the individual needs of a student, the opportunity for
each student with special rights to participate in inclusion is possible with a focus
on the teaching and learning in each classroom. This counters the aforementioned
problem of assuming that a child placed within a general education setting is de
facto, receiving an appropriate, inclusive education.
Classrooms found along the least restrictive environment continuum. Classrooms

found along the LRE continuum represent different placement options for students
with special rights in accordance with the tailoring of educational strategies and
accommodations for an individual student to be successful as outlined in his or
her individual education program (IEP). The largest number of students with
special rights are placed in the general education classroom and receive instruction
from a general education teacher. As an individual students’ needs become more
specialized, other settings along the continuum are considered. For example, the
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K. M. FARRAND
next type of classroom along the continuum is also the general education classroom
with supplementary aids and services, as well as push-in or pull-out services from
a special education teacher or another related services professional, such as an
occupational therapist or a speech pathologist. The third type of classroom setting
found on the LRE continuum has a student with special rights receiving part-time
instruction in the general education classroom with part-time pull-out instruction
to a special education classroom for over half of the educational day. The fourth
type of classroom would be full-time placement of a student with special rights in a
special education classroom, with aids and services provided by special education
teachers and paraprofessionals. The final type of educational setting on the LRE
continuum refers to the placement of a student with special rights in a special day
school or a residential school, with the school providing more specialized support
and services by specialized teachers to meet the specific needs of the students, as
well as providing access to the general education curriculum.
INCLUSION AND DISABILITY STUDIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
/HJDO DVSHFWV RI WKH ,'($ SRUWLRQV RI UHVHDUFK RQ GHILQLQJ LQFOXVLRQ
(Ryndak, Jackson, & Billingsley, 2000), as well as the emphasis on the physical
space for inclusion (Kauffman, 1993) are components that are integrated into much
of the literature on inclusion. In DSE there is a clear distinction in labeling that
occurs when describing impairment and disability. Impairment, from the DSE
perspective, is “variations that exist in human behavior, appearance, functioning,
sensory activity, and cognitive processing” (Linton, 1998, p. 2). In contrast, Baglieri
and colleagues identify disability as “the product of social, political, economic, and
FXOWXUDOSUDFWLFHÉS7KH'6(SHUVSHFWLYHTXHVWLRQVWKHVLJQLILFDQFH
that educators put on biological factors when considering inclusion (Baglieri et al.,
2011b). How educators design science instruction for students with special rights
can be impacted by how educators interpret impairment and disability.
Science educators that design an inclusive curriculum have the opportunity to
transform educational practices by providing accessible science content for all
students. Science educators play a key role in inclusion when they position all
students as able collaborating members of a classroom community. To accomplish
this, science educators must be purposeful in their science instruction for students
with special rights so that all students are included in engaging and meaningful
scholarship that values their diversity. Also, educators must demand that their
colleagues in science education and in their school communities support inclusive
teaching practices in all settings in order for inclusion to be possible.
A first step to including a student with special rights as an active learner in the
science classroom is seeing the student as a “valued learner” (Kirch, Bargerhuff,
&RZDQ :KHDWO\FI&DVHDX 1RUPDQ7KLVYLHZRIVHHLQJHDFK
student as a valued learner supports science teachers in focusing on the strengths of
each student and the things that they can do, as opposed to a deficit perception of
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WKLQJVDVWXGHQWFDQQRWGR,QFOXVLYHWHDFKLQJDOVRUHTXLUHVWHDFKHUVWREHSXUSRVHIXO
QRWRQO\LQWKHLULQVWUXFWLRQEXWLQWKHLUVFKRROFRPPXQLWLHVIRUHTXDOWUHDWPHQWRI
DOO LQGLYLGXDOV 'DQIRUWK 1DUDLDQ <RX PLJKW EH DVNLQJ \RXUVHOI ZKDW
does purposeful instruction mean in science education and how can I advocate for
accessible science education for all students? I would begin with accessing the Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) Appendix D and the rest
of this book for innovative strategies for how you can make science accessible for
all students. Purposeful science instruction must extend the NGSS to all students
and let all students know that they can achieve in science. Science educators need to
be active change agents advocating for inclusive science teaching practices that are
built upon the strengths of students and provide them with the tools that they need to
access the curriculum and be successful.
There are multiple ways that science educators and science teachers can avoid
stigmatizing students with special rights in science classrooms. As teachers, we can
begin by examining our own pedagogy and curriculum to ensure that it maximizes
accessibility for all students. Next, we need to make sure that we are talking to our
students and identifying what they need and what makes them feel comfortable in
the classroom. Involve your students in the conversation and provide them a voice
in advocating for what they need and create an environment in your classroom that
allows them to feel supported and empowered in their own education. Also, talk with
other professionals in your school and the student’s parents, as needed, for additional
tools to support accommodations that are incorporated into your instruction for
access to the curriculum and that support your students in being successful in science.
Some ideas to support accessibility in the science classroom are the use of
tactile materials and objects, a communication board, and a lab counter that is at
a reduced height in order to provide access for students in wheel chairs are some
accommodations that can be made in science instruction to provide students with
access to the curriculum. For example, the use of animal cell models and a tactile
plant were incorporated into instruction and supported students with special rights
in understanding the science content and making gains in their science knowledge
(Rule, Stefanich, Boody, & Peiffer, 2011). We need to incorporate the capabilities of
all students when we design our science curriculum and teaching strategies to ensure
ZHDUHDFFRXQWLQJIRUWKHXQLTXHH[FHSWLRQDOLWLHVRIDOOOHDUQHUVLQRXUFODVVURRPV
It is the science teaching and learning strategies that provide for the inclusion of all
learners.
Special educators play a role in applying deconstruction daily in education
WKURXJKODQJXDJHDQGDGYRFDF\'DQIRUWK 5KRGHV$VVFLHQFHHGXFDWRUV
instructing students with special rights in your classroom, you also impact education
by the language you use and how you advocate for your students. Science educators
of students with special rights can use language to shift the conversation to the
abilities of their students in accessing the science curriculum and meeting high
standards in science education. For example, some educators have misconceptions
about the ability of students with special rights in science. Science teachers can use
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K. M. FARRAND
language to disrupt this deficit view and challenge the exclusion of students with
special rights from science activities and the general education science curriculum
by focusing on the strengths of their students when they discuss their contributions
to the science classroom and activities. All educators should focus on the need to
support the success of students with special rights and their access to the general
education curriculum. The focus on instruction and strategies takes the emphasis off
disability and opens up the discussion for examining the methods used for inclusive
science instruction and the abilities of all learners. This use of language to refocus
the discussion with educators can also be expanded to redefine inclusion in terms of
the teaching and learning that is taking place in a student’s LRE to support his/her
inclusion in science instruction.
INCLUSION AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION
/HDUQLQJUHTXLUHVSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVRPHWKLQJZKLFKLVFRPSOLFDWHGE\WKHIDFWHYHU\
new participation involves participants bringing their own histories (Lewis, Enciso, &
0RMH7KHVRFLDODFWRISDUWLFLSDWLRQEHFRPHVWKHIRFXVDVLQGLYLGXDOVEULQJ
their cultural knowledge to construct meaning. This is critical because the focus
shifts to learning as participation in the social world as opposed to the individual
learner, which is a vital component of social practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
Inclusive science instruction should frame learning as social participation
(Wenger, 1998). Science instruction must be designed to incorporate the strengths
of all learners and position all students as active, knowledgeable meaning makers
alongside their peers. DSE calls for education to be designed that offers students a
“spectrum of possibility” as opposed to practices that focus on what educators
EHOLHYHDVWXGHQWFDQRUFDQQRWGR%DJOLHULHWDOES$OOHGXFDWRUVDUH
tasked with designing inclusive instruction that provides opportunities for students
to participate and engage in learning opportunities everyday.
Science educators should begin by designing inclusive instruction that takes into
account student’s strengths and interests and align these with curricular goals. When
designing your science instruction make sure to begin with what your students are
interested in and then bring in the NGSS to design instruction that is connected to
key academic indicators and that your students will be excited to explore. You also
ZDQWWRPDNHVXUHWKDW\RXDUHH[FLWHGDERXWWKHOLQHRILQTXLU\\RXDUHGHVLJQLQJ
EHFDXVHVWXGHQWVORRNWR\RXIRUPRWLYDWLRQZKHQOHDUQLQJ'UDPDWLFLQTXLU\ is an
example of an exemplary construct of inclusive science education that I will unpack
to explain how science educators can provide a more inclusive environment and line
RILQTXLU\WRVXSSRUWDOOVWXGHQWV
Dramatic Inquiry as an Approach to Inclusive Science
'UDPDWLFLQTXLU\ is a teaching strategy that can be utilized to combine active and

dramatic approaches for learning with curricular standards and goals to explore an

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LQTXLU\EDVHGSHGDJRJ\(GPLVWRQ'UDPDWLFLQTXLU\LQVFLHQFHLQVWUXFWLRQ

provides teachers with a format to position students with more agency than they have
as students in a classroom. Science teachers can support an inclusive environment
and participation when they position students as competent meaning makers while
also supporting their interest in participating in science instruction. With dramatic
LQTXLU\ VWXGHQWV FDQ EH SRVLWLRQHG ZLWK DQ DXWKHQWLF WDVN WR UHVHDUFK DQG H[SORUH
VFLHQFHFRQWHQWZLWKWKHLUSHHUVRQDVKDUHGOLQHRIVFLHQFHLQTXLU\WKDWLVGHVLJQHG
by the teacher based on NGSS and student interests. Students can examine varying
perspectives to solve the shared task as they explore science in real and imagined
spaces created in the classroom.
7KHXVHRIGUDPDWLFLQTXLU\DOVRDOORZVVWXGHQWVWREHSRVLWLRQHGDVFDSDEOHE\
drawing on the wide variety of strengths of each student and incorporating those
strengths into the teaching and learning activities. Science teachers should also be
incorporating the use of multimodal tools and communication so that no one mode
RIPHDQLQJPDNLQJLVSULYLOHJHGRYHUDQRWKHU(GPLVWRQ0HDQLQJPDNLQJ
can be extended beyond just spoken and written language to include movement,
touch, sound, creation of models, etc. to allow students to demonstrate their
knowledge and understanding in ways that support their strengths and allow them
to explore other forms of demonstrating that they are smart. The goal is that all
students are participating in science instruction that positions all students as capable
and incorporates their strengths and ideas as they make meaning together.
Dramatic Inquiry in Practice
AJ, Susan, Alex, Nick and the rest of their fifth-grade peers, in their inclusive
general education classroom, take one step forward to step in-role-as-time-travelers
to explore and examine ancient civilizations to compare and contrast earth and
human civilizations from the past and the present. Their teacher is dedicated
to including all students in learning by incorporating her students’ interests with
curricular objectives from science, social studies, and literacy to design a line of
LQTXLU\WKDWSURYLGHVDOORIKHUVWXGHQWVZLWKDFFHVVWRWKHFXUULFXOXP7ZRRIWKH
students are piloting the time travel machine at two computers in their classroom,
while the rest of the students-in-role-as-time-travelers sit with notepads and pencils,
on the open floor space they have created to symbolize the time machine in their
classroom that has now become a fictional world.
The students-in-role-as-time-travelers were positioned by their teacher as
investigators of Mayan culture, which gave them a new purpose for learning. The
students were commissioned on their time travel trip to identify human activities
in Mayan culture, such as agriculture, industry, and everyday life and how they
impacted the land and the people of the time. All of the students were invited to
peer out their invisible windows and explain to their peers what they saw, such
as farming, waterways, buildings, and animals. The students took notes and drew
pictures of what they observed in their log books. Upon returning to present day, the

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K. M. FARRAND
students broke into small groups by area of interest, such as agriculture, and created
a visual image to describe what they had seen on their journey back in time. One
group positioned each other as farmers in ancient Mayan time and showed their still
image, tableaux, to their peers. The students described agriculture and land in the
past and made comparisons to farming and agriculture today.
The previous day, students had read books as well as articles and websites they
found online about Mayan culture. The students could not put the books down, nor
did they want to get off of the educational websites they were searching, because
they had a purpose for learning that they enjoyed. The students made notes, identified
pictures, and discussed how human activities in the past were similar and different
than today. This information that they gathered through purposeful and meaningful
research was then applied the following day when they traveled back in time to
observe the Mayan culture.
7KHLUWHDFKHUXVHGGUDPDWLFLQTXLU\WRGHVLJQDOLQHRILQTXLU\WKDWDOORZHGKHUWR
incorporate core ideas from science with her literacy and social studies instruction.
She began with her student’s interests and then brought in essential core ideas about
how everyday life and agriculture impacted the land, vegetation etc. today and in
the past. She provided opportunities to engage in reading a variety of texts and then
designed activities for students to engage in whole group and small group discussions
with their peers to share what they had learned in a variety of multi-modal ways. No
one way of learning or knowing was positioned over another.
Accommodations for students could be incorporated into the variety of learning
formats provided for students to access the curriculum. For example, students
identified with a speech and language impairment had opportunities to practice with
their small group how they would describe their group’s tableaux/still image picture.
Peer models would demonstrate fluency and voice and all students were invited
to take turns as narrator for their small group before sharing with the entire class.
An additional accommodation that was incorporated was having students take turns
telling their small group peers where and how to stand to create different still images
to support his/her participation in the group and their understanding of the content.
Some students did this by writing down their idea then sharing it with the group,
others did it by telling and gently assisting their peers in moving their bodies to
create the image, others showed a picture they had drawn of the image and their
peers then created the image with their bodies. The tableaux provided a format that
supported students in sharing their knowledge construction in a way that each student
could access the curriculum and show that they were smart. Through this activity,
students were invited to show, tell, write, draw, move, or a combination of multiple
modes to collaborate with their peers and demonstrate their knowledge construction.
Students with special rights and their general education peers were all positioned as
knowledgeable meaning makers by their teacher and their peers.
The idea of transforming your science instruction to include innovative spaces
for learning to support all students in accessing the NGSS might seem daunting.
Remember, that your students are eager to learn and explore the world of science,
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and they want to be positioned as capable meaning makers. You do not need to
create a fictional world to make inclusion possible, but you do need to accept the
responsibility of creating engaging and academically rigorous curriculum. Take that
next step as empowered science educators and position all students as knowledgeable
and create spaces for students to collaborate and make meaning as they explore the
endless possibilities with science.
CONCLUSIONS
Today’s science educators have an important role in designing inclusive education

for students with special rights in classrooms along the LRE continuum. This chapter
begins the discussion of ways that science educators can support inclusion in their
classroom. The following chapters will provide additional insights and strategies for
you to use to support inclusive science education for all students. Now is the time for
educators to provide possibilities for learning that allow all students to be successful
with an inclusive science curriculum. Inclusion is a term that is worth redefining for
students to be included in socially constructing meaning with their peers. Baglieri
and colleagues (2011a) may have said it best: “Although efforts to define inclusive
education appear at times to be a discursive and political dead end, tied as the term
is to special education and therefore to issues specific to disability and to place…
WKHWHUPLVZRUWKUHFODLPLQJ´S5HFODLPLQFOXVLRQDQGUHGHILQHKRZ\RX
design your inclusive science learning opportunities so that students are no longer
defined by their disability or educational placement but rather by their abilities to be
successful in creating meaning with others.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This chapter was made possible by the amazing students, teachers, and schools
that have opened their doors to me and allowed me to see inclusion first hand in
classrooms found along the LRE continuum. Special acknowledgement to Tiffany
Wild for her support on my journey to redefining inclusion, and her direction and
feedback which truly helped foster new understandings about inclusion for me.
I gratefully acknowledge research assistance, discussions, and editorial feedback
from Megan Troxel. Special mention is also made of the advice received on
inclusion from Carrie Wysocki, who made time in her busy schedule for suggestions
on an earlier draft of this chapter. Lastly, a special thank you to Stephanie Barrows
who opened up her classroom to me so that I could see the endless possibilities for
DFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOVXFFHVVZLWKGUDPDWLFLQTXLU\
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CATHY NEWMAN THOMAS, DELINDA VAN GARDEREN,
KATE SADLER, MARY DECKER AND DEBORAH HANUSCIN
9. APPLYING A UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR

LEARNING FRAMEWORK TO MEDIATE THE
LANGUAGE DEMANDS OF SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
The language of science is conceptually rich, often dense, complex, and abstract
(Osborne, 2002). It is vocabulary laden and dependent on having a strong background
NQRZOHGJH +DUPRQ +HGULFN :RRG 6FLHQFH LGHDV DUH FRPPXQLFDWHG
via multiple forms of media, using combinations of text, mathematical notation,
JUDSKLFVDQGGLDJUDPV2VERUQH6FLHQFHUHTXLUHVWKDWVWXGHQWVXVHODQJXDJH
skills (i.e., reading, writing, and oral language) to access terminology, understand
data, engage in interpretive and critical reading, and comprehend and communicate
scientific explanations (Pearson, Moje, & Greenleaf, 2010).
For many students with high-incidence disabilities (i.e., learning disabilities,
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, emotional/behavioral disorders, communication
disorders, high-functioning autism), the language demands of science may pose an even
steeper challenge than for their typically developing peers (Therrien, Taylor, Hosp,
Kaldenberg, & Gorsch, 2011). On the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP)DVVHVVPHQWVLQVFLHQFHRIWKJUDGHDQGRIWKJUDGHGLYHUVHOHDUQHUV
VFRUHGDWDEHORZEDVLFOHYHOFRPSDUHGWRDQGRIVWXGHQWVZLWKRXWGLVDELOLWLHV
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). Although several reasons could be
posited for these performance deficits, for many of these students, the critical factors
are most likely related to limitations in language and literacy skills. Language demands
often prevent diverse learners from accessing information and developing scientific
NQRZOHGJH6WHHOH+RZHYHUWKLVGRHVQRWQHHGWREHWKHFDVH
Science, Language, and Inquiry
$FFRUGLQJWR:HQKDP
Science is a way of exploring and investigating the world around us, both natural
and manufactured, with the aim of learning more about it and understanding it
better. … Science is not only a way of knowing: it is also a way of doing, and
each shape the other. (p. 1)
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C. NEWMAN THOMAS ET AL.
Central to this process is language and literacy (NGSS, Appendix M, 2013). The
reciprocal relationship between science learning and language is well developed
2VERUQH 3HDUVRQ HW DO ,Q IDFW VFLHQWLILF LQTXLU\ LV GHSHQGHQW RQ
language as it provides a setting in which students “may be intellectually obligated
WRVHWSXUSRVHVDVNTXHVWLRQVFODULI\DPELJXLWLHVGUDZLQIHUHQFHVIURPLQFRPSOHWH
evidence, and make evidence-based arguments±WKHYHU\GLVSRVLWLRQVUHTXLUHGDV
JRRGUHDGHUVDQGZULWHUV´*UHHQOHDIHWDOS
7KH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ ODQJXDJH OHDUQLQJ VFLHQFH OHDUQLQJ DQG LQTXLU\ LV
acknowledged by the “Conceptual Framework to Develop New Education Standards”
(National Research Council [NRC], 2012), the Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS, 2013) and the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts-
Technical Subjects (Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSS], 2012; see
Table 1). The NRC (2012) notes:
…students cannot fully understand scientific [and engineering] ideas without
HQJDJLQJLQWKHSUDFWLFHVRILQTXLU\DQGWKHGLVFRXUVHVE\ZKLFKVXFKLGHDVDUH
developed and refined. (p. 218)
Table 1. Key practices that emphasize connections for language, science, and inquiry
Key CCSS ELA “Practices” NGSS: Scientific and engineering

practices
1. Support analyses of a range of grade $VNLQJTXHVWLRQVDQGGHILQLQJ
level complex texts with evidence problems
2. Produce clear and coherent writing in 2. Developing and using models
which the development, organization, 3. Planning and carrying out
and style are appropriate to task, investigations
purpose, and audience $QDO\]LQJDQGLQWHUSUHWLQJGDWD
3. Construct valid arguments from evidence 8VLQJPDWKHPDWLFVDQGFRPSXWDWLRQDO
DQGFULWLTXHWKHUHDVRQLQJRIRWKHUV thinking
%XLOGDQGSUHVHQWNQRZOHGJHWKURXJK 6. Constructing explanations and
research by integrating, comparing, and designing solutions
synthesizing ideas from texts (QJDJLQJLQDUJXPHQWIURPHYLGHQFH
%XLOGXSRQWKHLGHDVRIRWKHUVDQG 8. Obtaining, evaluating, and
articulate their own when working communicating information
collaboratively
6. Use English structures to communicate
context specific messages
Note. Council of Chief State School Officers (2012, pp. 11 & 26); NGSS Lead State
(2013, appendix F).
Students with High-Incidence Disabilities and the Language Demands of Science
6WXGHQWVZLWKKLJKLQFLGHQFHGLVDELOLWLHVIDFHXQLTXHFKDOOHQJHVLQVFLHQFHOHDUQLQJ
(Therrien et al., 2011). In inclusive science classrooms, teachers will certainly meet
92
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APPLYING A UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING FRAMEWORK
VWXGHQWVZLWKKLJKLQFLGHQFHGLVDELOLWLHVDVWKH\UHSUHVHQWRIDOOVWXGHQWVZLWK
GLVDELOLWLHV 6DOHQG DQG WKH PDMRULW\ RI VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV
VSHQGRUPRUHRIWKHLUGD\LQJHQHUDOHGXFDWLRQFODVVURRPV86'HSDUWPHQW
RI(GXFDWLRQ
Although there are differences for students within and across disability
categories, as well as individual differences, difficulty with language is common
manifestation. As examples, students with learning disabilities typically experience
VLJQLILFDQW GLIILFXOWLHV LQ WKH ³DFTXLVLWLRQ DQG XVH RI OLVWHQLQJ VSHDNLQJ UHDGLQJ
writing, reasoning, or mathematical skills” (National Joint Committee on Learning
Disabilities, 1990, 2016) and students with autism have “a developmental disability
significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction,
«´&RGHRI)HGHUDO5HJXODWLRQV3DUWFL±LLL
While research overlapping science and special education is limited, it is clear
there are specific language demands in science that will be particularly challenging
for diverse learners. We highlight these next.
Vocabulary knowledge. The vocabulary knowledge WKDW VWXGHQWV DUH UHTXLUHG

to know in science increases cumulatively as they progress through grade levels,
and includes many terms that are either specific to science (e.g., atom) or are
general terms that have specific meanings for science (e.g., solid; Baumann &
Graves, 2010). Many students with disabilities have gaps in their vocabulary
knowledge that begin early and aggregate over time (Ebbers & Denton, 2008).
6WXGHQWV DUH H[SHFWHG WR DFTXLUH YRFDEXODU\ LQFLGHQWDOO\ DQG PHPRUL]H LW \HW
many students with high-incidence disabilities experience tremendous difficulty
recalling factual content and vocabulary knowledge, particularly if the content
LV DEVWUDFW 6FUXJJV 0DVWURSLHUL 6FUXJJV 0DVWURSLHUL %HUNHOH\
Marshak, 2010). As limitations in working memory and executive function are
RIWHQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIKLJKLQFLGHQFHGLVDELOLWLHVVFLHQFHYRFDEXODU\DFTXLVLWLRQ
may pose a significant challenge (Jerman, Reynolds, & Swanson, 2012). Finally,
many students may come with misconceptions that may constrain their ability
to identify or develop key ideas in a science lesson (Scruggs, Mastropieri, &
6XOOLYDQ
Text comprehension. Expository text is a central component of science instruction

6FUXJJV 0DVWURSLHUL 0DQ\ VWXGHQWV ZLWK KLJKLQFLGHQFH GLVDELOLWLHV
experience difficulties with decoding, fluency, and vocabulary knowledge that
LQWHUIHU ZLWK WH[W FRPSUHKHQVLRQ .DOGHQEHUJ:DWW 7KHUULHQ )XUWKHU
VFLHQFHWH[WXVHVDYDULHW\RIWH[WVWUXFWXUHVHJOLQHDUVHTXHQWLDOKLHUDUFKLFDO
cyclical, comparative and causal) to illustrate relationships among phenomenon
*DMULD-LWHQGUD6RRG 6DFNV0DQ\VWXGHQWVVWUXJJOHWRDFFHVVWH[WGXH
to limited knowledge of text structures (Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, & Baker, 2001),
which hinders storage and retrieval of content knowledge (Englert & Thomas,

93
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Additionally, skilled readers are strategic in their approach to text and engage
in metacognitive processes before, during, and after reading to self-monitor
comprehension (Pressley, 2002). In contrast, poor readers lack these skills and often
SRVVHVVLQDGHTXDWHSULRUNQRZOHGJHWRVXSSRUWFRPSUHKHQVLRQ'H[WHU +XJKHV
&RQVHTXHQWO\ VWXGHQWV ZLWK KLJKLQFLGHQFH GLVDELOLWLHV PD\ H[SHULHQFH
difficulties with critical thinking skills, including drawing inferences (Dexter &
Hughes, 2011), understanding relationships and connections (DiCecco & Gleason,
LGHQWLI\LQJPDLQLGHDVDQGVXPPDUL]LQJ.LP9DXJKQ:DQ]HN :HL
SUREOHP VROYLQJ 6FUXJJV 0DVWURSLHUL DQG WUDQVIHUULQJ RU JHQHUDOL]LQJ
common ideas and patterns to different problems (Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Butcher,
7KHVHVWXGHQWVPD\EHRYHUO\UHOLDQWRQWKHYLHZVRIRWKHUVHJWU\LQJWR
guess what the teacher is thinking) rather than constructing and expressing their own
LGHDV6FUXJJV 0DVWURSLHUL
Written expression. A major way of sharing ideas and demonstrating science

learning is through written expression (NGSS, Appendix M). However, many
students with high-incidence disabilities experience difficulties with written
expression in general, but also, specifically in science (e.g., Dalton, Morocco,
7LYQDQ 0HDG 'LIILFXOWLHV PD\ LQFOXGH SUREOHPV ZLWK QRWHWDNLQJ DQG
composing, categorizing and labeling of ideas, organization, problem framing and
generation, synthesizing, inventing or extending information in meaningful ways,
DQG FRQVWUXFWLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV DPRQJ LGHDV %UDQVIRUG 9\H (QJOHUW
7KRPDV*UDKDP+DUULV /DUVHQ
Metacognitive difficulties characteristic of students with high-incidence
disabilities further complicate matters. Written language production is dependent
on executive function to guide planning and progress (Shonkoff, Duncan, Fisher,
0DJQXVVRQ 5DYHUUHTXLULQJNQRZOHGJHRIVFLHQFHEXWDOVRRIIHDWXUHV
RIODQJXDJH7RUUDQFH *DOEUDLWK)XUWKHUZULWLQJLVGHSHQGHQWRQPHPRU\
to access, hold, and integrate ideas, and production may be hindered by fine motor
VNLOOV)ORZHU +D\HV0DQ\VWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVH[SHULHQFHGLIILFXOWLHV
completing written products (Graham, Harris, & McKeown, 2013).
Mediating the Language Demands of Science for Students with Disabilities
Given the challenges students with disabilities experience with language in

science, it is important to identify ways to mediate these demands. Two important
instructional practices are Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and assistive
technology (AT).
A brief overview of UDL. UDL is a framework the addresses the typical “one-size
fits all” curricula (Rose & Gravel, 2010). UDL can be applied as an “overlay” to
existing curricula as a way to promote access to the content by reducing barriers to

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learning. The framework of UDL serves as a tool for teachers to assist in the design
process of the lessons. The framework consists of three main principles that connect
to the process of instruction: (a) representation (what is to be learned), (b) action and
expression (how one learns and demonstrates what is being learned), and (c)
engagement (interest, motivation and perseverance to learn). For each principle,
checkpoints are provided that serve as a way to identify barriers students may
experience (e.g., comprehension of material) within a lesson as well guidelines for the
types of solutions that may be used to address the barriers (e.g., options that highlight
critical features, big ideas, and relationships). (See http://udlguidelines.cast.org/?
XWPBPHGLXP ZHE XWPBFDPSDLJQ QRQH XWPBVRXUFH XGOFHQWHU XWPBFRQWHQW
site-banner.)
UDL and science instruction. When developing science lessons, each phase needs
to be systematically evaluated to ensure the varying language skills of students are
accommodated. UDL solutions embedded in the science lesson should be varied
and flexible in order to provide multiple ways to support learning. Solutions need
to be clearly aligned with students’ identified strengths and challenges, and with
the specific language demands of the science lesson in order to support progress
toward the lesson goals and objectives. Well-chosen solutions do not modify goals,
reduce lesson demands, or lower standards, but rather promote access to the science
curriculum. Table 2 provides example barriers posed by the language demands of
science, and offers solutions based on the UDL framework, organized by UDL
principle, guideline, and checkpoint. Further, for each barrier, an Action Step is
included to provide a model for implementation.
Assistive technology considerations in science learning. When developing science

lessons, the integration of technology solutions to ameliorate the language demands
of science should be considered. Studies point to the potential of AT for increased
communication, access, and motivation to learn (U. S. Department of Education,
2016). Moreover, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
,',($$7PXVWEHFRQVLGHUHGIRUHYHU\VWXGHQWUHTXLULQJDQ,QGLYLGXDOL]HG
(GXFDWLRQDO 3ODQ ,(3$7 LV ³DQ\ LWHP SLHFH RI HTXLSPHQW RU SURGXFW V\VWHP
ZKHWKHUDFTXLUHGFRPPHUFLDOO\RIIWKHVKHOIPRGLILHGRUFXVWRPL]HGWKDWLVXVHGWR
increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability.”
AT service includes any assistance necessary to support a child in AT use, including
WHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGVXSSRUWIRUDFFHVVLQJDQGPDLQWDLQLQJWKH$7,'(,$
Technology Related Assistance Act, 1988). For students with disabilities, AT enables
access to learning that would otherwise be difficult, if not impossible (Edyburn,
ီ7DEOHSURYLGHVDOLVWRIXVHIXONLQGVRI$7LQFOXGLQJDQH[SODQDWLRQRI
function, or what each type is designed to do, along with suggestions for ways the
AT can be used to support students in science learning. Examples of commercial
products and features built into devices are offered.

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Table 2. UDL framework for barriers and solutions
96
Demand & Possible Possible Solution
Barrier Principle Guideline Checkpoint Action Step(s)
Reading/Listening Representation Provide options for Clarify vocabulary & Provide a picture or model
Comprehension: language, mathematical symbols Define words using student-friendly
Understanding key expressions, & symbols definitions
concepts/vocabulary Representation Provide options for Highlight patterns, Provide a graphic organizer (e.g., a
comprehension critical features, big Frayer Model* or Semantic Feature
ideas, & relationships Analysis)**

Writing findings in Action and Provide options Use multiple tools Provide a word processor with
science notebook: Expression for expression & for construction & advanced features (e.g., spell/
Handwriting slow & communication communication grammar check, word prediction)
difficult to read, and/or Provide a dictation app
difficulty composing Allow oral response
Writing findings in Action & Provide options for Facilitate managing Provide guided notes
science notebook: Expression executive function information & Provide a graphic organizer to model
Difficulty synthesizing resources text structure
ideas Pair student with a partner to write
summary
Writing findings in Action & Provide options for Facilitate managing Provide a graphic organizer with
science notebook: Expression executive functions information & visual cues for data organization
Organizing data resources Provide graphing or data
management app
*The Frayer Model is a graphic organizer that prompts learners to generate their own definition of a word along with examples, non-
examples, and key characteristics (Frayer,Frederick,& Klausmeier,1969). For a science example, see https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/
PRGXOHVHFUGQJFUHVRXUFHTSVHFBUGQJBBOLQNBIUD\HUBW\SHVB **Semantic Feature Analysis is a graphic organizer that helps
students to see the relationships, commonalities, and differences between words (Anders & Bos, 1986). For an example of semantic feature
analysis for science, see http://sarahsandersonscience.weebly.com/semantic-feature-analysis.html
via free access

Table 3. Assistive technology to support vocabulary, comprehension, and written expression
Assistive technology Function Ways AT can help Examples
Phonetic Vocabulary ± Improves spelling ± American Word Speller (Apple)

Dictionaries Students can look up ± Increases accuracy when looking up words that may ± Built into VoiceDream Writer
words phonetically be difficult to spell or are unknown visually (Android and Apple)
± Increases comprehension of difficult concepts ± WordSpeller Dictionary (Android)
Text-to-Speech Vocabulary & ± Improves word recognition ± Built into Apple IPad, IPod and
Comprehension ± Increases the ability to pay attention and remember Android Devices
Device reads text to information ± SpeakIt! Chromebook extension
student. Text may be ± Increases student’s ability to focus on ± VoiceDream Reader (Android and
student generated, from comprehension instead of decoding Apple)
online sources, or digital ± Increases student’s endurance for reading ± Announcify (Chrome and Android)
media. May highlight text assignments ± Kurzweil
as it reads ± Helps students recognize and fix errors in their
own writing
Speech-to-Text Written Expression ± Improves spelling ± Built into Apple IPad, IPod and
Speech Device recognizes ± Increases amount and accuracy of written work by Android Devices
Recognition student’s voice and records allowing students to focus on content rather than ± Online Dictation (Chrome extension)
speech into typed form writing conventions ± Dragon Dictation (Apple, Android)
± Creates greater independence ± VoiceDream Writer (Apple and
± Increases student’s ability to communicate ideas Android)
± Aids students who may have fine motor issues or
physical disabilities
± Increases writing speed
Graphic Vocabulary, ± Improves understanding of difficult concepts ± Inspiration (Apple, Android)
Organizers Comprehension, ± Improves organization of thoughts ± Lucidchart (Chrome extension)
Written Expression ± Allows students to connect thoughts and ideas ± Bubbl.us (web based)
Students created or teacher in meaningful ways ± CAST Science Writer (web based)
developed visual outlines
in a digital or print format

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Table 4. Sample 5E learning cycle with AT/UDL solutions from the quality elementary science teaching
98
Properties of matter
MAJOR CONCEPTS OF THE LESSON:
1. Mass & Volume are two properties of matter we can measure. Mass is the amount of matter an object contains while volume is how much space
it takes up.
2. Objects of the same mass can be different volumes and vice versa.
3. The particle structure of matter gives rise to the properties we observe.
Inquiry Lesson Possible Language Barriers Possible Solutions
Engage: Two things will balance each other if May not be able to read the Teacher reads student dialogue aloud.
they have the same mass. dialogue or student response. All students are paired with a slightly higher
Friendly Talk Probe. Students are shown a Difficulty coming up with reader.
dialogue between two students who are predicting reasons for their decision. Students may use a word processor and print
whether two cubes will balance each other. May not be able to write in their responses.
Students are asked to write a response indicating complete thoughts and sentences.
which student they agree with and why.
Explore:7ZRVROLGVRIHTXDOYROXPHFDQKDYH Not understand what the words Students investigate objects. Teacher provides a
different mass and vice versa. “mass” or “volume” mean. student friendly definition.
Activity. Students measure and compare the Difficulty measuring/ reading Provide a talking scale or a scale with enlarged
mass of: numbers. measurement readings. Assign group roles that
VSKHUHVRILGHQWLFDOYROXPHEXWGLIIHUHQW Difficulty organizing and include a reader, a leader, etc.
materials (different mass) recording data in their notebook. Provide students with a graphic organizer or
URGVRIGLIIHUHQWYROXPHDQGGLIIHUHQW table to record data. Provide an app that accepts
materials (same mass) data input and organizes data.
Explain: Different kinds of materials are made May not be able to infer main Work with a partner to develop
up of particles (atoms) that vary in their mass. idea from previous task to form models.
Activity. Students create a pictorial representation representation. Access computer simulation (e.g.,
(model) of what the particles of matter that make Difficulty creating a PHET; https://phet.colorado.edu/
up the spheres might be like such that they have representation and labeling the en/simulation/legacy/states-of-
different mass. They do the same for the rods of parts of the model. matter)
different volume, but same mass.
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Extend:7ZROLTXLGVZLWKGLIIHUHQWYROXPHFDQ Difficulty reading scale. Provide a talking scale or a scale
have the same mass and vice versa. (The same Difficulty writing conclusions in with enlarged measurement
LGHDFDQEHDSSOLHGWROLTXLGVDVZDVGLVFRYHUHG science notebook in particular, readings. Assign group roles that
for solids). organizing thoughts and include a reader, a leader, etc.
Activity.6WXGHQWVFRPSDUHWKHPDVVRIHTXDO identifying key concepts. Use a web-based science notebook or a word
volumes of oil and water, then compare the processor with advanced features. Use a
YROXPHRIHTXDOPDVVHVRIRLODQGZDWHU graphic organizer or writing template.
Evaluate: May not be able to read the Partner read or use text-to- speech
Students will be shown dialogue they saw at the dialogue or student response. Group discussion to brainstorm ideas
beginning of the learning cycle. On worksheet, Difficulty coming up with a Word processor with advanced features or
they are to write their answer along with the reason for why they chose oral presentation*
reason for their choice. They are to indicate how who they chose. Teacher recorded previous responses and they
their ideas changed from the first time they saw Poor written product (e.g., are displayed on large chart paper around the
the prompt. incomplete thoughts and room. Students use voice memo features on a
sentences). device and can replay the discussion.
Difficulty recalling previous
response.
*Advanced word processing features may include text to speech and highlighting features that can be set to word by word, sentence by sentence, or
for the entire document. Speech voices can be varied, including male or female options and the ability to set the rate of the speech. Phonetic word
prediction features offer word choices and pair with speech options to allow the writer to select the intended word or best word choice. Typical
word processing features such as spell and grammar check are also available. Text can be directly entered or imported. Teachers may provide
accessible worksheets, including sentence prompts or frames, and assessments using an advanced word processor. (QuEST project funded by the
National Science Foundation, Grant# DRL-1316683)
99
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Further, while it is mandated that AT must be considered for students with

GLVDELOLWLHV ,'(,$ VRPH GLYHUVH OHDUQHUV ZKR GR QRW TXDOLI\ IRU VSHFLDO
education remain at-risk for school failure (Darling-Hammond, Zielinski, &
*ROGPDQ,QD8'/HQYLURQPHQWZKLOH$7OHYHOVWKHSOD\LQJILHOGIRUVWXGHQWV
with disabilities, other students may benefit educationally from AT access (Rose,
+DVVHOEULQJ 6WDKO =DEDOD )LJXUH GHPRQVWUDWHV$78'/ LQWHJUDWLRQ
ZLWKLQDVFLHQFHOHVVRQ7KLVOHVVRQLVEDVHGRQWKH³(/HDUQLQJ&\FOH´%\EHH
ZKLFKLVDUHVHDUFKEDVHGIUDPHZRUNIRURUJDQL]LQJVFLHQFHLQVWUXFWLRQVR
that lessons build progressively in phases from learners’ prior knowledge, provide
firsthand experience with materials and phenomena, support students in sense-
making and discourse about science ideas, and extend their learning by applying
WKRVHLGHDVLQQHZFRQWH[WV,Q7DEOHSRVVLEOHODQJXDJHEDUULHUVWKDWVWXGHQWVPD\
experience within the science lesson are listed and solutions, including AT solutions,
that could be integrated into the science lessons are provided.
CONCLUSION
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS, 2013) boldly declare “All Students,
All Standards,” and charge educators with making science standards accessible.
Further, NGSS affirm that language (i.e., reading, writing, and oral communication)
is foundational to the development of science knowledge (see NGSS Appendix M).
Specifically, students must be able to make meaning from text, communicate
meaning using text, and participate actively in science discourse and argumentation.
Yet, we know that in the past, science has not been fully accessible to all students,
particularly students with high-incidence disabilities. Use of the UDL framework
along with AT supports may begin to mediate those demands.
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Cathy Newman Thomas

Department of Curriculum & Instruction
Special Education Program
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas
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Delinda van Garderen

Department of Special Education
University of Missouri
Columbia, Missouri
Kate Sadler
Columbia, Missouri
Mary Decker
Columbia, Missouri
Deborah Hanuscin
Department of Elementary Education
Science Math and Technology Education Program
Western Washington University
Bellingham, Washington
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SAMI KAHN
10. FROM ACCESS TO ASSETS

Strength-Based Visions for Inclusive Science Education
INTRODUCTION
We each have areas of relative strength and weakness. While few would argue the
merit of investing time and energy into addressing our challenges, schools have
historically emphasized the identification and remediation of “deficits” at the
expense of fostering student interests and talents. This tendency is particularly
profound for students who have been labelled as having disabilities, as large
percentages of students’ days can be dedicated to remediation, leaving little time or
impetus to develop strengths, passions, or identities beyond the perceived disability.
This practice can lead to reduced interest in school, low self-esteem, and missed
RSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUGHYHORSLQJH[SHUWLVHDQGYDULHGFDUHHUSDWKV.OHKP:HL
Marder, 2012).
Science arguably has unmatched potential for providing opportunities for
students to demonstrate a variety of strengths, develop particular areas of interest,
and ultimately nurture positive attitudes toward science, all of which are critical to
informed citizenship whether students ultimately pursue careers in science or not.
Yet science curricula in general, and science assessments in particular, have focused
on a narrow range of strengths and limited views regarding what characteristics
constitute talent in science (Sumida, 2010). Moreover, research related to science
for students with disabilities has, to a large extent, focused on accommodations that
attempt to address students’ perceived deficits, yet often reflect and reinforce low
H[SHFWDWLRQVE\WHDFKHUV0F*LQQLV .DKQ:KLOHDFFHVVWRTXDOLW\VFLHQFH
instruction and curriculum with which all students can fully engage is critical, this
FKDSWHU DUJXHV IRU DQ H[SDQGHG YLVLRQ RI LQFOXVLYH VFLHQFH HGXFDWLRQ ± RQH WKDW
assumes competence and emphasizes students’ strengths regardless of whether they
lie in the spatial, artistic, mathematical, verbal, empathic, musical, and/or analytical
domains. This vision of science education must also allow for connections with
students’ interests and passions, for if science is seen as a detached, irrelevant
subject, or one that is reserved for “others,” the field of science runs the risk of
losing talented individuals who could potentially make valuable contributions, while
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Every student needs to connect to scienceWKHTXHVWLRQLVKRZFDQWHDFKHUVLGHQWLI\
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S. KAHN
and capitalize upon students with disabilities’ strengths in order to promote their
interest and achievement in science?
7R DQVZHU WKLV TXHVWLRQ WKLV FKDSWHU EHJLQV ZLWK DQ H[DPLQDWLRQ RI WKUHH
frameworks that emphasize the promotion of students with disabilities’ strengths
and interests: Talent Centered Model for Twice Exceptional Students (Baum, 2009;
&RRSHU%DXP 1HX6WUHQJWK%DVHG,QVWUXFWLRQ (Armstrong, 2012), and
Universal Design for Learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002). Next, the chapter introduces
vignettes drawn from interviews with two young adults in their 20s who were
labeled with disabilities in childhood. The vignettes summarize the interviewees’
reflections of their K-12 science experiences with particular attention paid to how
their strengths, clearly evident now as they embark upon their careers, were and were
not capitalized upon. Finally, these two individuals’ experiences are re-envisioned
using the strengths-based frameworks to demonstrate how particular aspects of the
Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council, 2012) and Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) could be implemented to
reflect strength-based rather than deficit models of education. It should be noted that
this retrospective approach to research, while at first glance could be interpreted as
HGXFDWLRQDO³DUPFKDLUTXDUWHUEDFNLQJ´LVLQQRZD\PHDQWWRTXHVWLRQRULPSXJQ
the work of talented educators who contributed to the totality of these young adults’
educations. Rather, it is meant to help current and future science educators identify
themes that might resonate with their own experiences and, perhaps, alter their
assumptions about how science can be taught and how students with disabilities can
succeed.
STRENGTH-BASED FRAMEWORKS
The Talent Centered Model for Twice Exceptional Students (Baum, 2009), also
referred to as the “2e Model” posits that many students who have disabilities are
also gifted in some area. This situation often creates challenges for schools in regard
to placements and supports as a student’s areas of relative weakness can be masked
by their gifts, and vice versa. For many students, this uneven performance leads to
frustration and risk of school failure. The 2e Model emphasizes the importance of
developing students’ talents through such means such as curriculum compacting,
problem-based learning, and enrichment opportunities while addressing students’
learning challenges through targeted supports. A related model known as Strength-
Based Instruction (Armstrong, 2012) relies on an ecological concept of niche
construction to draw attention to the importance of students’ environment, including
teacher expectations, strength awareness, and differentiation based on students’
strengths to create a positive environment in which students can thrive. Both of these
frameworks find resonance with UDL (Rose & Meyer, 2002; described in Chapters 9,
11, 12, and 18) in their underlying assumption of competence and emphasis on
capitalizing on students’ strengths while providing supports for students’ areas of
relative weakness. UDL emphasizes multiple means of engagement (how students
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FROM ACCESS TO ASSETS
are motivated), multiple means of representation (how information is presented to

students) and multiple means of action and expression (how students engage with
materials and show what they have learned).
A synthesis of the literature on these three frameworks yields insight into practices
that can enhance the promotion of students’ with disabilities strengths in the science
classroom:
Enlist student strengths/interests/passions as a hook for student engagement, in-
depth learning, and opportunities to demonstrate understanding;
Develop and highlight interdisciplinary connections in curriculum to provide
students with holistic understanding and application of topics;
Provide multiple means of communication of materials as well as multiple means
of expression of student learning;
Provide opportunities for extended research or tiered learning;
If appropriate, utilize curriculum compacting or acceleration to promote students’
talents;
Encourage students to participate in supplemental and enrichment opportunities
such as clubs, afterschool programs, and online courses (Armstrong, 2012; Baum,
2009; Bianco, Carothers, & Smiley, 2009; National Education Association, 2006;
Rose & Meyer, 2002).
We will next consider how these practices can be applied using vignettes that
attempt to capture some of the most salient reflections of the interviewees’ science
educations.
STRENGTH-BASED FRAMEWORKS IN CONTEXT
Robert, the Librarian Who Loved Stories
Robert is a young man in his late 20s who recalls his educational career beginning
in a general education elementary school affiliated with a teaching college. He
describes with enthusiasm a highly interdisciplinary curriculum in which he “spent
the entirety of fifth grade studying the Inuit, in fourth grade…the Dutch settlers, and
in third grade Native Americans.” Around that time, he was told of his diagnosis of
Tourette’s Syndrome, a neurological disorder characterized by tics and an associated
OHDUQLQJGLVDELOLW\&RQVHTXHQWO\DWDJHKHZDVPRYHGWRDVSHFLDOHGXFDWLRQ
school for students with specific learning disabilities and/or emotional challenges,
which he describes as “considerably more rigid” with emphases on organizational,
social, and language skills. Robert expressed early interest in history and reading,
indicating that “my brain is not the most scientifically inclined.” However, outside
RIVFKRRO5REHUWUHFDOOVEHLQJWDNHQRQWULSVWRDORFDODTXDULXPE\KLVJUDQGPRWKHU
which sparked a passion for marine biology, particularly whales, and prompted him
to then think, “I might not have much science cred (sic), but if there’s one thing I do
know, it’s whales!” Robert also studied ceramics and gymnastics for several years

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S. KAHN
outside of school. Robert describes himself as “visually oriented” and credits the
Lord of the Rings films for sparking an early interest in art history and storytelling.
When asked about memorable science experiences, he cites an “empowering” third
grade project on amphibians, which allowed him to focus on a specific research
topic with a considerable amount of independence. In addition to art and reading,
Robert showed tremendous interest in teaching. During high school, he volunteered
with the education department at a museum where the anthropology halls were of
most interest to him, and he also helped to teach at his ceramics program to defray
the cost of his own classes. Robert recalls using standardized test review books
as the primary text for several of his high school science courses with “virtually
no experiments.” He did not feel that any of his strengths or interests were tapped
during his high school science years but rather, felt that success in science relied
on mathematical competency, something he “had a lot of trouble with.” However,
Robert did find that his strengths and interests were tapped in English class through
the use of read-aloud plays where teachers used humor to engage students in the
readings. Robert went on to college, where he majored in history, with minors in art
history and education. He continued on to graduate school for librarianship and now
works as a librarian. When asked whether any aspect of his science education has
proven useful in his adult life, Robert responds, “there’s nothing that really jumps
out at me.”
Robert’s strengths-based analysis in light of science frameworks. Robert’s

characterization of himself as not being science-minded due to his difficulties
with math are a common one for students with and without disabilities (Brigham,
Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2011). Of particular interest here is that, while he did not
see himself as being scientifically minded, he nonetheless had tremendous interest
in marine biology. Moreover, while he had strong interest in the anthropological and
“human side” of history and language arts, these interests never seemed to intersect
with science. How could a science teacher capitalize on a student like Robert’s
interests in storytelling, discourse, history, and reading?
The Nature of Science126/HGHUPDQUHIHUVWRWKHXQLTXHIHDWXUHVRI
science as a practice and a way of knowing. One aspect of NOS is that science is a
human endeavor that progresses through the efforts of a diverse group of scientists
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Imagine Robert having an opportunity to read biographies of great scientists and
then carry out their experiments. It would not be far-fetched to envision a student
with his affinity for storytelling and history to be engaged with biographies of
VFLHQWLVWVOLNH,VDDF1HZWRQ7KRPDV(GLVRQRU-DFTXHV&RXVWHDXDQGWKHQFDUU\RXW
investigations on refraction and planetary motion, sound waves or circuits, or marine
biology. Such an approach could easily be aligned with NGSS disciplinary core
ideas, with assessments ranging from traditional tests to allowing students to write
their own “science autobiographies.” The latter assessment encourages students to
narratively describe their investigations and can be extended to the development of
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documentaries to communicate learning using video. Such curricular opportunities

could provide a student like Robert with tremendous motivation, opportunities for
success, and a sense of connectedness to science via a humanistic approach. Graphic
organizers for writing and opportunities to share writings in small groups could
facilitate organizational and social skills as well.
Robert also showed interest in reading plays as well as humorous dramatizations
by teachers. Perhaps the use of drama in science (Abrahams & Braund, 2012)
could have been effective. Given his passion for the Lord of the Rings, one could
easily have seen a youngster like Robert enjoying the development and creation of
a set design for modeling the solar system, a cell, circulation through the body, or
other systems. This would allow for learning in a range of core content areas while
reinforcing an essential crosscutting concept of systems and system models in a
visual and engaging manner.
The Socioscientific Issues (SSI) IUDPHZRUN =HLGOHU PLJKW DOVR SURYH
effective for a student like Robert given his fascination with anthropology and
history as he could research controversial societal issues related to science (e.g.,
genetic engineering, mandatory vaccinations, whaling) and engage in debate and
discourse on these issues. If language challenges due to Tourette’s made debates
or other class-wide discussions challenging, scaffolding could be accomplished by
creating recordings with multiple opportunities for rehearsal and correction, online
discussion boards, or written responses. Such an approach would also mediate skills
in argumentation, a key focus not only of the NGSS but also of the Common Core
State Standards (NGA & CCSSO, 2010).
Robert also had a strong affinity toward teaching as expressed in his two volunteer
experiences, yet these experiences were never transferred back into his classrooms.
One can envision Robert being assigned to tutor younger students in science, or
perhaps leading his class in curating a classroom museum exhibit using the expertise
he gained through his experiences at the museum. Peer teaching is among the
strongest research-based strategies for students with disabilities (Mastropieri et al.,
2006) and may have been a particularly powerful strategy for facilitating learning
for Robert. While Robert could have been taught by peers in math-based activities,
he could have served as a peer teacher for other students in reading-based activities
LQ VFLHQFH FODVV ,Q DGGLWLRQ LQFRUSRUDWLQJ WKH -LJVDZ WHFKQLTXH 6ODYLQ
from cooperative learning would allow a student with Robert’s inclination toward
teaching to become an expert on any NGSS disciplinary core idea through reading
and conversing with other student “experts” and then returning to his original
team to teach the content. This approach, similar to the one used in his third-grade
amphibian study, reinforces language and social skills and promotes positive mutual
interdependence among classmates.
Lastly, Robert’s many years of studying gymnastics could have served as a context
for science teaching. Physics concepts such as forces, energy, momentum, friction,
inertia, and rotational motions could have been demonstrated through Robert’s own
talents. Even Robert’s skills in ceramics could have served as a context for studying
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S. KAHN
physics (e.g., the roles of centrifugal force, centripetal acceleration, and friction
when using a potter’s wheel) and chemistry (e.g., effects of firing clay, compounds
for glazing, etc.). Contextualizing science instruction in meaningful, talent-driven
ways serves to promote conceptual understandings and mediate learning difficulties.
Moreover, it allows all students to find their place in science.
Alice, the Artist Who Reached for the Stars
Alice is a woman in her 20s who began her schooling in a preschool program
for students with disabilities. She was diagnosed with Pervasive Developmental
Disorder, a form of autism when she was in Kindergarten in an urban public school
and then returned to a series of specialized schools until finally landing in one for
students with language-based disabilities (“I had a lot of transferring educations”).
Alice describes herself as “a very artistic person,” recalling that:
They saw my evaluation tests were more IQ visual than I was humanities.
Over the years I took that as an advantage of being my strength more than my
weakness…Drawing was my favorite thing in the world.
When asked whether her drawing talent was ever capitalized upon in school, Alice
smiled while reminiscing about being picked to design the school’s holiday party
invitations:
I drew husky dogs and a musher who was on the sled and he’s sledding. It was
not my best drawing, but they loved it because there was so detailed and they
really appreciated how much I worked hard on it than any other kid who ever
put up so much detail on their works. They knew I was a visual learner. I have
speech impairment. I have speech disorder, so I don’t speak very well when it
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In addition to difficulties in learning to speak, Alice suggests that her learning
disability also made reading and writing challenging: “You get mixed up grammar
and you mix up language and you don’t know the meanings of the words…Art
is the way that you feel wonderful communicating!” Alice recalls loving picture
books, both when her father used funny voices to read to her and also when the
books were accompanied by taped cassettes for read-along. In addition, she loved
singing along with musicals on video, such as Beauty and the Beast, with her family.
Alice also enjoyed history and specifically recalls a trip she took with her parents to
Plymouth, Massachusetts to see the Mayflower in coordination with her studies in
elementary school. She continued to love history throughout school, recalling that
it was, “fun,” and “visual,” and relied on the use of maps, books with many photos,
and videos. Alice laments what she believes was a minimization of science at the
elementary level: “They never really got into it so much because to them it’s not
so important than our language skills.” However, Alice had a strong early interest
in astronomy after taking a trip with her mother to a planetarium. She longed for a
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course in astronomy even after being told, “I don’t think that you could handle it” by
a teacher in high school. Alice was eventually permitted to take a course in physics
EXWIRXQGWKDWLWZDVTXLWHGLIILFXOW³+HGUHZSK\VLFVVWXIIOLNHKRZWKHSUHVVXUH
works and how the gravity works, but it was confusing” and involved few hands-
on experiences. Alice also found math to be very challenging. After high school,
Alice went to a community college, where she continued to pursue her passion for
drawing, ultimately continuing onto a four-year college and earning a B.F.A. in
Graphic Arts. During college, Alice finally had the opportunity to take a course in
astronomy which she enjoyed immensely, particularly because, as a self-described
“social person,” she was able to work with another student on a planet research
project where she took charge of the artwork, maps, and cover designs.
Alice’s strengths-based analysis in light of science frameworks. In thinking about

Alice’s strengths in art, several of the Framework’s Crosscutting Concepts come to
mind. Patterns, for example, such as lunar cycles, seasons, day/night, life cycles, and
DNA codes, can be identified and reinforced through the use of digital photography,
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manner. Classifying various items such as rocks, leaves, and shells by identifying
common and distinguishing properties (e.g., color, texture, hardness, shape) and using
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as “These _____ are _______.” (e.g., These shells are smooth) that progress to more
sophisticated descriptions as the student’s language skills increase. In later years, visual
representations for the classification and identification of patterns among elements,
organisms, and sound and light waves would be appropriate. One can imagine a student
like Alice developing her own Periodic Table of Elements, first perhaps designing
a “practice” table that organizes items from the supermarket into various categories
(to represent groups and periods) and arranges them according to increasing size or
cost (to represent atomic number). She could then move onto designing an authentic
periodic table with original drawings to represent the uses of the elements and her own
design scheme to distinguish between the various element groups and periods.
A student with Alice’s interest in drawing and design could also be intrigued by
problem-based design challenges (Savery, 2006). For example, she could be tasked
with the job of designing a home or school that could withstand wind, rain, heat, or
HDUWKTXDNHFRQGLWLRQVZLWKLQFRVWVL]HDQGPDWHULDOFRQVWUDLQWV$IWHUWHVWLQJYDULRXV
materials and designs, Alice could “pitch” her designs to the class using arguments
based on evidence from her experiments. In addition to this investigation’s emphasis
on disciplinary core ideas related to properties of materials, it also uses an array of
scientific and engineering practices and highlights the Crosscutting Concept of cause
and effect. Moreover, the inclusion of budgets and measurements provides a context
for Alice to practice her math and computational skills while the presentation allows
her to showcase her artistic talents and gain confidence in speaking.
Alice’s strong interest in astronomy could have been encouraged by having her
develop a series of arts-based resources for teaching astronomy to children. Such
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resources could include science picture books, field guides, claymation videos, and
travel brochures. One can envision Alice designing and creating her own astronomy
mural or museum exhibit that would need to meet certain established criteria (e.g.,
include specific information on planets, stars, moons, at least one original online
interactive activity, one exhibit that moves using electricity, etc.). Such projects
could be developed to scale to promote Alice’s mathematical and computational
WKLQNLQJDQGHPSKDVL]HWKHFURVVFXWWLQJFRQFHSWRIVFDOHSURSRUWLRQDQGTXDQWLW\
Many disciplinary core ideas can also be taught through explicit connections to
art and artists; for example, connecting artists like Leonardo da Vinci to a unit on
inventions, Jackson Pollock for patterns in nature, or Rembrandt van Rijn to studies
of light and dark could make these concepts more accessible and enjoyable for
students like Alice and her peers. Analogies can also be drawn, for example, between
the dots of paint that come together to form images in the works of pointillist artist
Georges Seurat and atoms that come together to form matter (Merten, 2011).
Perhaps not surprisingly, Alice was particularly drawn to maps in her social studies
classes. Challenging Alice to develop maps showing distributions of minerals or
wildlife, or using topographic maps to locate geological features would further promote
her mathematical skills and concepts of scale. Map technologies such as Google
Earth could also allow her to explore earth and space and create virtual tours that
she could script and narrate for herself and classmates, thereby providing a context
for practicing writing and speech. Alice might also enjoy an app like Project Noah
(www.projectnoah.org), which allows students to document wildlife sightings using
phones or iPads. Students can then track their findings on a map view, maintain videos,
and even send their findings to authentic research projects. Finally, Alice’s love of music
could be capitalized upon by teaching science through songs (Crowther, 2012) and
connecting units on sound to music and instruments. One can envision a student with
a passion for movie musicals being challenged to develop a choreographed musical
number that teaches a disciplinary core idea such as fission and fusion, the water
cycle, or plate tectonics while developing accompanying lyrics that include critical
vocabulary and explanations. It is essential to recognize that such an opportunity is
not a “dumbing down” of curriculum; the same performance expectations identified
through more traditional means of assessment can be implemented here, yet this type
of activity allows students to use their talents to communicate what they know, thus
yielding a more accurate assessment of student learning.
CONCLUSION
This chapter attempted to identify ways that science educators can tap the strengths
and interests of their students to make the NGSS accessible and “asset-able.” Of
course, teachers do not often have the benefit of retrospection to illuminate student
talents as we had in this study. Therefore, teachers must actively identify student
interests and strengths through formal assessments, reports from parents and
former teachers, careful observations of students in the classroom, and perhaps
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most importantly, through conversations with students themselves. Then, they must
activate those areas in the science classroom. While this may seem like a monumental
task, it should be recognized that many students’ interests and talents will overlap,
thus negating the need for individualized lesson preparation. Moreover, offering
choices for students with regard to research topics, modes of presentation, and forms
of assessment when possible provides a management-friendly approach to strength-
based teaching. Such opportunities allow strengths to shine through and ensure that
all students can be seen, and see themselves, as scientists.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank “Robert” and “Alice” for their generosity, candidness, courage, and
love of learning.
REFERENCES
Abrahams, I., & Braund, M. (2012). Performing science: Teaching chemistry, physics, and biology
through drama. London: Bloomsbury Academic Press.
Armstrong, T. (2012). Neurodiversity in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Baum, S. M. (2009). Talent centered model for twice exceptional learners. In J. S. Renzulli, E. J. Gubbins,
K. S. McMillen, R. D. Eckert, & C. A. Little (Eds.), Systems & models for developing programs for
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Bianco, M., Carothers, D. E., & Smiley, L. R. (2009). Gifted students with asperger syndrome: Strategies
for strength-based programming. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44±
Brigham, F. J., Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2011). Science education and students with learning
disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 26±
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needs. In K. Johnsen & J. Kendrick (Eds.), Science education for gifted students SS±:DFR
TX: Prufrock Press.
Crowther, G. (2012). Using science songs to enhance learning: An interdisciplinary approach. CBE Life
Science Education, 11±
)XOZLOHU%5Writing in science: How to scaffold instruction to support learning. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
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disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37±
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(Eds.), Handbook of research on science educationSS±0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
Associates, Inc.
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Connors, N. (2006). Differentiated curriculum enhancement in inclusive middle school science:
Effects on classroom and high-stakes tests. Journal of Special Education, 40±
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S. K. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research in science education9RO,,SS±1HZ<RUN1<
Routledge.
Merten, S. (2011). Enhancing science education through art. Science Scope, 35±
National Education Association. (2006). The twice-exceptional dilemma. Washington, DC: Author.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers.
(2010). Common core state standards for English language arts & literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Author.
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Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learning.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary
Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1±
Slavin, R. E. (1980). Cooperative learning. Review of Educational Research, 50±
Sumida, M. (2010). Identifying twice-exceptional children and three gifted styles in the Japanese primary
science classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 32±
Wei, X., & Marder, C. (2012). Self-concept development of students with disabilities: Disability category,
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Sami Kahn
Patton College of Education
Athens, Ohio

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SHERYL BURGSTAHLER
11. INCLUSIVE ONLINE SCIENCE EDUCATION

What Teachers Need to Know
INTRODUCTION
$VOHJLVODWLRQKDVEHHQHQDFWHGWRHQVXUHHTXDODFFHVVWRHGXFDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHV
for people with disabilities and increasing numbers of science learning opportunities
are delivered online, there is an urgent need for the design and delivery of online
science content and engagement mechanisms that are welcoming to, accessible to,
and usable by all potential students, including those with disabilities. The author of
this article discusses challenges students with disabilities face in accessing online
content and engaging in online activities; what science instructors can do with respect
to pedagogy and information technology (IT) choices to make online curriculum and
engagement welcoming to, accessible to, and usable by all potential students; and
how stakeholders can help make the vision of full inclusion online a reality.
BACKGROUND
Education programs continue to make increasing use of technology to deliver science

instruction. These programs promote online learning as a way for anyone to engage
in courses from anywhere and with a variety of devices. The dramatic increase in
the number of online students nationwide has included increasing numbers of K-12
students with disabilities (Queen & Lewis, 2012; Thompson, Ferdig, & Black, 2012;
Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2011). The disabilities of these students
include, but are not limited to, blindness and low vision, deafness and hard of hearing,
mobility impairments, learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, and attention
deficits. Challenges and solutions related to the accessibility of online learning from
the perspectives of students with disabilities and educators have been reported (Case &
'DYLGVRQ)LFKWHQHWDO.HHOHU +RUQH\6HDOH &RRSHU
Physical and cognitive accessibility solutions include captioning videos; presenting
content in a clear, organized fashion; providing multiple ways to gain knowledge,
demonstrate knowledge, and engage with fellow students and the instructor; and using
documents that can be read by screen reader technology often used by students who
are blind or have reading-related learning disabilities (Thomson, Fichten, Havel, Budd,
$VXQFLRQ 7KHUH LV OLPLWHG UHVHDUFK WKDW H[DPLQHV IDFWRUV WKDW LQIOXHQFH
the success of students with disabilities in online learning activities (Coy, Marino,
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S. BURGSTAHLER
6HULDQQL4XHHQ /HZLV(YHQVWXGLHVDERXWSHUIRUPDQFHGLIIHUHQFHV

of student subgroups, such as those defined by gender, age, and race, rarely explore
GLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQVWXGHQWVZLWKDQGZLWKRXWGLVDELOLWLHVHJ;X -DJJDUV
Further, studies about online learning and disability often focus on a narrow range
RIGLVDELOLWLHVHJ&R\0DULQR 6HULDQQLDQGWKHUHIRUHRQHFDQQRWGUDZ
conclusions about accessibility to students with a broader range of disabilities.
Some studies have focused on educational practices that may increase the
success of students who often face physical or cognitive accessibility challenges
in online activities (e.g., Raes, Schellens, DeWever, & Vanderhover, 2012; Tsuei,
9DVTXH])RUEXVK0DVRQ/RFNZRRG *OHHG+RZHYHUWKHQHHGVRI
students with disabilities are not routinely considered as online activities are being
GHYHORSHG.LQDVK&ULFKWRQ 5XSQRZ7KHUHDFWLYHSUDFWLFH±SURYLGLQJ
accommodations for specific students with documented disabilities as they enrol in
LQGLYLGXDOFRXUVHV±LVRIWHQDSSOLHG)RUH[DPSOHWKHQHHGIRUFDSWLRQVRQYLGHRV
for students who are deaf, or for documents to be provided in accessible formats
for students who are blind or have learning disabilities and use screen readers, is
only addressed when a specific student expresses a need for these things through a
disability services unit. At best, the accommodations approach results in the student
with a disability gaining access to course content and engagement, but at a later date
than other students. At worst, the student does not have full access to the content and
engagement opportunities available to other students.
APPLYING THE UNIVERSAL DESIGN PARADIGM
An alternative to the accommodations-only approach to online learning access

for students with disabilities is to apply universal design (UD) principles when an
online course or activity is being developed so as to avoid traditional barriers and
thus reduce the need for accommodations. UD approaches benefit a broad audience
that includes students who are blind and using screen reader technology, who are
Figure 1. Qualities of UD: Accessible, usable, and inclusive
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INCLUSIVE ONLINE SCIENCE EDUCATION
deaf, whose first language is not English, who have varying levels of technology
expertise, and who have other diverse characteristics. UD is defined as “the design
of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent
possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design” (The Center for
Universal Design, n.d., p. 1). Universal design is accessible, usable, and inclusive, as
represented in Figure 1. Originally applied to architecture and commercial products,
UD was later applied to websites and other technologies, and then to instructional
SUDFWLFHV%XUJVWDKOHUE)RUH[DPSOH8QLYHUVDO'HVLJQIRU/HDUQLQJ8'/
as discussed in chapters by Newman Thomas et al. (9) and Summy and Fetters (12)
in this book and applies the UD paradigm to the design of technology-mediated
FXUULFXODDQGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV5RVH0H\HU +LWFKFRFN8'RIIHUV
a framework for teaching and learning but also for other aspects of the entire
educational experience, including everything from the design of technology to the
instructor’s role in providing accommodations.
UD is consistent with an understanding of disability as a social construct
much like those defined by gender, racial, and ethnic status. The “social model”
of disability and other integrated approaches within the field of disability studies
(DePoy & Gibson, 2008; Gabel & Peters, 2010) considers variations in abilities a
normal part of the human experience and suggest that more attention be devoted to
proactively designing products and environments that are welcoming and accessible
to everyone, including those used in educational settings.
Many actions have been recommended to improve the accessibility of online
learning, including training teachers how to employ a variety of teaching options
(e.g., using both text and video presentations to cover a single topic). In the next
section I share my experiences in applying UD strategies to develop inclusive online
courses and in teaching an online course to help educators learn to apply UD to
create online courses that are welcoming to, accessible to, and usable by all potential
students. I expect that the lessons I learned may benefit others offering similar
instruction.
TEACHING INSTRUCTORS AND COURSE DESIGNERS ABOUT

THE UD OF ONLINE LEARNING
Rutgers University created a series of four short online courses designed for
educators who teach or who plan to teach online. Those who complete the series
earn an Online Teaching Certificate (Rutgers University, n.d.). I teach one of the
four courses, “Universal Design and Accessibility in Online Education,” which
introduces participants to basic concepts, issues, approaches, strategies, beneficiaries,
and resources with regard to the creation and delivery of online instruction that
is welcoming to, accessible to, and usable by all students, including those with
disabilities.
The content and pedagogy are informed by my experiences in teaching accessible
online courses at multiple institutions and in my roles as director of Accessible

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S. BURGSTAHLER
Technology Services and affiliate professor in the College of Education at the

University of Washington (UW) in Seattle, and as editor and lead author of the book
Universal Design in Higher Education: From Principles to Practice (Burgstahler,
E7KHFRXUVHGHVLJQLVDOVRLQIRUPHGE\WKHUHVXOWVRIWKUHHUHVHDUFKVWXGLHVWKDW
together, suggest that accessibility training for distance learning personnel should
include content related to access challenges for people with disabilities, legislative
UHTXLUHPHQWVDFFHVVLELOLW\JXLGHOLQHVDQGVWDQGDUGVDQGGHVLJQWHFKQLTXHVDVZHOO
as include resources tailored to the needs of program administrators, course designers,
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HLJKW EHQFKPDUNV IRU KLJK TXDOLW\ RQOLQH FRXUVHV 'HYHORSHG E\ DQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO
collaboration, the rubric’s eight standards and related benchmarks apply to course
overview and introduction, learning objectives, assessment and measurement,
instructional materials, course activities and learner interaction, course technology,
learner support, and accessibility and usability (Quality Matters, n.d.).
The course focuses on standard number eight of the QM Rubric, accessibility
and usability, as well as the integration of accessibility issues within the other seven
standards. By the end of the course, it is expected that students will be able to state the
definition, describe the principles and processes, and give examples of UD applied in
online settings; describe ways that students in online courses or activities represent
a diverse group; share some of the experiences, challenges, and perspectives of
people with disabilities and reflect on how they might impact participation in online
learning; describe how individuals with different types of disabilities use technology;
discuss the civil rights of people with disabilities and related legislation; compare
guidelines and standards most relevant to online instruction; describe accessible
design issues and approaches; and design an online lesson that applies UD principles.
After instructive videos and text-based content on the thousands of screen readers,
alternative keyboards, and other assistive technology devices students with disabilities
might be using to access and online course, I summarize the implications for online
course developers and instructors, as is included in Table 1.
Table 1. Assistive technology implications for accessible design
Assistive technology: Therefore:
Emulates the keyboard, but may not fully Design websites and software to operate
emulate the mouse with the keyboard alone.
Cannot read content presented in images Provide alternative text.
Can tab from link to link Make links descriptive
Can skip from heading to heading Structure the content with hierarchical
headings.
Cannot accurately transcribe audio Caption video; transcribe audio.
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I strive to make the course itself a model of UD, ensuring access to a broad
audience, including students whose first language is not English, are blind and using
screen reader technology, are deaf, have learning or attention challenges, have low
technical skills, live in different time zones, and have a variety of busy schedules.
They are encouraged to think of eachVWXGHQWDVKDYLQJXQLTXHEDFNJURXQGVDVZHOO
as levels of abilities to see, hear, speak, attend to tasks, organize diverse concepts,
use technology, read/speak English, etc. All content and activities are offered
DV\QFKURQRXVO\&RXUVHH[SHFWDWLRQVDUHFOHDUO\SUHVHQWHGDOOUHTXLUHGYLGHRVDUH
captioned and most are audio described; all portable document format (PDF) files are
designed to be accessible to individuals using screen readers; all lessons are presented
in a consistent layout and on uncluttered pages and backgrounds; unnecessary jargon
is avoided and all technical terms are defined; all images are described in a text-
based format; extraneous facts are not included with critical content; due dates are
given in advance for posting messages and completing assignments; when students
are asked to link to an online resource, they are given a clear expectation regarding
exploration of the resource (e.g., “browse for ten minutes,” “read thoroughly”); and
students are given options for their final project so that they can make the experience
practical for them. Students are encouraged to ask for extra time when needed and
are allowed to turn in their final project one week after the course end date.
Student feedback suggests that those who complete the course learned useful
content and plan to apply what they learned. Responses include “I really learned
a lot. I had honestly never been aware, nor given much thought to accessibility
and accommodations for students with disabilities;” “I think infusing this content
and procedures into my [past] courses would have provided a more meaningful
experience for all of my students;” “The experience I’ve had in your course has
opened up a new dimension of teaching for me;” “Going forward, I’m working on
making online courses accessible to learners with psychiatric disabilities (increasing
engagement, focus, navigation elements, etc.).”
WHAT ONLINE LEARNING SCIENCE TEACHERS NEED TO KNOW
My experiences reinforce the importance of tailoring content and delivery methods to

the audience. I have also learned that, when delivering technical content, instructors
VKRXOG EH VXUH WR JLYH DGHTXDWH EDFNJURXQG DQG KRZWR LQVWUXFWLRQV WR VWXGHQWV
keeping in mind that students will likely have a range of levels of knowledge and
comfort with technology. When pointing students to web resources, instructors
should make their expectations clear (e.g., “read thoroughly,” “browse for ten
PLQXWHV´³UHVSRQGWRWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQ´
It is recommended that instructors of pre-service and in-service professional
development for science teachers teach at least partially online and make all online
and on-site components models of universal design. If they are teaching participants
how to design online learning courses, instructors should point out accessibility
decisions that they made in developing the course as examples of how participants
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S. BURGSTAHLER
might design their own science education courses. It is important that course
developers who assist instructors of online science education courses in designing
their courses also anticipate the characteristics of a diverse audience of potential
students with respect to age, ability, disability, culture, race, ethnicity, first language,
and technical knowledge as a course is being developed. Content should be made
DFFHVVLEOHWRDEURDGDXGLHQFHE\HPSOR\LQJ8'WHFKQLTXHVHJPDNLQJ3')ILOHV
accessible, captioning videos) and instructors should be prepared to make additional
accommodations if some aspects of a course are not accessible.
I developed a list of recommendations on how to design accessible e-learning for
online instructors. It is based on my experiences teaching online courses, feedback
from my students, and reports in the literature from others who teach accessible
online courses. The list is included in a publication, 20 Tips for Teaching an
Accessible Online Course%XUJVWDKOHUD1LQHWLSVDGGUHVVLVVXHVUHODWHGWR
course web pages, documents, images, and videos. They include the following:
Use clear, consistent layouts and organization schemes for presenting content.
Structure headings (using style features built into the learning management
system [LMS], Word, PowerPoint [PPT], PDFs, etc.) and use built-in designs/
layouts (e.g., for PPT slides).
Use descriptive wording for hyperlink text. For example, it is better to state “Access
the DO-IT Knowledge Base for information about IT accessibility” than “To access
the DO-IT Knowledge Base for information about IT accessibility, click here,”
where the underlined text represents a link to a resource. In the first case a screen
reader would say “DO-IT Knowledge Base;” in the second case it would say “click
hear,” providing no information about what the link connects to for a blind user.
Minimize the use of PDFs. If you do use a PDF file, format it so that the text is
accessible (i.e., test by making sure you can copy and paste content within it). If
you link to an inaccessible PDF, be prepared to offer the content in a text-based
alternative format as well.
Provide concise alternative text descriptions of content presented within images.
For example, if you present the QM Logo on a page, use the alternative text
feature of the LMS to describe it as “Quality Matters logo” so that a blind student’s
screen reader can read aloud the description of the content presented in the image.
Use large, bold, sanserif fonts on uncluttered pages with plain backgrounds.
Use color combinations that are high contrast and can be read by those who
are colorblind. For example, a person who is color blind might not be able to
distinguish between pie chart sections if red and green colors are used, but
using a different texture for each will give them a second option for making the
distinction.
Make sure all content and navigation is accessible using the keyboard alone.
&DSWLRQRUWUDQVFULEHYLGHRDQGDXGLRFRQWHQW%XUJVWDKOHUDSS±
Eleven tips are about instructional methods. They include the following:
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Assume students have a wide range of technology skills and provide options for
gaining the technology skills needed for course participation.
Present content in multiple ways (e.g., in a combination of text, video, audio, and/
or image format).
Address a wide range of language skills as you write content (e.g., spell acronyms,
define terms, avoid or define jargon).
Make instructions and expectations clear for activities, projects, and assigned
reading.
Make examples and assignments relevant to learners with a wide variety of
interests and backgrounds.
Offer outlines and other scaffolding tools to help students learn.
3URYLGHDGHTXDWHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUSUDFWLFH
$OORZDGHTXDWHWLPHIRUDFWLYLWLHVSURMHFWVDQGWHVWVHJJLYHGHWDLOVRISURMHFW
assignments in the syllabus so that students can start working on them early).
Provide feedback on project parts and offer corrective opportunities.
Provide options for communicating and collaborating that are accessible to
individuals with a variety of disabilities.
Provide options for demonstrating learning (e.g., different types of test items,
SRUWIROLRVSUHVHQWDWLRQVGLVFXVVLRQV%XUJVWDKOHUDS
These tips can apply to any course, however, science teachers face more challenges
than some instructors in other fields because of:
the difficulty of vocabulary, which makes clear descriptions of vocabulary
especially important;
the inclusion of mathematics and science symbols, which can create challenges in
making them fully accessible to students who are blind; and
the common use of informative visual images that increases the need to describe
visuals in a text format.
REMAINING ISSUES AND CONCLUSION
Existing literature and my experiences suggest the importance of addressing the

issues described below:
Published science curriculum and online resources are often inaccessible to some
learners. Educators need to insist that publishers of these materials make them
more accessible, perhaps by refusing to use inaccessible products.
Educators should create a culture in the science education community that
demands full access to science instruction for everyone, including those with
disabilities.
Standards should be set for curriculum that includes captioned videos and
accessible documents and web applications.
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S. BURGSTAHLER
Educators should demand that learning management systems be accessible to and

usable by both students and instructors with disabilities.
Teacher training on how to design accessible and usable online instruction and
how to accommodate students with disabilities when inaccessible products are
used should be provided.
Researchers should address the need for more research that identifies challenges
faced by students with disabilities in online environments and effective practices
to address them.
As increasing numbers of science courses are offered online, many, including the
author of this article, consider it to be an ethical obligation to ensure that these
courses are accessible to potential students with disabilities; it is a legal obligation
as well. However, faculty and course developers report little knowledge of how to
ensure that their courses are accessible. The UD framework has the potential to unify
specific educational approaches promoted for various underrepresented groups,
thus leading to educational practices that build upon the abilities/strengths of each
learner. There is a need for more research that determines what e-learning teachers
can call accessible courses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This chapter is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation

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conclusions or recommendations are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the policy or views of the U.S. government, and you should not assume its
endorsement.
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Raes, A., Schellens, T., De Wever, B., & Vanderhover, E. (2012). Scaffolding information problem
VROYLQJLQZHEEDVHGFROODERUDWLYHLQTXLU\OHDUQLQJComputers & Education, 59±
5RVH'+0H\HU$ +LWFKFRFN&(GVThe universally designed classroom: Accessible
curriculum and digital technologies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Press.
Rutgers University. (n.d.). Online teaching certificate program. New Brunswick, NJ: Author. Retrieved
from https://onlinelearning.rutgers.edu/online-teaching-certificate-program
Seale, J., & Cooper, M. (2009). E-learning and accessibility: An exploration of the potential role of
generic pedagogical tools. Computers and Education, 54±
The Center for Universal Design. (n.d.). About UD. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University.
Retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/ncsu/design/cud/about_ud/about_ud.htm
Thompson, L. A., Ferdig, R., & Black, E. (2012). Online schools and children with special health and
educational needs: Comparison with performance in traditional schools. Journal of Medical Internet
Research, 14±
7KRPVRQ 5 )LFKWHQ & 6 +DYHO$ %XGG - $VXQFLRQ - %OHQGLQJ XQLYHUVDO GHVLJQ
e-learning, and information and communication technologies. In S. Burgstahler (Ed.), Universal
design in higher education: From principles to practice QG HG SS ± &DPEULGJH 0$
Harvard Education Press.
Tsuei, M. (2012). Using synchronous peer tutoring system to promote elementary students’ learning in
mathematics. Computers & Education, 58±
9DVTXH]()RUEXVK'(0DVRQ///RFNZRRG$5 *OHHG/'HOLYHU\DQGHYDOXDWLRQ
of synchronous online reading tutoring to students at-risk of reading failure. Rural Special Education
Quarterly, 30±
Watson, J., Murin, A., Vashaw, L., Gemin, B., & Rapp, C. (2011). Keeping pace with K–12 online
learning: An annual review of policy and practice. Mountain View, CA: The Evergreen Group.
;X' -DJJDUV663HUIRUPDQFHJDSVEHWZHHQRQOLQHDQGIDFHWRIDFHFRXUVHV'LIIHUHQFHV
across types of students and academic subject areas. Journal of Higher Education, 85±
Sheryl Burgstahler
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
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SARAH SUMMY AND MARCIA FETTERS
12. UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR

LEARNING IN SCIENCE
A Framework that Supports the Needs of All
,Q SHUFHQW RI ±\HDUROG VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV ZHUH VHUYHG LQ
general education (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
Statistics, 2016). More than two-thirds of these students received their science
education in general education. Multiple federal laws (Every Student Success Act
RI+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ2SSRUWXQLW\$FWRI,QGLYLGXDOVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV
$FWDVZHOODV1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLOUHSRUWVA Framework for K-12
Science Education, 2012; and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)
1*66 /HDG 6WDWHV SUHVHQW WKH QHFHVVLW\ WR SURYLGH HTXLWDEOH OHDUQLQJ
opportunities so that curriculum is accessible to all students. Since these initiatives
were implemented, there has been an increase in student diversity within our
schools and a broadening of the science achievement gap. There is increased
pressure and demand for science teachers and their special education partners to
make instructional shifts to empower all students to successfully participate in the
study of science (NGSS, 2013).
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that supports the needs
RIDOOOHDUQHUV&$677KH(YHU\6WXGHQW6XFFHHGV$FW(66$RI
defined and endorsed UDL. It is the first time, a federal education law governing
general K-12 education includes a definition and endorsement of UDL. The ESSA
DGRSWVWKH8'/GHILQLWLRQIRXQGLQWKH+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ2SSRUWXQLW\$FW
of 2008:
A scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that: (a)
provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students
respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students
are engaged: and (b) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate
accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement
expectation for all students including students with disabilities and students
who are limited English proficient. (SEC.231)
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S. SUMMY & M. FETTERS
The Center on Applied Special Education Technologies (CAST, 2016) identifies

three main principles of the UDL framework: multiple means of engagement,
multiple means of representation, and multiple means of action and expression.
These principles describe classroom learning environments as well as instructional
practices that meet the needs of all learners.
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING, SPECIAL EDUCATION,

AND SCIENCE EDUCATION
The Individuals with Disabilities Act ,'($ VWLSXODWHV WKDW VWXGHQWV
with disabilities must have access to and make progress in general education.
However, students with disabilities perform lower than their non-disabled peers
on standardized measures and disproportionately give up on science and math
content in middle school (Basham & Marino, 2013). Many researchers (Basham &
0DULQR .LQJ6HDUV HW DO .XUWWV 0DWWKHZV 6PDOOZRRG
have revealed how science classrooms can be daunting for students with disabilities
with unnecessary barriers and misunderstood, misinterpreted, and/or inconsistently
implemented accommodations to assist students. The success of students with
disabilities within the inclusive science classroom is much lower than their peers
without disabilities. Nord et al. (2011) found in the 2011 High School Transcript
6WXG\ WKDW RI VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV GLG QRW FRPSOHWH WKH VWDQGDUG
FXUULFXOXPIRUJUDGXDWLRQDQGRIWKRVHVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVQHHGHGRQO\
science credit for graduation.
For students with disabilities, success in the classroom is connected to the teachers’
ability to understand the presenting learning needs of the students (Basham & Marino,
.LQJ6HDUVHWDOVWDWHVWKDWDOOVWXGHQWVFRXOGEHQHILWIURPKDYLQJDFFHVV
to pedagogies other than what they are receiving. Strategies like video enhancements
for lecture, videos modeling problem solving, video tutorials on completing homework
and student workbooks mirroring the videos and containing scaffolded practice
problems allow students more options to engage with the content. For many years,
adapting curriculum for individual students with special needs was the mandate and
traditional practice. However, as the student population has become more diverse, a
framework like UDL that supports integrating flexible, usable, and accessible teaching
and learning for all is needed. It is a proactive approach that scaffolds and supports
the curriculum development process to meet the needs of all learners and aims to
minimize the need for individual accommodations and modifications (Curry, Cohen, &
Lightbody, 2006). UDL is designed to address curriculum challenges and not focus on
learner deficits. It provides alternatives to make curriculum accessible and applicable
to students with different backgrounds, learning preferences, abilities, and disabilities
LQZLGHO\YDULHGOHDUQLQJFRQWH[WV0H\HU5RVH *DUGHQ8VLQJ8'/GRHV
not imply that one size fits all, but rather that the principles of UDL support educators
as they design their instruction to assist more students in accessing the curriculum with
a marked opportunity to succeed.
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UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING IN SCIENCE
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING AND CONNECTIONS

TO SCIENCE TEACHING
7KHFKDOOHQJHIRUVFLHQFHHGXFDWRUVLVWRFUHDWHVWDQGDUGVDQGLQTXLU\EDVHGVFLHQFH
FXUULFXODWRPHHWWKHH[SDQGLQJGLYHUVHVWXGHQWSRSXODWLRQLQFOXGLQJPDQ\XQLTXH
learning needs and preferences. The adoption of UDL supports strategic planning and
instructional delivery that provides supports and scaffolds, and decreases barriers to
learning in science classrooms.
The NGSS (2013) are composed of three major dimensions: Scientific and
Engineering Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Disciplinary Core Ideas. The
principles and strategies of the UDL framework compliment and support the goals
of science education. The three main principles of UDL are closely aligned with
Scientific and Engineering Practices. The following are some examples of what the
alignment between the three main principles of UDL and Scientific and Engineering
Practices could look like during science instruction.
Principle I: Provide Multiple Means of Engagement
The Science and Engineering Practices focus on different ways for students to
engage with classroom materials, instructors, and peers with phenomena. They
HQFRXUDJHVWXGHQWVWRDVNKLJKHURUGHUWKLQNLQJTXHVWLRQVGHVLJQPRGHOVLQLWLDWH
investigations and engage in scientific discourse about their ideas.
Principle II: Provide Multiple Means of Representation
When preparing to share information with students, science teachers could provide
the materials in multiple ways. A lecture could be given in the traditional format,
but supplemented with video clips, diagrams, and supporting text. Internet resources
of additional videos, or text material could also be provided. Ideally these sources
would highlight different viewpoints, or perspectives on the topic. Complex science
topics are usually approached in two main ways. One approach starts with the big
ideas or concepts and then deconstructs the ideas/concepts into subsections or parts.
The other common approach is to start with smaller subsections or ideas and then
build them up and connect them to form larger ideas and concepts. Both of these
approaches provide opportunities for teachers to provide students with multiple
access points and representations of the ideas.
Principle III: Provide Multiple Means of Action and Expression
Science classrooms are rich in opportunities to provide students with multiple means
of action and expression. Investigations (both student directed and teacher directed)
can provide students with options for learning and representing their knowledge.
Many of these are highlighted in the focus on Science and Engineering Practices and

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include actions such as argumentation, building models, graphical representations,

and using mathematical thinking and representation.
UDL STRATEGIES IN ACTION IN INCLUSIVE SCIENCE CLASSROOMS
Table 1 provides some specific examples of options that teachers can use before
and during planning, and during instruction to increase student access to science
learning. For each of the UDL principles there are specific strategies recommended
that can be used by science teachers to incorporate into their planning process.
Table 1. Sample UDL Strategies for students in inclusive science classrooms
Multiple means of Multiple means of Multiple means of action &

engagement representation expression
Discuss with the student Pre-teach instructional Allow students the

their disability including practices, routines and option to complete work
strengths and barriers to norms. electronically or verbally.
learning.
Become knowledgeable When presenting Allow students the option
of the student’s Individual information use clear and of using graphic organizers,
Education Program (IEP) simple language, provide concept boards, narratives,
including mandated the information in at or outlines as a means to
accommodations and/or least two formats (i.e., organize their learning.
modifications. PowerPoint and guided
notes or Posters displayed
on the classroom walls are
also available on individual
work tables).
Establish a communication Develop signals to be used Allow students the option
pathway between teacher in conjunction with verbal of using graphic organizers,
and student (electronic, UHTXHVWVGXULQJWUDQVLWLRQV concept boards, narratives,
hand-written notes, meeting or outlines as a means to
times). demonstrate their learning.
Provide a weekly calendar Take pictures of board $OORZVWXGHQWVDGHTXDWH
of topics and activities so work and post on class time for the learning
the student comes prepared internet site or send as email activity including time for
for the activity. attachments to students. processing.
DESIGNING ENGAGING SCIENCE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Science classrooms by their nature offer great opportunities to engage students in

learning because they are spaces filled with a wide variety of interesting materials
DQGUHVRXUFHV&KDUWVSRVWHUVERRNVVSHFLPHQVDQGHTXLSPHQWRIIHUDZLGHYDULHW\
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of options for learning about natural phenomena. But material objects are only one
element of making a science classroom an engaging place to learn, instructional
strategies and goals must also be aligned to student interests and abilities to maximize
the learning potential. Science educators are trained as discipline specialists. Their
teacher preparation focuses on content and specific science pedagogies, but does
QRWDOZD\VSURYLGHDGHTXDWHSUHSDUDWLRQLQPHHWLQJWKHQHHGVRIDGLYHUVHVWXGHQW
population. The CAST website provides educators with some recommendations
(CAST, 2016) for enhancing learning environment more inclusively, and these
recommendations can be aligned with the NGSS Science and Engineering Practices.
Table 2. Learning environment recommendations and science connections
CAST tips for designing Science and engineering Science instructional

an engaging learning practices examples examples
environment
Support risk-taking. $VNLQJTXHVWLRQVGHILQLQJ In science classrooms

problems, developing students are asked to make
models, constructing careful observations and
explanations, engaging in collect data to develop
argument from evidence. explanations and defend their
inferences and conclusions
within small groups and in
class discussions.
Offer time for active Developing/using models, Students construct
reflection on learning and analyzing/interpreting data, explanations after engaging
engagement. constructing explanations, with scientific ideas in
engaging in argumentation multiple formats and with
from evidence, obtaining/ multiple experiences.
evaluating/communicating Laboratory activities are
information. designed to test ideas
and support or challenge
understanding.
Ensure resources and Using models, carrying Focus on multiple
supports meet the demands out investigations, representations of
of a task. using mathematics and knowledge and information.
computational thinking, Triangulation of data from
engaging in argument research including verifying
from evidence, obtaining/ VWXGHQWTXDOLWDWLYHDQG
evaluating/communicating TXDQWLWDWLYHGDWDIURP
information. laboratory activities and
connecting or verifying the
data with previous research
from the literature to create
a robust explanation.
(Continued)
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Table 2. (Continued)
CAST tips for designing Science and engineering Science instructional

an engaging learning practices examples examples
environment
Incorporate authentic and Develop/use models, Science and engineering

relevant examples. planning/carrying out instruction focuses on
investigations, obtaining/ explanation of phenomena
evaluating information. or solving a problem. By
the nature of the disciplines
the focus in on explaining
authentic and relevant
phenomena. For example,
linking earth science studies
to understanding weather
patterns and the impact of
society; linking studies in
life science to the nutritional
needs of organisms and
the parallels for diet and
nutrition in humans; linking
studies in the physical
VFLHQFHVWRHTXLOLEULXP
with connections to forces
and motion and chemical
reactions.
3URYLGHIUHTXHQWIRUPDWLYH $VNLQJTXHVWLRQV A diverse set of teaching
feedback. developing models, strategies provides the
constructing explanations, RSSRUWXQLW\IRUIUHTXHQW
engaging in argument from and formative feedback
evidence, communicating as student progress
information. through investigations and
explorations. An example
would be interactive student
and teacher response
journals.
Present flexible assessment Developing models, A variety of activities and
options. planning and carrying out projects around key ideas
investigations, analyzing allows for multiple flexible
and interpreting data, assessment options for
using mathematics and students to demonstrate
computational thinking, their understanding.
constructing explanations, Allow students to decide
engaging in argument from if they prefer narrative,
evidence, communicating computational, graphic or
information. other forms of assessment.
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Table 2 provides a summary of some of the CAST recommendations and affiliated

Science and Engineering Practices along with science classroom examples.
EXAMPLES OF UDL IN THE CLASSROOM
3XUSRVHIXOLQFOXVLRQUHTXLUHVWKRXJKWIXORUJDQL]DWLRQDQGOHVVRQSODQQLQJ%HORZ
are three class profiles providing elementary, middle, and secondary level examples
of what the inclusive science classroom using UDL might look like.
Ms. Stewart’s 3rd Grade Classroom: Forces and Interactions
Ms. Steward teaches 3rd grade at Pinewood Elementary School. She teaches science
IRU PLQXWH SHULRGV IRXU WLPHV D ZHHN WR D WRWDO RI WKUHH FODVVURRPV (DFK GD\
the 3rd grade students rotate classrooms for mathematics, science, and social studies
[engagement]. Her room is set up with a reading corner [representation], where she
rotates books in from the library based on the science topics she is teaching or will be
teaching in the coming weeks, along with materials for social studies. In the reading
corner, she also has a collection of science journals written for elementary students
at a variety of reading levels and in formats that can be used as resources in their
research [representation]. Wall space is devoted to a “Word Wall” that is built during
each unit. Allowing students to reflect on new knowledge as words are added to the
“Word Wall” can incorporate the new vocabulary into their explanations [expression].
Posters that provide additional information about the topic are also added as the unit
progresses providing elaboration and support for learning while space for students to
group posters, graphs and data charts is provided to encourage students to share their
findings and review the finding of their peers [representation and expression]. Desks
in her room are set up in groups of four consisting of a 2 × 2 arrangement allowing
students to face each other and hold conversations, and support risk-taking when
defending ideas to peers and to use the power of small group discussion to build
understanding [engagement]. There are magnetic white boards that span almost the
entire width of the room on two opposing sides of the room. One of these white boards
is also the screen for a data projector used for showing examples from the computer
and from a document camera [representation]. Storage cabinets and shelving provide
students access to calculators, rulers, mathematics manipulatives, markers, paper,
small white boards, and other classroom supplies, encouraging students to use a
variety of formats to build and demonstrate their understanding [expression].
Students are working in small groups to plan and conduct an investigation that
provides evidence of the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces [engagement].
The unit was introduced with a discussion of a poster that showed two children
rolling a large snowball up a hill, a familiar context for the students [representation].
Working in small groups students were asked to discuss and record what they saw,
and what they wondered about the phenomena in the picture [engagement and
expression]. Students have worked with a computer simulation that allows them to
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change the mass of two colliding balls and observe and record the results of varying
masses [representation and expression]. For their investigations students will need to
plan their investigation, including what data they want to collect and how they will
collect the data, providing flexible formats for their investigation and personalization
of the learning activity [expression]. Daily science journals with specific prompts
from the teacher are used for student self-assessment and to inform the teacher
[expression]. A summary report from each group (of four students) must include
evidence of the effects of both balanced and unbalanced forces and describe the set-
XSRIWKHLULQYHVWLJDWLRQGDWDFRQFOXVLRQVDQGIXWXUHTXHVWLRQVWREHLQYHVWLJDWHG
[expression]. Groups have the choice of providing this information in the form of
a poster, brochure, lab report, providing flexibility in how they demonstrate their
findings[expression]. Groups will also present their findings to two other groups in
the class [expression].
Mr. Stowe’s 7th Grade Earth Science Class: Cycling of Earth Materials
0U 6WRZH¶V WHDFKHV WK JUDGH HDUWK VFLHQFH DW /DNHZRRG 0LGGOH 6FKRRO +H
WHDFKHVPLQXWHFODVVSHULRGV7KHURRPLVVHWXSZLWKODEWDEOHVIRUWZRVWXGHQWV
[engagement]. Lab tables are on wheels that lock, and can be rearranged to facilitate
groups of four working together [representation]. Providing opportunities for
students to work with each other in multiple arrangements, based on the activity
of the goals of the instruction [representation and engagement]. Encouraging
collaborative learning and scientific discourse. One wall of the classroom is
devoted to a white board/projection surface, one wall is mostly bulletin board
space for sharing student work and posters that are tied to instruction, and the other
two walls dedicated to storage cabinets and bookshelves that contain resources
written at a variety of reading levels that students can use for research and support
[representation]. There is a teacher computer and document camera (with ability to
take and store pictures and video) [representation]. Students have access to tablet
computers (one tablet for two students) with Internet access [expression]. Students
are expected to keep science notebooks for note taking, self-assessments, and
investigation reports [expression].
Students are working in small groups to develop graphic models of the cycling
of earth materials and the energy flow that drives the process [engagement and
expression]. During this unit students have interacted with and used their textbook,
WUDGH ERRNV ,QWHUQHW UHVRXUFHV LQFOXGLQJ YLGHR DQG ZHE TXHVW WR OHDUQ DERXW
specific processes and parts of the cycle and develop their models [representation].
7KHUHTXLUHGJUDSKLFPRGHOLVGHVLJQHGWRKHOSVWXGHQWVSXWWRJHWKHUGLIIHUHQWWKLQJV
they have learned in the unit to develop understanding of the entire cycle. The
graphic model can be presented in the form of a poster, flipbook, cartoon storyboard,
or play script with props, providing students with choices on how they demonstrate
their understanding [expression]. A rubric for the final project has been developed
[representation].
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Ms. Snyder’s 10th Grade Biology Class: Photosynthesis in Carbon Cycling
Ms. Snyder teaches 10th grade biology at Hilltop High School. She teaches
PLQXWHFODVVSHULRGV+HUURRPLVVHWXSZLWKVL[ODEVWDWLRQVIRU±VWXGHQWV
on the perimeter of the classroom, and individual desks in the center of the room
[representation]. There is a teacher computer and document camera (with ability to
take and store pictures and video) [representation]. Students have access to tablet
computers (one to one) with Internet access [expression]. Students have multiple
resources for each topic and can access information for the class from textbooks,
trade books and computer resources [representation]. Students keep a personal
science logbook recording investigations, notes, daily journals, self and group
assessments [expression]. Students also use cloud services to share drafts and work
with peers and the teacher [expression].
Students are working in pairs to develop an explanation of the role of photosynthesis
in the carbon cycling [engagement]. Students draft an explanation at the beginning
of the unit after they have interacted with and used their textbooks, trade books,
Internet resources (including video) to learn about specific processes and parts
of the cycle [representation and expression]. Explanations can include the use of
metaphors or analogies, graphic organizers or diagrams to explain the cycling process
[representation]. Students are asked to use their explanations to answer scenario-
EDVHG TXHVWLRQV 6WXGHQW SDLUV VKDUH WKHLU H[SODQDWLRQV ZLWK SHHUV >H[SUHVVLRQ DQG
engagement]. Students monitor how their explanation has changed over the period
of the unit [expression]. Final versions will be graded using a class-developed rubric
completed by the student and the teacher [representation, expression, and engagement].
REFLECTIVE SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS THAT PROMOTE

INCLUSIONARY SCIENCE PRACTICES
,QSODQQLQJVFLHQFHOHVVRQVDQGXQLWVWHDFKHUVFDQXVHWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQVWR
help them identify strategies for making their classrooms more inclusive.
Are goals for the lesson clear and concise? Do students understand the specifics
of what they should know or be able to do at the end of the lesson? Are the
goals based on NGSS and provide for the range of understanding called for in the
standards?
Do students understand how this lesson fits in and builds off previous lessons?
Are connections to prior content and cross cutting themes explicit in the lessons
and reinforced through instructional practices?
Is information available in multiple formats? Do students have access to trade
books, scientific journals, and multimedia presentations about these concepts?
Do students have multiple opportunities to engage with the concepts? Are they
engaging with this content through models, laboratory or field based experiences?
Do students self-assess to test their understanding and progress?
Are the students allowed to re-visit concepts after formative assessment?
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Are there opportunities for the teacher to collect formative assessment information
that can be used to modify instructional plans?
Do students have multiple opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge and skills?
Can students demonstrate their knowledge through designing and conducting
investigations? Are their opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge through
scientific discussion and debate?
Do they have some choices in how they demonstrate their knowledge and skills?
Are students able to demonstrate their knowledge to peers, and in formats
commonly used in the scientific community such as posters, articles and research
studies?
CONCLUSION
Science education has a long history of working toward a more inclusive teaching
environment (AAAS, 1990). There is a recognized need for creative and persistent
individuals to enter into scientific fields. Too often, traditional K-12 science teaching
has focused on memorization, failing to connect concepts throughout the curriculum,
ultimately discouraging underserved populations from taking science courses. The
infusion of UDL principles in science education can prepare students for entering
science programs at the university level and move into science related careers. Some
small but deliberate additions to the instructional planning process can make science
more accessible to a broader audience including students with disabilities, and move
toward the goal of “science for all.”
REFERENCES
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1990). Project 2061: Science for all
Americans. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Basham, J. D., & Marino, M. T. (2013). Understanding STEM education and supporting students through
universal design for learning. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 45±
Center for Applied Special Technology. (2016). Universal design for learning guidelines-version 2.0.
Wakefield, MA: Author.
Curry, C., Cohen, L., & Lightbody, N. (2006). Universal design in science learning: An overview of how
universal design and technology can advance science for all. The Science Teacher, 73±
(YHU\6WXGHQW6XFFHHGV$FWRI3XEOLF/DZ6WDW±
+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ2SSRUWXQLW\$FWRI3XEOLF/DZ86&HWVHT
King-Sears, M. E., Johnson, T. M., Berkeley, S., Weiss, M. P., Peters-Burton, E. E., Evmenova, A. S.,
0HQGLWWR$ +XUVK-&$QH[SORUDWRU\VWXG\RIXQLYHUVDOGHVLJQIRUWHDFKLQJFKHPLVWU\
to students with and without disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 38±
Kurtts, S. A., Matthews, C. E., & Smallwood, T. (2009). (Dis)solving the differences: A physical science
lesson using universal design. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44±
0H\HU$5RVH' *RUGRQ'Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. Wakefield,
MA: CAST Publications.

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Nord, C., Roey, S., Perkins, R., Lyons, M., Lemanski, N., Brown, J., & Schuknecht, J. (2011).
The nation’s report card: America’s high school graduates 1&(6 5HSRUW SUHSDUHG E\
the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics). Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Institute of education
sciences. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Sarah Summy
Department of Special Education and Literacy Studies
Kalamazoo, Michigan
Marcia Fetters
College of Education and Human Development
Kalamazoo, Michigan

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SECTION 3
DEVELOPING DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEAS AND
SCIENCE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
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The chapters within this section focus on the development of core disciplinary
ideas and scientific content knowledge and the necessity of enabling all students to
contribute to the learning environment as a key component of teaching and learning
assimilating scientific content.
)LUVW 0XVWDID ùDKLQ %OEO &KDSWHU SUHVHQWV WKH SUDFWLFDO DSSOLFDWLRQ RI
transforming a typical faculty office space into an accessible physics laboratory for
students with disabilities. This chapter expresses the intentional design of a learning
space with precise locations for materials and resources.
Next, 7HUUL +HEHUW -DQQLNH -DNREVHQ 6HZDUG DQG 5 /HH 6PLWK &KDSWHU
discuss five strategies for including all students in the science classroom: (1) the
blending of community-based instruction and place-based education; (2) matching
LQVWUXFWLRQWRVWDJHVRIOHDUQLQJH[SOLFLWDQGVWUDWHJ\LQVWUXFWLRQVFDIIROGLQJ
DQGDGDSWHGPDWHULDOVDQGDVVLVWLYHWHFKQRORJ\
,Q &KDSWHU /DFH\ +XIIOLQJ $HULQ %HQDYLGHV &DWKHULQH 0DWWKHZV 0DU\
Compton, and Stephanie Kurtts epitomize the use of Universal Design for Learning
(UDL; CAST, 2011) by adapting a high school ecological field-based learning trip
that relies heavily on auditory ability to accommodate students who are deaf or hard-
of-hearing.
In Chapter 16, Elaine Silva Mangiante and Adam Moore share a case study
on how one pre-service teacher worked to implement engineering design into the
elementary classroom. This chapter focuses on the use of scientific problem solving
in the engineering design process to support students with learning disabilities in the
fourth-grade classroom.
)LQDOO\&KULV$WFKLVRQDQG&KULVWL&DUQDKDQ&KDSWHUGLVFXVVWKHLPSRUWDQFH
of creating an inclusive community of learning to train tomorrow’s science and
special education teachers, while also providing an opportunity for post-secondary
students with special needs to learn science.
REFERENCES
Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST). (2012). Universal design for learning. Retrieved from
KWWSZZZFDVWRUJXGOLQGH[FIP"L
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0867$)$ù$+ø1%h/%h/
13. FROM ACADEMICIAN’S OFFICE TO PHYSICS

LAB FOR STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
A Guide for Transformation
INTRODUCTION
For students with special needs, places such as museums, laboratories or schools,
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should be evaluated in terms of place, material, and information. For instance,
materials in the location should be accessible and safe to use, and the student
with special needs should be able to access all the information about the place
or the material. Accessibility and safety are the essential elements in the design
concept that allows students with special needs to achieve their full academic
potential.
This chapter focuses on the transformation of a faculty office into a physics
lab for students with special needs. This project started with the idea that a classic
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be a model of functionality and accessibility to promote students’ physical science
content knowledge and in particular illustrate how we might support learning
for students with special needs. Furthermore, in their training, physics teacher
candidates learn about concepts and teaching methods, but they do not receive
training that might help them promote accessibility to physical science concepts
for students with special needs. Thus, this project may allow teacher candidates
to better understand accessibility and provide a way for faculty to transform their
offices into examples of accessibility spaces. This project began with displaying
selected materials that would illustrate greater accessibility for all students in a
faculty office. This office was completely transformed into a physics lab for students
with special needs. The purpose of this chapter is to explain to physics teachers,
science teacher educators and teacher candidates how this office transformation was
implemented. The information within this chapter will serve as a guide for science
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spaces. The transformed office into a laboratory will help students who are both
blind and visually impaired to learn physics, as well as help prospective teacher
candidates to gain experience.
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Accessible Office Laboratory
The accessible laboratory is a space containing various adaptive tools such as electronic
probes and their associated software to collect data (Supalo et al., 2009). Although
high-tech assistive tools are available, this chapter will focus on low-tech and open
source tools. For example, the computer is a device commonly found in offices and
laboratories. To accommodate students with various special needs, we used Jobs Access
with Speech (JAWS), an open source screen reader with text-to-speech software (Supalo
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Figure 1. Adaptations on computer systems
In terms of safety, laboratories should include precautions to avoid possible

accidents. For instance, there should be sufficient open space for people with visual
disabilities to move around easily, and to protect against injury. For example, the
sharp edges of furniture can be covered with soft material. In addition and to prevent
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2016) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Barriers on the desk and covering the edge for lab safety

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FROM ACADEMICIAN’S OFFICE TO PHYSICS LAB FOR STUDENTS
PARTS OF THE OFFICE PHYSICS LAB
Our physics lab without barriers consists of six main elements. First, there are boxes
on the shelves containing experiment and demonstration materials. Second, there
are small portable desks on which to carry out an experiment. Third, there are some
materials, which support students with visual disabilities to draw graphs. Fourth,
there are materials such as toys, a guitar, and a flute designed for students with
special needs so they can relax and undertake artistic work when they take a break
from long stretches of lab work. The fifth element includes a computer with screen
reader software that is connected to the Internet. Finally, a white board is available
for students with low vision so they can write in large letters to record their findings.
DRAWING A GRAPH
In order to draw graphs to represent the data from experiments, demonstrations or

conceptual studies, a large pin-board is placed on a desk (Figure 3). The sides of the
pin-board are the axis of the graphs. The user creates the lines with the string and
pins. To provide for all possible needs, different kinds of string, pins, and sticks are
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two different types of materials as examples for students with visual disabilities.
One of them concerns the optical rules on curved mirrors (left side of Figure 3).
Generally, students compare the length of an object and image of that body by using
the material named KAGOAD. The student uses string to represent the light rays
and sugar as a body (object in front of mirror) to decide the position of the image
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made from silicon on motion graphs. First, the position, velocity and acceleration
Figure 3. Drawing desk with pin-boards

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time graphs (right side of Figure 3) are drawn with a black pen and then silicon is
applied onto the lines to achieve tactile graphics. There are valid graphics for four
different movements on four different sides of the graph tower.
ACCESSING THE MATERIALS
In a common faculty members’ office, books can be relocated to utilize bookshelves

for storing boxes of physics activities. Each shelf is distinguished by color (in Figure
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QR code for smartphone usage, which directs students to a video about the material
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through detailed descriptions and explanations about how to use the material in
verbal and subtitled formats.
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In a future project, we plan to use QR codes to match with an image of the contents
of the box. In this augmented reality approach, sighted users will easily be able to
check what is in the box on the computer screen because there will be an added image.
There are two important reasons for choosing to put materials in boxes. First, it is
a safe way for users to access materials without injuring themselves or damaging the
materials. Secondly, this method is context-based and facilitates self-exploration of
physics concepts. We have named this approach “wisdom box.” Each wisdom box
includes guides for obtaining additional information and resources online.
The Topics and Contents of the Boxes in the Office Physics Lab
Nature of science. In this box, there are three jars covered with black tape. We
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jars?” They tend to use methods such as shaking the jars and comparing their

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weight (to determine what is in the jars). Then, we explain that scientists undertake
similar activities (like atoms and molecules which scientists also don’t see but
understand from the results of experiments). Next, we explain that scientists
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develop hypotheses and carry out an investigative plan to collect data and draw
conclusions. Along the way, they may refine and revise their methods as they
learn from their mistakes. Through this approach, the students learn that there is
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Light and shadow. It may be thought that the concept of shadow does not concern
students with visual impairments, but shade and the cooling that results from the tree’s
branch and leaf spread impact the linear spread of the sun’s rays. Thus, the shade of
a tree can be cooler and darker that the surrounding non-shaded areas, a perception
that can be noticed by students who are visually impaired. This box contains spaghetti
to represent the rays of light and a marble to represent aspherical shape of the Earth
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with students. The space behind the marble is used to present shadow concept of Earth.
Figure 5. Light and shadow model with a small ball among pasta bars
Electrostatics. This box was designed to be a wisdom box that investigates the
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transfer with small magnets (positive charge) and ring nuts (negative charge). Using
Figure 6. Stick, ring nuts and small magnets for electrostatics representation

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a stick, the ring nuts can move like electrons, and we explain how one side of an
object can be negatively charged with the stick and other small objects (Figure 6).
Lightning. To discuss current in the air, we used a black cloth to represent the
dark sky and strips of white plastic to mark the path of the flash from up to down
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Magnetic field. To help students with visual disabilities understand the nature of
magnetic force, this box contains magnets and tactile 3D magnetic fields made from
thick wire (Figure 8). The most effective magnets were the small gyroscope type.
Figure 8. A 3D trick wire for magnetic field
Motion. There are three different items in this box. First, a small road was made
with sticks and placed at a constant distance to create a narrative in which items fall
from the basket attached to a bicycle and are distributed according to the motion of
the bicycle. Then, we ask the student to decide what kind of motion was involved
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one end of which is covered with paper. Then, a marble is placed in the open end of
the pipe and the cylinder is tilted so the marble rolls down and hits the paper. Students

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with a visual disability can determine the inclination angle from the time elapsed from
the starting point of the movement of the marble to the time of the sound they hear as
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designed to overcome the difficulties that students with visual disabilities experience
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LWHP DQG LW LV XVHG LQ WKH WHFKQLTXH ZH GHYHORSHG WR GHPRQVWUDWH WKH FRQFHSWV RI
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PDUNVRIHTXDOOHQJWKZHUHSODFHGDURXQGWKH&'WKHQVWULQJVRIHTXDOOHQJWKVZHUH
used to measure the space between the marks (Figure 9). By measuring the distance
between the silicon marks, student can understand that there are two ways to get from
one mark to another: shorter one (distance) and longer one (displacement).
Figure 9. A material for distance and displacement concepts
Pressure. In this box, there is a syringe, which has been modified so that a balloon
can be placed inside the tube (Figure 10). The neck of the balloon is placed over the
open end of the syringe, and the body of the balloon is placed inside the syringe. This
adaptation allows the student to feel the air pressure created by pulling the plunger
of the syringe.
Figure 10. Modified syringe

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Structure of atoms. This box contains an atom model to demonstrate the movement
of an electron (Figure 11). A spherical object represents the electron and pins to
show the possible positions and the electron and coins are used to explain the source
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Figure 11. Model of modern atom with electron cloud and quarks in proton or neutron
Stars. The black sheet in this box has many yellow buttons to show the positions
of some important stars in the sky (Figure 12). Students who are visually impaired
can go under the open sheet in Figure 12 and touch the buttons representing the
stars by stretching out their arms. We must say that not all stars are the same size,
and that the size of our arms can be compared to light years. We generally used
the other side of the sheet to show Einstein’s space-time concept using small balls
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Figure 12. I am demonstrating how a learner who is blind can experience a group of stars
in the sky with a black sheet and yellow buttons in a television program

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OTHER IMPORTANT ITEMS
In the physics office lab, we redesigned other elements to raise the special needs
awareness for the teacher candidates. For instance, Figure 13 shows a light switch on
the wall, which uses contrasting colors, which can be more easily seen by students
with low vision.
Figure 13. Switch with different colors
In addition to the switch, we placed a small bell on the door, which is rung by
anyone entering the physics lab. This alerts the teacher and the students with visual
disabilities that a new person came in.
CONCLUSION
It was a meaningful experience for me to transform my office into a physics lab

for students with special needs. I can still do my academic work but now when
people visit my office, they are curious about the unfamiliar materials, and this is
the beginning of a conversation about students with special needs. This discussion
increases peoples’ awareness of special needs education, and I explain how we can
informally engage in the study of physics in this office lab. I can demonstrate how
it is possible to investigate concepts with various computers that have open source
apps that are user friendly for students with special needs. I also show how my
students can select appropriate material from boxes in my room. For ten years, I
have been assisting students with special needs to learn about physics and what
has become most clear is that these adaptive materials can also be used by other
learners. I call this the “butterfly effect in education.” Some policy makers may
believe that educational reform/transformation is a huge undertaking, but I believe
transformations can easily be made and/or adapted from every day materials and
incorporated into offices, schools, labs, etc. We need to focus on and prioritize the

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needs of students with special needs since the materials and methods we create will
benefit all learners.
REFERENCES
$]HYHGR$& 6DQWRV$&)7HDFKLQJRSWLFVWREOLQGSXSLOVPhysics Education, 49
±
$]HYHGR$ &9LHLUD / 3$JXLDU & ( 6DQWRV$ & ) 7HDFKLQJ OLJKW UHIOHFWLRQ DQG
refraction to the blind. Physics Education, 50±
%OEO0ù7KHSRVVLELOLW\RIOHDUQLQJFXUYHGPLUURUV¶VWUXFWXUHE\EOLQGLQERUQVWXGHQWV,Q
%DNL$NNXú(G26th International Physics Conference S%RGUXP7XUNLVK3K\VLFV6RFLHW\
%OEO0ùD*|UPHHQJHOOL|÷UHQFLOHULOHJUDILNoDOÕúÕUNHQQDVÕOELUPDWHU\DONXOODQÕOPDOÕGÕU"
)HQ%LOLPOHULg÷UHWLPL'HUJLVL±
%OEO0ùE7RZDUGVLQFOXVLYH1DWXUHRI6FLHQFHL126DFWLYLWLHVøQWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORQ
New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 4±
%OEO0ùThe effect of enriched course materials about motion on ninth grade sighted and
totally blind students’ achievement, motivation, attitude, perception of learning environment and
interaction in inclusive classes (Doctoral dissertation). Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
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%OEO0ùPhysics for all: Introduction to physics without barriers6DDUEUFNHQ/DPEHUW
Academic Publishing.
%OEO0ù(QJHOVL]ODERUDWXYDUYHELOLPP]HOHULQHGR÷UX3HJHP$WÕIøQGHNVL±
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displacement. Physics Education, 48 ± 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWSGRLRUJGRL
)
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impaired and blind students. European Journal of Physics Education, 6±
*DULS% %OEO0ù$EOLQGVWXGHQW¶VRXWGRRUVFLHQFHOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFH%DUULHUKXQWLQJ
at METU science and technology museum. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education,
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Lederman, N. G. (1992). Students’ and teachers’ conceptions of the nature of science: A review of the
research. Journal of research in science teaching, 29±
Supalo, C. A., Mallouk, T. E., Amorosi, C., Lanouette, J., Wohlers, H. D., & McEnnis, K. (2009). Using
DGDSWLYH WRROV DQG WHFKQLTXHV WR WHDFK D FODVV RI VWXGHQWV ZKR DUH EOLQG RU ORZYLVLRQ Journal of
Chemical Education, 86
Supalo, C. A., Mallouk, T. E., Amorosi, C., Rankel, L. A., Wohlers, H. D., Roth, A., & Greenberg, A.
7DONLQJ WRROV WR DVVLVW VWXGHQWV ZKR DUH EOLQG LQ ODERUDWRU\ FRXUVHV Journal of Science
Education for Students with Disabilities, 12
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Faculty of Education
Kafkas University
Kars, Turkey

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TERRI HEBERT, JANNIKE JAKOBSEN SEWARD
AND R. LEE SMITH
14. CROSSCUTTING THROUGH

SCIENCE EDUCATION
Opportunities for Inclusion Resulting in
Exceptional Learning for All
INTRODUCTION
Science education for all is the premise behind this work. However, to fully
understand that phrase we must first determine what is comprised within a general
education. We believe the formalized learning which occurs under the umbrella of
a general education is to prepare the individual, regardless of race, socio-economic
status or ability, to lead a personally fulfilling and responsible life. The teaching of
science is one layer in the larger picture; however, it is vital to the welfare of society
as we collectively face global environmental challenges. Science education extends
beyond head knowledge (i.e., factual knowledge and theories), and if done properly,
engages the hands and heart. This type of best practice involves a progression of
learning over time and occurs across all fields of science.
Crosscutting Concepts, according to A K-12 Science Education Framework
(NRC, 2012), help the learner develop a logical and scientifically-grounded world
view as methods of scientific thinking are utilized. There are seven broad concepts
that transcend and intersect disciplines within science as core ideas are merged
together with engineering practices (Table 1).
This mindset, especially for the teacher seeking a cohesive curricular design for
units of study, can be challenging to create, even for the experienced instructor.
However, design challenges are outweighed as the benefits for the learner often
result in a deeper understanding of the content through concept unification. This
bridging of knowledge and skills is an important advancement for all students to
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To alleviate some of the expected challenges associated with the utilization of
Crosscutting Concepts, we recommend the Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Framework specifically for its flexible approach to differentiated instruction. UDL
is organized around three principles: (1) Recognition learning supported through
the provision of multiple means of representation; (2) Strategic learning supported
through multiple means of action and expression; and (3) Affective learning
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T. HEBERT ET AL.
Table 1. K-12 science education frameworks

crosscutting concepts
1. Patterns
2. Cause and effect
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6. Structure and function
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supported through multiple means of engagement (Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2012; see
also Chapters 9, 11, 12, and 18). Because we view UDL as an effort to proactively
design lessons that suit a broad range of students, we offer five helpful strategies
identified within the mindset of UDL to make our teaching more effective. To
illustrate these strategies’ natural occurrence within both the UDL Framework and
the Crosscutting Concepts, we present three brief vignettes followed by in-depth
explanations.
CROSSCUTTING CONCEPTS
What makes a Crosscutting Concept? As noted above, within A K-12 Science

Frameworks (2012), and later embedded within the Next Generation Science
Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013), Crosscutting Concepts “help provide students
with an organizational framework for connecting knowledge from the various
disciplines into a coherent and scientifically based view of the world” (NRC, 2012,
p. 83). As students grapple with new phenomena, they need mental tools to help
understand these experiences.
In this chapter, we selected as our example, Crosscutting Concept 4: Systems
and System Models and Concept 7: Stability and Change. According to the NGSS,
“Stability denotes a condition in which some aspects of a system are unchanging,
at least at the scale of observation…By contrast, a system with steady inflows and
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Earth’s surface, a feedback is created, causing changes within other Earth systems.
In this way, systems interact with other systems.
When both concepts are examined and experienced across the K-12 setting, we
see growth in a student’s understanding. Children within the K-2 span might make
simple observations noting that while some things stay the same, others change.
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UDWHV RI FKDQJH 6WXGHQWV LQ JUDGHV ± KDYH DFTXLUHG WKH FDSDFLW\ WR H[SODLQ
observations made over time and within either natural or contrived settings. They
learn that a change occurring in one part of a system has the potential to cause changes

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CROSSCUTTING THROUGH SCIENCE EDUCATION
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perspective that some changes are irreversible and can create a destabilized system.
The positive nature of Crosscutting Concepts is found in their interconnectivity.
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PRGHOVWKH\DOVRFRQVLGHUVFDOHSURSRUWLRQDQGTXDQWLW\HQHUJ\DQGPDWWHUDQG
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observations, have the vitality to drive classroom investigations.
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING SCIENCE WITHIN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
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While it is good practice to organize instruction around big ideas or concepts, as a
way to anchor the content (Coyne, Kame’enui, & Carnine, 2011), it is also important
to formulate clear, concise learning outcomes for students with specific needs. These
personalized objectives offer clarity to both the teacher and student. They also help
to ensure that we go beyond merely having students participate in class, striving to
ensure that all students receive an effective and appropriate education. The following
five strategies, supporting the UDL Framework, are tools for teachers to use as they
work to maximize the effectiveness of their inclusive education for students who
need more individualized instruction.
Blending of Community-Based Instruction and Place-Based Education
Community-based instruction, or CBI, relies on the community as its classroom,

embedding the teaching of skills where students are most likely to use them.
Functional skills have been effectively taught to students with mild to profound
cognitive disabilities when situated within the community (Walker, Richter,
Uphold, & Test, 2010). CBI is typically associated with education for students who
do not attend general education classrooms; in fact, one argument against the use of
CBI in special education is that it takes students away from the general education
classroom. However, when we consider its characteristics, CBI is not so different
from a similar practice in general education called place-based education (PBE).
PBE utilizes sites and resources within the community, including information
related to the place’s culture, history, and eco-environment, to enhance the learning
outcomes in a variety of content areas, including science (Center for Place-based
Education, 2016). Like CBI, PBE is intended to improve student achievement by
situating instruction within the local environment. CBI and PBE facilitate scaffolding
through the provision of an experiential base for learning. This provides students
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functional skills that other students assimilate through informal means. Additionally,
the two methods have benefits in making the lessons concrete, activity-based, and
directly linked to the place where students live.

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T. HEBERT ET AL.
This strategy is found in Vignette One. Ms. Tipton, the teacher, incorporates the
school playground into her lesson about erosion, as Tristan, the student, learns about
the Crosscutting Concept of stability and change.
Matching Instruction to Stages of Learning
Concept formation and skill development are important for the teaching and learning
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proficiency, and mastery, and finally to maintenance and generalization, instruction
must match the student’s stage of learning. During the acquisition stage, consideration
is given to whether the task needs to be divided into smaller components and
whether the student needs adaptations to the materials. With these things in mind,
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immediate feedback. As the learner moves into proficiency and fluency-building,
we offer opportunities for independent practice, including self-initiation and self-
regulation. To promote skill maintenanceZHFKRRVHDVNLOOWKDWLVIUHTXHQWO\UHTXLUHG
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fluency-building stage, we can improve maintenance (Alberto & Troutman, 2013).
In this sense, generalization can be helpful for all students. However, for students
who struggle with generalization, it is imperative to systematically vary the task as
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deteriorate because they were never fully mastered. Providing a greater number
of practice opportunities, directly reinforcing skill performance, and teaching to
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Failure to do so may have detrimental effects on the learning.
Matching instruction to stages of learning is one of the skills used within Vignette
Two. Mr. Swift, the teacher, ensures a positive and valuable experience for Jacobie
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Explicit Instruction and Strategy Instruction
Science class can be a fun and pleasantly chaotic opportunity to explore and engage
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but it can also pose challenges for some students who use inefficient approaches
within learning tasks and have difficulty self-regulating (Bender, 2012). They
may also exhibit problem behaviors in unpredictable situations, which is often the
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supplement this type of learning with explicit instruction (Rizzo & Taylor, 2016), not
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Learning strategies such as these, “help students compensate for some of their
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this model for teaching most cognitive strategies: (1) Pretest to determine specific
needs while securing the student’s commitment to learning; (2) Describe the strategy;
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practice the strategy with appropriate materials; (6) Secure the student’s commitment
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JHQHUDOL]DWLRQVWDJHV%HQGHUSS±
This strategy is illustrated within Vignettes Two and Three. Vignette Three
demonstrates how Ms. Moline, the teacher, assists Terresha, the student, in
understanding the process of interviewing community individuals to obtain valuable
information that will be useful in the writing of her position paper on climate change.
Scaffolding
One of the most common strategies used in classrooms today is scaffolding. Educators
offer assistance to students early in skill development and then gradually remove
the help as appropriate. Scaffolding is critical in teaching new skills to students,
especially skills with multiple steps. While all students benefit from scaffolding,
VWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVPD\UHTXLUHDJUHDWHULQWHQVLW\RIVFDIIROGVPRUHV\VWHPDWLF
prompting and fading, and more individualization of both the nature of the scaffold
and how it is faded. Scaffolds may take the form of materials, such as advance
organizers or highly structured “recipes” for completing an assignment, or they may
take the form of prompts from a teacher or peer, such as providing a model or asking
JXLGLQJTXHVWLRQV7KHVHH[DPSOHVDUHIRXQGHPEHGGHGZLWKLQ9LJQHWWHV7ZRDQG
Three. For students with significant disabilities, response prompting strategies are
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SHUIRUPDVNLOOWKH\KDYHQRW\HWDFTXLUHGIROORZHGE\JUDGXDOUHPRYDORIWKRVH
prompts, until the student performs the skill independently.
Adapted Materials and Assistive Technology
While many materials used in science instruction may be considered a type of

scaffold, these resources can also serve other purposes. In this instance, it helps to
categorize them into those that are used primarily as (1) teaching or learning aids;
and (2) assistive technologies.
Teaching and learning aids are temporary in nature. Their purpose is to help the
student reach specific outcomes of a given unit of instruction. Once the content
has been mastered, they are no longer needed. Assistive technologies, on the other
hand, are somewhat more permanent. Assistive technologies improve the functional
capabilities of a person with a disability, and these functional capabilities continue to
be important across multiple units of instruction. Assistive technologies may range
in complexity from no-tech devices, such as picture cue cards and adaptive scissors,
to high-tech devices, such as eye-gaze-controlled voice output communication
devices. Both are used in Vignette One.

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T. HEBERT ET AL.
VIGNETTES
Each of the following scenes describe a different science classroom focusing on

the grade-appropriate Crosscutting Concept of stability and change. Each teacher
attempts to guide students in understanding that the earth is in a constant state of
FKDQJHDQGWKDWWKHVHFKDQJHV±PDQ\RIZKLFKDUHFDXVHGE\QDWXUDOKD]DUGV±FDQ
pose risks to humans and other living organisms. The three vignettes illustrate the
strategies described above and found in Table 2.
Table 2. Vignette strategies

1. Blending community-based instruction (CBI) and place-based
education (PBE)
2. Matching instruction to stages of learning
3. Explicit strategy instruction
Scaffolding
Adapted materials and assistive technology
In each vignette, we identified the strengths of the student with exceptional

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teacher must consider in the design and implementation of the lesson.
Vignette 1: Ms. Tipton and Tristan
In this vignette, Ms. Tipton demonstrates how she uses the blended approach of
CBI and PBE, adapted materials, and assistive technology to scaffold her students’
learning, including that of Tristan. Tristan is a fourth-grade student who enjoys
learning in small groups, reads picture symbols and sight words, uses an electric
wheelchair, communicates using a tablet with picture symbols and electronic speech
output, works well with peers, and is usually eager to learn.
His teacher, Ms. Tipton, opens the science lesson with the Crosscutting Concept
of stability and change as it relates to erosion and deposition (see Table 1).
She defines and explains each concept while writing key words on an anchor
chart and tagging each word with a representative picture. The pictures match
the ones she added to Tristan’s picture communication system in preparation for
this lesson.
The class moves outside and walks the perimeter of their school’s playground
to observe its topography. Ms. Tipton keeps the students on the paved sidewalk
ensuring Tristan’s full participation. While outside, the students spot an area next
to the sidewalk having deep ruts and conjecture that these were perhaps caused
by the heavy rains experienced the previous week. Tristan leans sideways out of
his chair and touches the exposed ruts with his fingertips. Back in the classroom,
students reconfigure into their small groups while Ms. Tipton gives each group
their materials: a plastic paint tray, soil, strips of sod, and a Styrofoam cup with

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pre-made holes. Instructions are provided, safety guidelines are shared, and the
hands-on action begins.
Tristan’s group begins to construct their model of the playground, specifically
the rutted area. Tristan watches as a team member sets the plastic paint tray on his
wheelchair tray. Another student fills it with soil. Discussion ensues as they consider
whether the ruts will appear if the soil is covered with strips of sod. A decision is
made to place the two strips nearest the simulated sidewalk. Tristan uses his tablet
to say, “My turn!” and he assumes the role of rainmaker. He is able to grasp the
Styrofoam cup with his right hand and manipulate it to create rain for the erosion
simulation. Everyone huddles around his chair to get a better look at the water
falling on the sod. The team records their findings on the observation sheets. Tristan
uses a marker to select picture symbols of what he observed.
This vignette demonstrates how Ms. Tipton combines PBE and CBI to teach the
Crosscutting Concept of stability and change, specifically related to the condition
of the soil nearest the paved walking areas on the perimeter of the playground.
Tristan is encouraged to collaborate about the science content with his peers, as he
practices his social communication and fine motor skills. Understanding the results
of erosion, and how it can be lessened with the planting of sod, deepens the students’
understanding of this scientific concept, as well as the impact of human activity.
Tristan’s use of assistive technology, including a high-tech communication
device, his wheelchair, and no-tech pictures supporting his use of anchor charts
and observation sheets, opens up opportunities to experience science in a hands-
on, minds-on manner. Ms. Tipton has found that when she uses pictures with key
words on her anchor chart, she not only provides an adaptation for Tristan, but also
provides scaffolding for the entire class.
Vignette 2: Mr. Swift and Jacobie
In Vignette 2, Mr. Swift utilizes matching instruction to align with Jacobie’s stages
of learning, as well as explicit strategy instruction, scaffolding, and assistive
technology. Often, a teacher such as Mr. Swift, realizes the benefits of blending varied
UDL strategies to best suit the learners and support their classroom experiences.
We enter the room as Mr. Swift introduces his eighth-grade class to the Crosscutting
Concept of stability and change (see Table 1). Because stability may be disturbed by
sudden events, such as earthquakes, the class will be designing and testing various
structures using the earthquake simulator constructed by Mr. Swift. Before they get
into the hands-on portion of the activity, he connects the recent seismic event that
occurred in the northern part of their region and assigns a non-fiction text, including
two newspaper articles, that helps to explain what happens deep within the Earth to
cause a quake.
Jacobie is a relatively new student, having been in the school for three months. He
is energetic, funny, quick to get excited about new ideas or activities, and curious,

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T. HEBERT ET AL.
often taking things apart just to see how they work. Mr. Swifts learns from Jacobie’s
Individual Education Plan, or IEP, states that he reads at a fourth-grade level, so
Mr. Swift must adapt the text to Jacobie’s reading level or have the text read to
him. Additionally, advance organizers are listed as a required adaptation to support
Jacobie’s notetaking. The concept of science notebooking was introduced earlier in
the school year; therefore, Mr. Swift believes this adaptation may benefit the entire
class.
The next day, Mr. Swift introduces an advance organizer to the class. He asks that
students record the main ideas from the text and reflect on what they have read and
heard. To assist the students in their reading, Mr. Swift applies the UDL Framework
of explicit strategy instruction and scaffolding by providing three options: (1) Read
independently; (2) Read with a partner; or (3) Listen using a text-to-speech software
program installed on class tablets. Jacobie chooses option number three.
As the class works on their advance organizer, Mr. Swift circulates around the
room. He notices Jacobie correctly completing a section of his organizer, so Mr.
Swift responds with a subtle pat on the back and brief instructions on what to
do next. In time, and with the right amount of support, Mr. Swift believes all his
students will be able to independently select and use organizers to take notes from
their readings.
The lesson now shifts to the activity phase, and Jacobie gets really excited. He
loves the hands-on aspect of science, but he also struggles with the interpersonal
nature of group work. To guide him in collaborating with team members, Jacobie
uses a small cue card reminding him of the strategy he previously learned to
use when he gets frustrated: STAG – Stop, Take a break (e.g., go to the drinking
fountain), Ask for help if I need it, and Get back to work. This strategy worked in
other schools for Jacobie to calm himself down, and Mr. Swift affirms its use in his
classroom.
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improve instruction for all students by presenting the whole class with options for
reading and note-taking, essentially using multiple means of representation and
engagement. In addition, he uses explicit instruction and strategy instruction paired
with the use of an adaptive device to better include Jacobie in the learning experiences.
Mr. Swift also matches his instruction to the stages of the learner: Explicit instruction
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continue to work with Jacobie to ensure he masters this and will talk with Jacobie’s
other teachers about generalizing the skill to other classes. The eventual goal is to
give Jacobie autonomy as he takes notes and organizes his thoughts across academic
subjects.
The self-regulating strategy STAG allows Jacobie to be independent, simply
maintaining the skill with the use of his cue card (a no-tech assistive device). The
advance organizer may be considered a scaffold, as it will eventually be removed
once students can take organized notes without it.

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Vignette 3: Ms. Moline and Terresha
In this vignette, Ms. Moline, teacher of Conrad High School’s elective Human
Sustainability science course, demonstrates support for one student, Terresha, in
the form of matching instruction to stages of learning, explicit strategy instruction,
and scaffolding. A major aspect of the course is an in-depth focus on climate
change, specifically the impact human populations can have on it. This topic relates
specifically to the Crosscutting Concept of relationships among earth systems and
how those relationships are modified by human activity (see Table 1).
Terresha’s interest in weather and climate is what led her to the course. She knows
a vast number of weather-related facts, reads books about it, watches weather reports
for hours on end, and attends best to topics in school that are related to weather.
Although Terresha enjoys school, she feels anxious when routines change or when
she does not know what to expect. She speaks fluently about concrete subjects, but
finds it difficult to discuss abstract concepts and feelings, and prefers to communicate
with friends when they use literal language with clear, explicit social cues.
A culminating assignment of the course requires students to develop and present a
position paper on a topic of their choosing, but related to human impact on climate.
Students are expected to gather and evaluate information from various sources and
diverse viewpoints. As a part of this, Ms. Moline arranges a field trip to the local
nuclear power plant, where a representative will share information about its positive
economic impact on the region. Students are expected to listen, ask questions,
and take notes throughout the tour. Once back in the classroom, they will share
observations made while at the site and interpret the information within the greater
context of the position paper’s topic. In preparation for the field trip, Ms. Moline
provides the class with a written schedule of the tour.
Terresha is both excited and nervous. She wants to know more from Ms. Moline
about what to expect. The teacher reviews the field trip schedule with Terresha, and
includes details such as the seating arrangement on the bus, the timing of the trip
as it coincides with lunch and other school day routines, and pre-determined buddy
assignments. Terresha will sit with Joliette, her classroom buddy, and remain with
her throughout the tour.
During the visit, students are permitted to ask the guide relevant questions. For
Terresha, this will involve formulating questions that are connected to the topic,
recognizing the appropriate time to ask, asking the question loudly enough for
the guide to hear it, and waiting for an answer before asking another question.
Ms. Moline helps her prepare by writing these questions in advance and provides
Terresha an explicit cue (e.g., “time for questions now”) to tell her when she can ask
a question. In addition, Ms. Moline has agreed to stand next to Terresha and prompt
her, if needed, to speak more loudly or wait quietly while the question is answered.
Terresha has learned to gather and evaluate information for a position paper
in her English class, so now she is learning to generalize this skill to the topic of
climate change. Ms. Moline reminds Terresha to use the same research tools that

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T. HEBERT ET AL.
she used in her English class, and the same step-by-step instructions for writing a
position paper. When Terresha gets stuck, Ms. Moline asks, “How did you do this in
your English class?”
Ms. Moline selected the UDL Framework strategies of scaffolding and explicit
instruction, and matches her instruction to Terresha’s stages of learning. Terresha is
LQWKHDFTXLVLWLRQSKDVHRIDVNLQJTXHVWLRQVZLWKLQDSXEOLFIRUXPVR0V0ROLQH
provides explicit instructions and ample scaffolding, all of which help Terresha
successfully perform the skill that she has not yet mastered. In the future, Ms.
Moline will fade her supports and explicit cues and have Terresha practice the skill
more independently. For gathering and evaluating information about a given topic,
Terresha is in the generalization stage, so Ms. Moline and the English teacher are
collaborating to provide her with opportunities to practice this skill across different
contexts.
CONCLUSION
Throughout this chapter, it has been our goal to demonstrate that through individualized
inclusive science education, all students, including those with exceptional learning
needs, have the opportunities necessary to become scientifically literate adults. We
recommend using the UDL Framework Principles to teach the Crosscutting Concepts
found within the NGSS (see Table 1) and further individualizing instruction by using
the five strategies presented in this chapter (see Table 2). The purpose of these
strategies is to help us in achieving the goal of science for all through education that
is effective, individualized and inclusive.
REFERENCES
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Bender, W. N. (2012). Differentiating instruction for students with learning disabilities: New best
practices for general and special educators (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Center for Place-based Education. (2016). Retrieved from www.england/resources/centers-institutes/
center-place-based-education/
Conderman, G., Hedin, L., & Bresnahan, V. (2013). Strategy instruction for middle and secondary
students with mild disabilities: Creating independent learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Coyne, M. D., Kame’enui, E. J., & Carnine, D. W. (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate
diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Hall, T. E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (2012). Universal design for learning in the classroom: Practical
applications. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
5L]]R . / 7D\ORU - (IIHFWV RI LQTXLU\EDVHG LQVWUXFWLRQ RQ VFLHQFH DFKLHYHPHQW IRU
students with disabilities: An analysis of the literature. Journal of Science Education for Studentswith
Disabilities, 19(1), Article 2. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.rit.edu/jsesd/vol19/iss1/2
160
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6WRNHV7) %DHU'0$QLPSOLFLWWHFKQRORJ\RIJHQHUDOL]DWLRQJournal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 10±
Walker, A. R., Richter, S., Uphold, N. M., & Test, D. W. (2010). Review of the literature on community-
based instruction across grade levels. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental
Disabilities, 45±
Terri Hebert
Science Education
Indiana University South Bend
South Bend, Indiana
Jannnike Jakobsen Seward

Special Education
South Bend, Indiana
R. Lee Smith
Special Education
South Bend, Indiana
161
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162
APPENDIX 1
Learning Progression for Select Crosscutting Concepts in NGSS
T. HEBERT ET AL.
Concepts K-2 3–5 6–8 9–12

Systems and System Objects and organisms A system is a group of Systems may interact with Systems can be designed
Models: a system is an can be described in terms related parts that make up other systems; they may to do specific tasks.
organized group of related of their parts. a whole and can carry out have sub-systems and be
components; models can functions its individual a part of larger complex When investigating or
be used for understanding Systems in the natural and parts cannot. systems. describing a system, the
and predicting the designed world have parts boundaries and initial
behavior of systems. that work together. A system can be described Models can be used to conditions of the system
in terms of its components represent systems and need to be defined and
and their interactions. their interactions - such their inputs and outputs
as inputs, processes and analyzed and described
outputs - and energy, using models.
matter, and information
flows within systems. Models (e.g., physical,
mathematical, computer
Models are limited in that models) can be used to
they only represent certain stimulate systems and
aspects of the system interactions - including
under study. energy, matter, and
information flows - within
and between systems at
different scales.
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Learning Progression for Select Crosscutting Concepts in NGSS
Concepts K-2 3–5 6–8 9–12
Models can be used to
predict the behavior
of a system, but these
predictions have limited
precision and reliability
due to the assumptions
and approximations
inherent in models.
Stability and Change: for Some things stay the same Change is measured in Explanations of stability Much of science deals
both designed and natural while other things change. terms of differences over and change in natural or with constructing
systems, conditions time and may occur at designed systems can be explanations of how
that affect stability and Things may change different rates. constructed by examining things change and how
factors that control rates slowly or rapidly. the changes over time and they remain stable.
of change are critical Some systems appear forces at different scales,
elements to consider and stable, but over long including the atomic scale. Change and rates of
understand. periods of time will FKDQJHFDQEHTXDQWLILHG
eventually change. Small changes in one part and modeled over very
of a system might cause short or very long periods
large changes in another of time. Some system
part. changes are irreversable.
Stability might be Feedback (negative or
disturbed either by sudden positive) can stabilize or
events or gradual changes destabilize a system.
that accumulate over time.
Systems can be designed
Systems in dynamic for greater or lesser
HTXLOLEULXPDUHVWDEOHGXH stability.
to a balance of feedback
mechanisms.
163
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LACEY D. HUFFLING, AERIN W. BENAVIDES,
CATHERINE E. MATTHEWS, MARY V. COMPTON,
STEPHANIE KURTTS AND HEIDI B. CARLONE
15. LEARNING FROG CALLS WHEN

YOU CAN’T HEAR
Fieldwork with High School Students Who Are Deaf
and Hard-of-Hearing
INTRODUCTION
7KHILUVWGD\RIRXUSURJUDPEHJDQRQD6XQGD\HYHQLQJZLWKKLJKVFKRROVWXGHQWV
ready to learn local frog calls from our state herpetologist. This has always been one
of the highlights of our program. Students love to learn the frog calls and are excited
to practice their newfound knowledge on a night hike. The instructor introduced
the first local frog we might encounter that evening. He showed pictures and told
a couple of stories, and then he began to describe how the call sounds. A couple
of us noticed the American Sign Language (ASL) interpreter struggling to convey
“sounds like marbles clicking.” Next, he played an audio recording of the frog call,
and in this instant, we began to look around at each other because we realized we had
not considered how participants who were deaf/hard-of-hearing might participate in
our frog call program. We scrambled that evening to adapt our hike to place student
groups close to the pond, so the two students who were deaf/hard-of-hearing could
look for the frogs with flashlights since they could not hear the calls. In our exit
interviews, these two students told us they thought it was funny we took them on a
frog call hike, but they liked how they could help find the frogs calling even if they
could not hear them.
This experience led us on a two-year journey to adapt our curriculum to better
serve students with hearing loss. The purpose of this chapter is to share our findings
of how using Disabilities Studies in Education (DSE) (Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, &
Morton, 2008) as our philosophical framework and Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) principles (CAST, 2011) for our curriculum adaptations enhanced not only
the experiences of students who were deaf/hard-of-hearing, but also the experiences
of hearing students and instructors.
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L. D. HUFFLING ET AL.
THE HERPETOLOGY EDUCATION IN RURAL PLACES

AND SPACES (HERP) PROJECT
The HERP Project, an informal science education program held in the southeastern
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designed to raise awareness of the worldwide threats faced by amphibians and
reptiles by immersing high school age students in ecological fieldwork and scientific
studies of local amphibians and reptiles (e.g., frogs, salamanders, lizards, turtles and
snakes collectively called herpetofauna, or hereinafter referred to as “herps”). From
±ZHGLUHFWHGZHHNORQJUHVLGHQWLDOKHUSHWRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKH[SHULHQFHV
(HREs), for students who captured herps, collected data on their captures (e.g.,
weighing, measuring, marking when appropriate), and released the animals at the
point of capture. Students then reported data collected to various citizen science
websites (i.e., The Herp Project, North Carolina Herp Atlas, and Anole Annals).
STUDY DESIGN
The research presented here is part of a larger project that examines the science
identity work and affordances of diverse students (Carlone, Huffling, Hegedus,
7RPDVHN 0DWWKHZV&DUORQH%HQDYLGHV+XIIOLQJ0DWWKHZV-RXUQHOO
Tomasek, 2016), who participated in the HERP Project. The purpose of the research
presented is to understand how using DSE as a philosophical framework and
implementing UDL principles led to modifications of The HERP Project curriculum.
Data used to adapt our curriculum came from our 2012 summer HRE. We
administered pre/post surveys, pre/post-tests, and exit interviews to all HRE students
Q ZKRFRQVHQWHGWREHSDUWRIRXUVWXG\:HDOVRGHEULHIHGWRJHWKHUDVDVWDII
to capture our experiences as curriculum designers, educators, and scientists.
To make informed curriculum adaptions, we analysed the 2012 data to understand
the affordances and constraints the students who are deaf/hard-of-hearing
experienced while developing their life science content knowledge and engaging in
field ecology practices. Two years later, we field-tested our curriculum adaptations
DQGFRPSDUDWLYHO\DQDO\VHGRXUDQG+5(SUHSRVWWHVWGDWD
Disabilities Studies in Education Framework (DSE)
The DSE framework provides a scholarly and applied construct for investigating
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6LQFH IHGHUDO OHJLVODWLRQ KDV EHHQ HQDFWHG WR HQVXUH HTXDO HGXFDWLRQ
access and inclusive practices in education of students with disabilities (Education
IRUDOO+DQGLFDSSHG&KLOGUHQ$FWRI7KHVHPDQGDWHVUHMHFWDPHGLFDORUGHILFLW
model of disability and embrace a socio-political model of disability that advocates
and supports the full inclusion of individuals with disabilities in all aspects of
society. In a social model of disability, physical, intellectual, psychological, sensory,
166
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LEARNING FROG CALLS WHEN YOU CAN’T HEAR
and emotional variations are viewed as natural and valid (Connor, 2012). The DSE
framework encompasses the following tenets: (1) Students with disabilities are not
deficient; (2) Students with disabilities have the right to full participation in society;
(3) The interests and voices of students with disabilities are paramount in educational
GHFLVLRQPDNLQJDQG(TXLWDEOHDFFHVVLEOHDQGLQFOXVLYHHGXFDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHV
should be provided for students with disabilities (Connor et al., 2008). These four
tenets paired with the principles of UDL became the basis for our curriculum adaptions.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Using DSE as our philosophical framework led us to base our curriculum

adaptations on the UDL Guidelines, which fall under the three principles of UDL,
providing multiple means of (1) representation, (2) action and expression, and (3)
engagement (Hall, Strangman, & Meyer, 2003). These principles support learners
who are resourceful and knowledgeable (Principle 1), strategic and goal-centered
(Principle 2), and purposeful and motivated (Principle 3). Through the UDL
framework, all learners in the HERP project could experience multiple opportunities
for (1) representation, with presentation of instruction and field activities, (2) action
and expression, with students demonstrating what they had learned during the HERP
project, and (3) engagement with the HERP curriculum for both students and staff.
Our goal became to develop and implement accessible instruction for all students.
PREPARING FOR STUDENTS WITH HEARING LOSS
In 2012, a high school science teacher approached us and asked if she could
recommend students who were deaf/hard-of-hearing to our program. We were
WKULOOHGZLWKWKLVUHTXHVWDQGLPPHGLDWHO\VWDUWHGWRFRQVLGHUKRZZHFRXOGDGDSW
our HRE for them. We had UDL expertise and those who had worked with students
with hearing loss in prior professional positions among our staff.
Our first consideration was the low adult to student ratio (1:3) we employ in our
HREs, a hallmark of our program. In a typical HRE, we have five small groups of five
to six students, and the groups rotate through five scientific studies, completing one
study each morning. We purposefully assign small groups allowing for a mix of gender,
cultural and linguistic diversity (at least two members of the same race/ethnicity in
each group so as to not isolate students), and experts/novices (level of experience and
comfort with herps as gauged from application essays). Thus, we assigned our first
students (two young men) who were deaf or hard-of-hearing to the same small group,
along with their ASL interpreter, an adult female who worked in a local school.
We then concentrated on logistics. How would we communicate with these two
VWXGHQWV" :RXOG ZH QHHG DQ LQWHUSUHWHU KRXUV D GD\" :RXOG WKH LQWHUSUHWHU EH
FRPIRUWDEOHZLWKILHOGZRUN":RXOGZHUHTXLUHWKDWWKH\FKRVHWKHVDPHHOHFWLYHVDW
night so that the interpreter could accompany them to their choice of herpetology related
activities (e.g., dissecting road kill snakes and turtles, or making snake-bone jewelry)?

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In contrast, we gave very little thought to curriculum adaptions as we had spent

several years developing and aligning them with the Next Generation Science
Standards+XIIOLQJHWDO1*66/HDG6WDWHV2XUGDWDLQGLFDWHGWKDW
previous students were pleased with the fieldwork. However, the frog call activity
made us realize that our curriculum was not as accessible as we thought, and our
approach to frog call studies was not the only change needed.
BRIEF CASE STUDIES FROM 2012
Matt and Teodoro (pseudonyms) were the project’s first deaf/hard-of-hearing

students in 2012. Both came from low socioeconomic backgrounds and attended
the same high school. Matt did not show any physical evidence of his hearing
loss. Teodoro had hearing aids, one behind each ear. He also wore unusually
thick-lensed glasses. Matt is White; and Teodoro is Hispanic; his family is Puerto
Rican and spoke Spanish at home. Matt’s mother and sister spoke ASL and signed
when communicating with Matt. We observed that Matt signed in ASL when
communicating with others at the HRE. Although both young men understood
and could sign in ASL, Teodoro could hear (somewhat) and understand the voices
of others; he was competent at speechreading. He could speak both English and
Spanish, although it was difficult for him to pronounce words clearly. He chose
to use his voice only when conversing with project leaders out of earshot of other
students. He preferred to communicate through ASL at all times with Matt and
their interpreter.
On the knowledge pre-test, both Matt and Teodoro scored within or near one
standard deviation from the mean. However, they had the two lowest scores on the
SRVWWHVWDWWKHLU+5((DFKVFRUHGORZHURQWKHSRVWWHVWWKDQWKH\VFRUHGRQWKH
SUHWHVWZKLOHWKHPHDQSHUFHQWVFRUHLPSURYHPHQWIRUWKHLU+5(ZDV7KLV
discrepancy in pre-test/post-test scores potentially indicated that several aspects of
our curriculum were not accessible to Teodoro and Matt.
Teodoro told us in his exit interview that he enjoyed the HRE; it was a fun
experience, and he had learned new things. He also felt that he had contributed to
the fieldwork his group did by taking things to others and entering data. He spoke
of how students in his group, whom he felt were smart, talked to him and helped
him.
Matt had much in common with Teodoro. He thought the HRE was fun, and he
learned new things. He considered himself hardworking and someone who earned
“good grades.” He put emphasis on the importance of learning science vocabulary,
what the words meant, and how the words related to what they were doing. He,
like Teodoro, felt he had contributed to his group. “If they don’t know,” he said in
his exit interview, “I’ll teach them and help them to learn whatever it is we need to
NQRZ´)RULQVWDQFHGXULQJWKHDTXDWLFWXUWOHVWXG\0DWWUHPLQGHGKLVJURXSKRZWR
measure the carapace (back) and plastron (underside) of the turtle, which they had
learned two days earlier during the box turtle study.
168
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CURRICULUM ADAPTATION
Matt and Teodoro’s self-assessments during their exit interviews indicated that they
felt that they had learned a lot about reptiles and amphibians and had contributed
to their group’s fieldwork practices. Thus, they perceived themselves as having had
access to our curriculum, and their interpreter felt they were truly integrated with
the group during fieldwork. But, barriers, such as listening to frog calls, constrained
their learning, and as science educators, we knew these could be addressed through
revised instructional activities (Edyburn, 2010; Kurtts, Smallwood, & Matthews,
2009). These barriers included the auditory nature of social fieldwork (including
WHDFKHULQVWUXFWLRQDQGVWXGHQWVKDULQJDQGTXHVWLRQLQJDQG$6/¶VODFNRIVFLHQFH
vocabulary.
Specific Adaptations
When we realized that the post-test scores from the 2012 students with hearing
loss were the lowest of all students’ scores at their HRE, staff met and discussed
our focus on the major topics in conservation biology, ecology and herpetology
and reconfirmed our commitment to habitat-specific instruction. We reiterated
the general guidelines of UDL instruction and agreed to provide multiple means
of representation to extend our largely verbal instruction. Specific instructional
activities that resulted from the revision and adaptation of our curriculum using UDL
guidelines are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1. Adaptations based on UDL principles
Principle 1 Principle 2 Principle 3

Representation Action and expression Engagement
Created sonograms of all the Used visual monitor $WWKHUHTXHVWRIRWKHU

frog calls we might hear in (vs. sound only) on students, the deaf/hard-of-
the field. UDGLRWHOHPHWU\HTXLSPHQWWR hearing students taught ASL
track box turtles that were during morning and lunch
marked. meetings.
Created ASL signs for Used assistive apps (e.g., All students and project staff
scientific terms that did not tape recorder app to record learned and practiced the
have an official ASL sign frog calls and an app to symbols for words/terms such
(e.g., salamander became a convert sounds to a visual as “good morning”, “hello”
“wet lizard” in ASL). sonogram). and “salamander.”
Provided multiple Reiterated the general Encouraged students to use
representation to include the guidelines of UDL ASL during lunch time group
use of portable white boards instruction to our project presentations.
in the classroom and in the staff.
field.
169
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The Herp Project used many different means of instruction to teach concepts in
herpetology. We captured live animals in the field. We used live captive animals in the
classroom. We used plastic models of herps in the classroom. We used field guides and
online resources to help identify reptiles and amphibians. We weighed and measured
animals in the classroom and the field, using tools herpetologists use in their own
fieldwork (e.g., calipers, spring scales, digital scales, and triangular files to mark turtles
IRUUHFDSWXUHVWXGLHV+RZHYHUVWDUWLQJLQZHXVHGSRUWDEOHZKLWHERDUGVLQWKH
classroom and in the field to make our verbal instruction more visually accessible to
students. This adaptation also provided multiple opportunities for students to express
their generalizations and ideas from the specific fieldwork of the day.
,Q ZH DOVR LQFRUSRUDWHG WHFKQRORJLHV LQWR RXU LQVWUXFWLRQ ZKLFK DOORZHG
RXUFXUULFXOXPWREHPRUHDFFHVVLEOH)RUH[DPSOHRXU)URJ&DOO6WXG\UHTXLUHV
recognition of species-specific frog calls. Individuals with the ability to hear can
relate frog calls to familiar sounds in their environment (e.g., the cricket frog call
sounds like two marbles clicking together). To modify this for the students with
hearing loss, we printed copies of sonograms of all the frog calls we might hear in the
field and used them during our teaching. We provided students with Android devices
so they could record the frog calls and then use an app to convert the recording to
a visual sonogram. With radiotelemetry, students with hearing loss used the visual
monitor (versus sound only) to make decisions about how to move to locate the box
turtles with radio tracking.
An adaption from 2012 HRE came through suggestions made by our students
RQWKHILUVWGD\RIWKH+5($VPDOOJURXSRIVWXGHQWVDSSURDFKHGWKHSURMHFW
leaders and asked if we could provide an opportunity for them to learn ASL because
they wanted to be able to effectively communicate with their peers. We consulted
with the students and the interpreter, and they were excited about the opportunity
to teach ASL to the group. Thus, we extended breakfast, lunch, and dinner by 10
minutes to include a learning ASL segment. Students and project staff actively
engaged with ASL, and some students even incorporated ASL signs into their
fieldwork presentations at our large group meetings. This simple, yet effective
adaptation afforded us an even greater opportunity to embrace our philosophical
framework of DSE as ASL became an asset to our program.
),(/'7(67,1*&855,&8/80$'$37$7,216
Two years after we began our curriculum adaptations, three students with hearing
ORVVDWWHQGHGRXU+5(/LNHWKHILUVWWZRVWXGHQWVLQ(ULF'HYRQDQG
Avery (pseudonyms) knew each other before the HRE. Eric was an African American
male who had cochlear implants. Devon was an African American male, and Avery
was a White female and Matt’s (from our 2012 HRE) sister. All three students were
from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Although all three understood and used ASL,
Eric could hear, and he often spoke with the hearing students and helped interpret
for Devon and Avery.

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2QWKHNQRZOHGJHSUHWHVW'HYRQDQG$YHU\KDGWKHWZRORZHVWVFRUHVRI
WKHVWXGHQWV+RZHYHU'HYRQKDGWKHKLJKHVWSUHSRVWJDLQSHUFHQWDJHDW
DQG$YHU\KDGWKHVL[WKKLJKHVWJDLQVFRUHRI(ULFGLGQRWWDNHWKHSUHWHVWDV
he arrived late to the HRE, so there are no knowledge test data to report for him. The
DYHUDJHSUHSRVWWHVWFKDQJHLQZDV7KHVHUHVXOWVSURYLGHVRPHVXSSRUW
that the applied curriculum changes reduced learning barriers.
In exit interviews, Avery and Devon were interviewed together. They both
expressed that they were happy to be at the HRE. They referred to specific herps
(e.g., two-toed Amphiuma), and Devon said he very much enjoyed the box turtle
tracking because he could see the needle move and did not have to hear the beeping
to find the turtles. He was excited that he was able to find two turtles. Avery stated
that she wanted to be a veterinarian because she realized how much she loved
learning about the animals. Avery also liked how the group wanted to learn some
ASL in order to more effectively communicate.
In his interview, Eric told us the frog call activity was his favorite. He liked this
activity because he could hear the frog calls with his implants but could also see the
patterns with the sonograms (we handed out sonograms of frog calls to all students).
Eric also spoke about how he enjoyed helping the hearing students learn ASL. He
felt very proud that he could help them “learn about Deaf culture.” As Eric said in his
exit interview, “we can actually help the people understand deaf people.”
CONCLUSION
Though it took us two years of analyzing and reflecting on our own practices and
carefully examining our curriculum to bring about the changes presented in this
chapter, we were able to create a more inclusive and accessible learning environment
for students. The hearing students indicated in their exit interviews that they enjoyed
learning ASL, and one student (Jasmine), who was in the group with Avery and
shared a bunk bed with her, was profoundly impressed by Avery and has continued
to learn ASL. She is currently a high school senior and wants to major in Special
Education in college. Avery and Jasmine still keep in touch through social media.
The importance of opportunities for meaningful peer-to-peer interaction and
collaboration cannot be overstated; it is a fundamental design principle for creating
inclusive environments for students who are deaf/hard-of-hearing (Roald, 2002).
Providing opportunities for students with hearing loss to use ASL to teach ASL to
their hearing peers was important in meeting our commitment to the principles of the
DSE framework. The ASL instruction disrupted hierarchies between students, which
also minimized static, deficit-based perspectives of the students with hearing loss
-RKQVRQ 0F,QWRVK7KHWKUHHVWXGHQWVKLJKOLJKWHGPDQ\FXUULFXOXP
adaptations in their exit interviews, which indicated to us that these changes were
meaningful and helped to increase students’ access to the curriculum, supporting our use
RI8'/SULQFLSOHV,QDGGLWLRQWKHRYHUDOOSRVWWHVWPHDQVFRUHLQFUHDVHGIURP
WRWKXVVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHUHGHVLJQRIRXUFXUULFXOXPDLGHGDOOVWXGHQWV

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7KHDXWKRUVDFNQRZOHGJHWKHVXSSRUWRI16)'5/ZKLFKHQDEOHG+HUS
Project faculty to develop and refine the curriculum over a five-year period of
time. This grant supported our educational interpreters for two one-week summer
HREs. The authors thank the many faculty members, teachers, and students from
the University of North Carolina Greensboro, the University of North Carolina
Pembroke and Elon University, all of our high school student participants, and
Jeff Hall, Partners in Amphibian & Reptile Conservation Biologist with the
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission for their devotion to The HERP
3URMHFW DQG WKHLU FRPPLWPHQW WR HTXLWDEOH SUDFWLFHVDFFHVV IRU DOO LQ RUGHU WR
encourage conservation of our natural wildlife and habitats.
REFERENCES
Carlone, H., Benavides, A. W., Huffling, L. D., Matthews, C. E., Journell, W., & Tomasek, T. (2016).
Field ecology: A modest, but imaginable, contestation of neoliberal science education. Mind, Culture,
and Activity, 23±
&DUORQH + +XIIOLQJ / ' +HJHGXV 7 7RPDVHN 7 0DWWKHZV & ( ³8QWKLQNDEOH´
selves: Identity boundary work in a summer field ecology enrichment program for diverse youth.
International Journal of Science Education, 37±
CAST. (2011). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. Wakefield, MA: Author.
CAST. (2013). What is universal design for learning? Retrieved from http://www.cast.org/udl/
index.html
Connor, D. J. (2012). Diversifying ‘diversity’: Contemplating dis/ability at the table(s) of social justice
and multicultural education. Disabilities Studies Quarterly, 325HWULHYHGIURPKWWSGVTVGVRUJ
DUWLFOHYLHZ
Connor, D. J., Gabel, S., Gallagher, D., & Morton, M. (2008). Disability studies and inclusive education—
Implications for theory, research, and practice. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 12±
±
(GXFDWLRQIRU$OO+DQGLFDSSHG&KLOGUHQ$FWRI3XE/±6WDW
Edyburn, D. L. (2010). Would you recognize universal design for learning if you saw it? Ten propositions
for new directions for the second decade of UDL. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33±
Hall, T., Strangman, N., & Meyer, A. (2003). Differentiated instruction and implications for UDL
implementation. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved
from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstructudl.html
+XIIOLQJ / '7RPDVHN7 0DWWKHZV & ( %HQDYLGHV$ &DUORQH + % +HJHGXV7
Using mobile devices in field science. The Science Teacher, 81±
Johnson, J. R., & McIntosh, A. S. (2009). Toward a cultural perspective and understanding of the disability
and deaf experience in special and multicultural education. Remedial and Special Education, 30(2),
±
Kurtts, S., Smallwood, T., & Matthews, C. (2009). (Dis)solving the differences: A physical science lesson
using universal design. Intervention in School & Clinic, 44±
Roald, I. (2002). Norwegian deaf teachers’ reflections on their science education: Implications for
instruction. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7±

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Lacey D. Huffling
College of Education
Georgia Southern University
Statesboro, Georgia
Aerin W. Benavides
School of Education
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Greensboro, North Carolina
Catherine E. Matthews
School of Education
Mary V. Compton
School of Education
Stephanie Kurtts
School of Education
Heidi B. Carlone
School of Education

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ELAINE SILVA MANGIANTE AND ADAM MOORE
16. “ENGINEERING IS FOR EVERYONE”

A Case Study of Elementary Engineering Design
INTRODUCTION
The conceptual framework underlying the Next Generation Science Standards

(NGSS) envisions that teachers integrate engineering design with science learning
in K-12 classrooms (NRC, 2012). This integrative approach allows students to
experience how science is utilized to solve problems using the engineering design
process. Based on NGSS, engineering design involves three disciplinary core ideas:
defining and delimiting an engineering problem, developing possible solutions, and
optimizing the design solution (NGSS Lead States, 2013). The expectation is that
teachers would provide all students, including students with learning disabilities,
ZLWKHTXLWDEOHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUVFLHQFHDQGHQJLQHHULQJHGXFDWLRQWKURXJKUHOHYDQW
content and supportive learning conditions.
However, at the elementary level, teachers have little or no exposure to engineering
design from their own educational experiences (Cunningham, LaChapelle, &
Lindgren-Streicher, 2006). Furthermore, research on how to support students
with learning disabilities for engineering design is limited not only for in-service
HGXFDWRUV &DQWUHOO 3HNFDQ ,WDQL 9HODVTXH]%U\DQW &XQQLQJKDP
/DFKDSHOOH6FKQLWWNDEXWDOVRODFNLQJIRUWHDFKHUSUHSDUDWLRQ7KXV
this study sought to examine the experience of one pre-service elementary teacher as
she worked with students with learning disabilities to solve an engineering problem.
7KHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQJXLGHGWKLVVWXG\+RZGLGRQHSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHU367
promote the disciplinary core ideas of engineering design with fourth-grade students
with learning disabilities to solve a design challenge?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Inclusive Education
Inclusive pedagogy for students with disabilities has become an increasingly
common practice in public schools, particularly with the focus of the Individuals
ZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV(GXFDWLRQ,PSURYHPHQW$FWRQSURYLGLQJVWXGHQWVZLWKWKH
least restrictive environment for learning. The number of students with disabilities
included in general education settings has increased over the last ten years; more
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E. S. MANGIANTE & A. MOORE
WKDQRIVWXGHQWVZLWKKLJKLQFLGHQFHGLVDELOLWLHVVSHQGPRUHWKDQRIWKHLU
time in general education settings (McLeskey, Landers, Williamson, & Hoppey,
2012). Therefore, schools have sought ways to support students with disabilities in
accessing grade-level material.
One approach used to support all students is Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
(Rose & Meyer, 2002). UDL stresses flexible approaches to instruction, assessment,
and accessibility to support students of varying abilities to learn alongside their
SHHUV 7KH 1DWLRQDO &HQWHU RQ 8QLYHUVDO 'HVLJQ IRU /HDUQLQJ 1&8'/
developed three principles as guidelines:
Provide learners with multiple means of representation to understand information
DQGDFTXLUHNQRZOHGJH
Provide learners with multiple means of expression to show understanding
Provide learners with multiple means of engagement and motivation to learn.
The UDL approach is in alignment with Disability Studies in Education (DSE),
which advocates inclusive educational opportunities, assumes student competence,
and rejects deficit models of disability (Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, & Morton, 2008).
To contribute to the field of DSE specifically for science and engineering education,
UDL served as a lens from which we examined how one PST supported students
with learning disabilities in solving an engineering challenge.
Engineering Design
Based on NGSS (2013), the expectation for engineering education at the elementary
level is that, by the end of fifth grade, students would be able to demonstrate
understanding of three disciplinary core ideas (DCI) of engineering:
Defining and delimiting engineering problems ±'HVFULEHDSUREOHPDQGVSHFLI\
constraints of materials or cost as well as criteria for success.
Developing possible solutions ± 5HVHDUFK RU FRQGXFW LQYHVWLJDWLRQV DERXW D
problem; generate/compare possible solutions based on criteria and constraints.
Optimizing the design solution ±7HVWGLIIHUHQWVROXWLRQVEDVHGRQWKHFULWHULDDQG
constraints and identify aspects of the design to improve.
The intent of the NGSS frameworks is that students engage in engineering
design by communicating collaboratively in teams to generate, test, evaluate, and
improve possible solutions by learning from failures and thinking creatively (NRC,
2012).
For students with learning disabilities, Cantrell et al. (2006) reported that by using
an engineering design-based approach, the learning became relevant since students
were able to interact with materials and apply their growing content knowledge to
propose and build designs that would solve the engineering problem. These findings
DUH FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK 6FUXJJV DQG 0DVWURSLHUL¶V DVVHUWLRQ WKDW VWXGHQWV ZLWK
mild learning disabilities benefit from opportunities to use concrete materials and

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“ENGINEERING IS FOR EVERYONE”
OHDUQIURPH[SHULHQFHIROORZHGE\³FRDFKHGHODERUDWLRQV´RUTXHVWLRQVWRHOLFLWWKH
students’ explanations about the phenomenon (p. 63).
In contrast, Schnittka (2012) reported on a middle school teacher’s differing
approaches and expectations with an “advanced” group of students versus a
“standard” class in which over half of the students needed special education services
S7KHWHDFKHUJDYHVWXGHQWVLQWKHVWDQGDUGFODVVIHZHURSSRUWXQLWLHVWRGLVFXVV
their engineering designs and resorted to “more passive, didactic instruction” from
IHDU WKDW ³WKH FODVVURRP ZRXOG JHW RXW RI KDQG´ S <HW DIWHU REVHUYLQJ WKH
students’ design work, the teacher realized that her students had the capability to
solve engineering problems with innovative designs.
METHODS
We chose case study methodology to investigate one PST’s pedagogical approaches

used to support students with learning disabilities in their engineering design
problem-solving. Case studyZDVDQDSSURSULDWHIRUPRILQTXLU\IRUWKLVUHVHDUFK
in order to gain understanding of the PST’s experience bounded in an integrated
science/engineering unit context (Merriam, 1998).
Participant and Context
Cari (pseudonym) was a third-year undergraduate at a northeastern university who

had attended an urban magnet high school focused on science and mathematics.
From her secondary school experience, Cari described in an interview her “love for
science and [desire] to share that” with students. Cari was pursuing dual certification
in elementary and special education; the special education program emphasized
inclusive education and UDL. At the time of the study, Cari was enrolled in a
science methods course that included a fourth-grade practicum teaching experience
at a local urban school serving an economically and racially/ethnically diverse
community. Cari worked with two students, Paul and Sue (pseudonyms), identified
as having disabilities that impacted their reading and mathematics computation.
From independent observations by the researchers and cooperating teacher, Cari was
selected as the subject of our study based on her efforts in meeting the learning needs
of her students for the design challenge.
For the practicum, the fourth-grade class was inclusive of students with learning
disabilities as well as those identified as English Language Learners. Each PST worked
with a small group of students for four lessons engaging them in solving a design
challenge. PSTs were responsible for embedding the engineering design challenge
into the science unit on electric circuits. First, the PSTs introduced the engineering
problem as a story; fourth graders were to create a model of a lighting design for
a school ballfield to play soccer at night. Next, students conducted investigations
of series and parallel circuits gaining circuitry knowledge to inform their design
proposals. The constraints for the design included the materials available in the

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electricity science kit, the location and number of lights and batteries, and a budget.
Students proposed and built prototypes evaluating the success of designs by using
criteria of lightbulb brightness and cost below the budget limit. From identifying
weaknesses of their original design, students redesigned, retested, and re-evaluated a
second prototype to optimize their problem solution. Finally, they presented results
of their testing and decision-making to peers in order to compare design solutions.
Data Collection and Analysis
'DWDVRXUFHVLQFOXGHG&DUL¶VWHDFKLQJSODQVZLWKSUHSODQQHGTXHVWLRQSURPSWVIRU
students and post-lesson reflections from each engineering lesson. In addition, Cari
SDUWLFLSDWHGLQDPLQXWHDXGLRWDSHGLQWHUYLHZDWWKHFRPSOHWLRQRIWKHXQLWWR
share her perspectives about the experience and explain her decisions.
Analysis involved a two-fold process. First, the researchers used a deductive
approach to identify descriptions in the teaching plans or statements from the
reflections and interview in which Cari addressed each engineering DCI (Patton,
2002). Next, from a repeated search of the data, themes were generated and modified
inductively using an open coding system to identify strategies that Cari adopted to
support her students with learning disabilities when engaging with each engineering
DCI (Erickson, 1986; Merriam, 1998).
FINDINGS
The data revealed insights about how one PST, Cari, successfully supported her
students with learning disabilities in solving a design challenge. The findings
suggested that Cari’s beliefs about teaching and learning guided her instructional
decisions during the engineering unit. Therefore, in the following vignette, we first
describe her beliefs and then present themes that emerged of approaches she used to
promote each engineering DCI. Table 1 provides a summary of Cari’s approaches to
engage her students with disabilities with each engineering DCI, how she achieved
her goals, and literature that supports these strategies.
Beliefs and Expectations
Cari was committed to her students’ learning as evidenced by her belief in respect
IRUVWXGHQWVKLJKH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGUHIOHFWLYHSUDFWLFH±DSSURDFKHVFRQVLVWHQWZLWK
DSE. As revealed in the interview, Cari explained her belief that “engineering is for
everyone and with the right amount of scaffolding, every student can…succeed” in
solving an engineering design challenge. Cari described that she cared about her
students: “They need to know that they matter…that what they’re doing is great.”
She noted that she had “high expectations” for her students and refused to lower these
expectations for her students when solving an engineering problem. She explained
that she knew her students “needed a little bit more accommodations,” but she

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Table 1. Cari’s approach to promoting engineering DCIs
Engineering DCI Cari’s approach How achieved? Supporting literature
Defining and Making the Simplify engineering 1&8'/

Delimiting the Problem More story problem, Scruggs and
Engineering Accessible rephrase and 0DVWURSLHUL
Problem TXHVWLRQSURYLGH Seo, Brownell,
visual depictions Bishop, and Dingle,
6WHHOH
Developing Using Provide visual Archer and Hughes,
Possible Alternative models, drawings, 1&8'/
Solutions Learning and physical models Rose and Meyer,
Approaches to envision types of 2002; Smith, Saez,
circuits and Doabler, 2016
Fostering a Safe Encourage student- Dymond et al., 2006;
Collaborative student talk, 1&8'/
Climate metacognitive
conversation, self-
assessment
Optimizing the Promoting Re-evaluate models, Dweck, 2006;
Design Student Thinking promote persistence, 1&8'/
offer alternative
hands-on approaches
wanted her students to get the same engineering experience “that everyone else in
the class got.” The following sections provide evidence of how Cari’s beliefs guided
her decisions for each engineering DCI.
Defining and Delimiting the Engineering Problem
The findings indicated that the DCI of defining and delimiting the engineering
problem was the most challenging for Cari to promote with her students. For the first
lesson, Cari presented the hypothetical story about four friends who wanted lighting
on the ballfield to play soccer at night. In her post-lesson reflection, Cari wrote
that her students were confused (i.e., “both of my students had a hard time filtering
through the details of the story”) and fixated on it being a real problem (i.e., “She
was more focused on asking if the teacher was a teacher at the school than trying
WRLPDJLQHZD\VWRVROYHWKHSUREOHP´&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHVWXGHQWVZHUHQRWDEOH
to define the problem, determine the limitations to solving the problem, or identify
criteria for success in the first lesson.
Making the problem more accessible. Cari attributed this challenge to her students’
reading abilities and difficulty with processing so many details. In her reflection

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after this first lesson, Cari described the changes she would make for the next
lesson including “simplifying the story,” “incorporating more pictures,” and posing
TXHVWLRQV WR PDNH WKH HQJLQHHULQJ SUREOHP PRUH FRQFUHWH DQG VXFFLQFW DQG WR
assist students in identifying the limitations and criteria for success. Cari chose to
XVHUHSKUDVLQJDQGTXHVWLRQLQJDVZHOODVPXOWLSOHPRGHVRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRKHU
students could access the information and understand the engineering problem.
Developing Possible Solutions
For the engineering DCI of developing possible solutions, Cari engaged her students
in investigations of series and parallel circuits to provide them with background
knowledge to inform their design proposals. She recognized that her students learned
more easily when working with concrete investigations using a variety of learning
approaches, but she also identified that her students had to feel safe before sharing
their thinking and evaluating their designs.
Utilizing alternative and individualized learning approaches. When her students

became confused about differences between series and parallel circuits, Cari tried
various approaches to help them make sense of each system. For example, she used
visual models and drawings in addition to physical models indicating the flow of
electric current for each type of circuit. She noted in her interview:
We took time every lesson to review…what is a series and what is a parallel
and every time we did it differently. So, one time was the vocab, one time was
the tracing out the circuits, one time was matching, or talk to your partner
about what a series is.
,QDGGLWLRQ&DUL¶VWHDFKLQJSODQLQGLFDWHGWKDWVKHSUHSDUHGIRUDQGXVHGTXHVWLRQLQJ
to reinforce students’ understanding of different circuits, such as “What would happen
to the series circuit when you add another bulb? Why?” She encouraged students to
apply the investigation results to their design proposals by asking, “What did we
learn that we can use in our design?” In her reflection, Cari described her goal that
if “I can get them to see it and then I can get them to make it and we can talk about
what they made, maybe they’ll make the connection of ‘Can we use this?’” for the
engineering design. By reviewing types of circuitry in various ways and by providing
more direct, explicit instruction about each of the circuits, Cari offered her learners
multiple means of engagement to prepare them for generating design proposals.
Cari’s post-lesson reflections revealed her growing awareness of each student’s
learning needs and how she accommodated for those needs. For example, Cari
ZURWH WKDW 3DXO GLVSOD\HG WKH FRPSRQHQWV RI D FLUFXLW LQ D PDWK HTXDWLRQ ³VR KH
could remember those details when he was building large scale…# of bulbs + #
RI EDWWHULHV FHUWDLQ EULJKWQHVV´ ZKHUHDV 6XH SUHIHUUHG RUDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ%\
allowing students to use various modes of expression, Cari was able to help her
students convey their design ideas for the challenge.
180
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Fostering a safe, collaborative climate to share ideas. Cari wanted to promote

a safe collaborative environment for students to share their ideas. She explained
in her interview that “in the beginning, [Paul] wouldn’t talk…Maybe he’d talk to
[Sue].” She explained her decision to have “them just talk together and I’ll have
a little listen in.” After they completed an investigation, Cari encouraged students
WR³H[SODLQLWWRHDFKRWKHU´6KHZURWHLQKHUUHIOHFWLRQWKDWE\SRVLQJTXHVWLRQV
such as, “‘What makes you think that?’ ‘Can you add to that?’ got both students
talking and adding to each other’s ideas.” Cari noted that this student-to-student talk
“helps the environment feel relaxed and helps them value each other.” She provided
evidence in her reflection of this valuing from Sue’s reaction to Paul’s ideas, “Wow,
[Paul], that was so smart.” Cari noted that these affirmations helped Paul “open up
and participate more.”
To further promote student conversations about designs, Cari engaged her
students in a metacognitive self-assessment and discussion about their participation.
&DUL ZURWH LQ RQH SRVWOHVVRQ UHIOHFWLRQ ³:H WDONHG DERXW HTXLW\ RI YRLFH DQG
they did a self-assessment” of their discourse and “what you can do to improve.”
Paul suggested, “maybe if I talk a little more.” Sue replied, “maybe if I let him
get some words in.” Cari noted that this reflection on their participation “helped
them have conversations” about possible design solutions for the engineering
challenge. By providing a safe space for students to share ideas, Cari was fostering
the oral expression of their thinking to make sense of circuitry investigations and to
collaboratively generate design proposals.
Optimizing the Design
&DUL¶VVWXGHQWVSURSRVHGWZRGHVLJQV±RQHELJVHULHVFLUFXLWDQGWKUHHVPDOOHUVHULHV
FLUFXLWV±DQGFKRVHWREXLOGWKHODUJHVHULHVGHVLJQZLWKILYHEDWWHULHVDQGIRXUEXOEV
In her reflection, Cari reported the students’ explanation: “There were more batteries
than bulbs, so it will be very bright.” She explained that when the students built and
evaluated the design, they were surprised that the bulbs were dim and that the cost
was over budget. Cari was challenged in helping her students identify features of
their design that needed improvement to optimize the solution.
Adopting the growth mindset. After students built their first prototype, Cari
described in her interview that she felt “defeated” because the students were
struggling with understanding circuits and improving their design. She reflected in
her post-lesson writing:
I felt like a failure when my students were not performing well…I wanted
them to learn and was disappointed I was not helping them enough. But it turns
out that those lessons are just stepping stones and learning experiences along
the way. I just needed to regroup, re-evaluate what worked and what didn’t
work, and move forward.
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Although Cari had experienced failure, there was evidence in her post-lesson
reflection that she was able to shift her initial reaction of “Why don’t they get it?” to
“What can I improve on?” She wrote that “with the right attitude, I can turn a lesson
around.” Cari evaluated the experience from this lesson and noted her determination
to “figure out” how to support her students in problem-solving. She adopted a
growth mindset (Dweck, 2006) about what she could do to change her instruction
rather than blaming the students for their confusion.
Using creative approaches to promote student thinking. Cari expressed in her

reflection that she wanted to help her students “think more critically” about their
design. She decided to revisit the pictorial representations of the different circuits.
Cari wrote, “I was unsure if my students understood that you could mix and match
the circuits. I needed to find a way to show them the possibilities….and be very
hands-on.” By cutting the pictures in half like puzzle pieces, the students were
“able to manipulate a mixture of the series and parallel circuits…better than I ever
imagined.” Her students decided to use fewer batteries in series and wire bulbs
in parallel, thus reducing the cost of the design and increasing the brightness of
the bulbs. Evidence of the students’ understanding and participation was revealed
in their presentation to peers. Cari wrote, Paul, “who rarely talks,” explained the
FRQILJXUDWLRQRIWKHFLUFXLWVDQG6XH³HYHQTXHVWLRQHGDQRWKHUJURXSVD\LQJµ:KDW
would happen if you added another battery?’” By providing an alternative means
of representation and engagement, Cari offered her students a way to evaluate and
optimize their original design to meet the criteria for success. Not only did Cari
demonstrate persistence in her planning, but also her decisions allowed her students
with disabilities to persist in their efforts to understand the circuitry concepts and
solve the engineering challenge.
CONCLUSION
This case study provides insight into how one PST incorporated UDL principles
using multiple modes of representation, expression, and engagement to promote
the three engineering DCIs with her students with learning disabilities (NCUDL,
&DUL¶V VXFFHVV ZLWK IDFLOLWDWLQJ VWXGHQWV¶ GHVLJQ WKLQNLQJ WKURXJKRXW WKH
engineering challenge was influenced by her belief that all students could succeed
WKURXJKVXSSRUWLYHDQGHTXLWDEOHOHDUQLQJRSSRUWXQLWLHV7KLVEHOLHISURPSWHGKHUWR
continually reflect on and adjust her practice while maintaining high expectations for
her students. Her commitment to her self-proclaimed statement that “engineering is
for everyone,” positioned her to discover ways to support her students with diverse
learning needs, privilege student voices, and persist in promoting her students’
HQJLQHHULQJSUREOHPVROYLQJ±DSSURDFKHVDOLJQHGZLWKWKHWHQHWVRI'6(&RQQRU
et al., 2008). Though this case is limited to one PST and a small group of students,
the results of this study may contribute to the body of DSE research and provide
182
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teacher educators at the elementary level with suggestions for how PSTs can be
inclusive educators meeting NGSS expectations for integrating engineering with
science learning (NRC, 2012).
REFERENCES
Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. New York,
NY: Guilford Press.
&DQWUHOO 3 3HNFDQ * ,WDQL$ 9HODVTXH]%U\DQW 1 7KH HIIHFW RI HQJLQHHULQJ PRGXOHV
on student learning in middle school science classroom. Journal of Engineering Education, 95
±
education: Implications for theory, research, and practice. International Journal of Inclusive
Education, 12±±
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In S. Purzer, J. Strobel, & M. Cardella (Eds.), Engineering in pre-college settings: Synthesizing
research, policy, and practicesSS±/DID\HWWH,13XUGXH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Cunningham, C. M., Lachapelle, C. P., & Lindgren-Streicher, A. (2006, June). Elementary teachers’
understandings of engineering and technology. Paper presented at the American Society For
Engineering Education annual Conference & Exposition, Chicago, IL.
Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Random House.
Dymond, S. K., Renzaglia, A., Rosenstein, A., Chun, E. J., Banks, R. A., Niswander, V., & Gilson, C. L.
(2006). Using a participatory action research approach to create a universally designed inclusive high
school science course: A case study. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities,
31±
Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of
research on teachingUGHGSS±1HZ<RUN1<0DFPLOODQ
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McLeskey, J., Landers, E., Williamson, P., & Hoppey, D. (2012). Are we moving toward educating
students with disabilities in less restrictive settings? The Journal of Special Education, 46±
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
1DWLRQDO &HQWHU RQ 8QLYHUVDO 'HVLJQ IRU /HDUQLQJ 1&8'/ The three principles of UDL.
Retrieved from http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/whatisudl/3principles
concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Schnittka, C. G. (2012). Engineering education in the science classroom: A case study of one teacher’s
disparate approach in ability-tracked classrooms. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education,
2±
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constructed vs. instructed learning. Exceptionality, 15±
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classroom reading instruction: Practices that engage elementary students with learning disabilities.
Exceptional Children, 75±
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Smith, J. L., Saez, L., & Doabler, C. T. (2016). Using explicit and systematic instruction to support
working memory. Teaching Exceptional Children, 48±
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master science standards. Science and Children, 45±
Elaine Silva Mangiante

Salve Regina University
Newport, Rhode Island
Adam Moore
University of Rhode Island
South Kingstown, Rhode Island

via free access
CHRISTOPHER L. ATCHISON AND CHRISTINA R. CARNAHAN
17. PREPARING TOMORROW’S TEACHERS

THROUGH FIRST-HAND PERSPECTIVES
OF ABILITY IN AN INCLUSIVELY-DESIGNED
SCIENCE METHODS COURSE
INTRODUCTION
Many academic institutions integrate inclusive pedagogies into their teacher

preparation programs. These programs prepare pre-service teachers to accommodate
the needs of diverse learners (Ashan, Sharma, & Deppeler, 2012) with many going so
far as to offer a dual certification in content and special education (Blanton, Griffin,
:LQQ 3XJDFK+RZHYHUWKHFRPPRQIRFXVRILQFOXVLYHGHVLJQW\SLFDOO\
rests on instructional theory rather than practical experience (Peebles & Mendaglio,
'HYHORSLQJ DQ LQVWUXFWLRQDO PHWKRGV FRXUVH WKDW IRVWHUV D FROODERUDWLYH
OHDUQLQJFRPPXQLW\&RKHQEHWZHHQSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUVDQGVWXGHQWVZLWK
intellectual and developmental disabilities would enable an integration of ability,
perspective, and understanding in the areas of science teaching and learning.
A practical experience of this magnitude would benefit all students as a real-time,
hands-on, lab-based course with multiple impacts for both student groups.
Access to complex science content is essential for everyone to understand the
natural world around them, including those with intellectual and developmental
disabilities. Quality science instruction is not about preparing future scientists.
Rather, it is necessary for preparing critical thinkers who identify, communicate
DERXW DQG VROYH SUREOHPV 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ KLJK TXDOLW\ VFLHQFH LQVWUXFWLRQ RIWHQ
evades students with disabilities. Our goal is to prepare educators who understand
the needs of individuals with disabilities, value the multiple perspectives found
within a diverse community of learning, and work to design strategies for supporting
LQFOXVLYH VFLHQFH OHDUQLQJ 5HFHQWO\ ZH VWDUWHG WR TXHVWLRQ RXU DSSURDFK IRU
preparing educators to meet this goal.
Nothing about us, without us, is a common phrase in disability advocacy, and to
date, has influenced the way we design and implement services for many adults.
However, the phrase and associated philosophical underpinnings have played little
role in the education of these individuals during their school years. While we focus
on topics such as self-determination (i.e., empowering individuals to make choices
and live to their fullest potential; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Rifenbark, & Little,
UDUHO\GRZHLQYLWHLQGLYLGXDOVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVLQWRRXUWHDFKHUSUHSDUDWLRQ
via free access
C. L. ATCHISON & C. R. CARNAHAN
programs for more than mere superficial activities. We talk about inclusion, evidence-
based practices, and matching supports to learner needs. We talk about least restrictive
environment and curricular access, transition and transition planning, and most
LPSRUWDQWO\ZHWHOORXUSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUVDERXWWKHLUXOWLPDWHJRDO±VXSSRUWLQJ
all learners, including those with disabilities, in becoming contributing members
of their communities. At best, we pack up our technology and hit the schools with
our pre-service teachers, modeling assessments, instructional best practices, and to
the best of our abilities, careful accommodation and problem-solving strategies for
supporting students with disabilities in the diverse learning environment. We are
well-intentioned, yet these efforts remain largely about individuals with disabilities
taught by teachers who have little-to-no experience actively interacting with the
students they are trying to support.
Until recently, including people with disabilities in the preparation of pre-service
teachers would not have been possible because of their limited inclusion in traditional
college life. The advent of post-secondary programs for individuals with intellectual
disabilities on university campuses across the country established the realization
of full academic integration in higher education. Suddenly, hundreds of programs
in our nation began offering college access to students with a range of intellectual
and developmental differences. The opportunity to include these individuals in our
courses became a possibility; we were given the chance to move beyond merely
talking about accommodation strategies in the classroom to working directly with
VWXGHQWVZKRUHTXLUHLQVWUXFWLRQDODFFRPPRGDWLRQV+HDULQJDQGOHDUQLQJIURPWKHLU
perspectives began to inform our learning and teaching.
In this chapter, we describe our journey of including fourteen individuals with
intellectual and developmental disabilities in a science methods course for pre-
service special education and science educators. We want to acknowledge from
the start that we faced weekly (and sometimes daily) challenges and at points both
TXHVWLRQHGWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHRYHUDOOFRXUVHGHVLJQ,QWKHHQGWKLVFRXUVHKDV
become a model of inclusive science education. Not only did this new instructional
experience significantly influence the attitudes of our pre-service teachers, it
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community of learning.
THE MODEL: INCLUSIVE SCIENCE INSTRUCTION
Prior to entering their student teaching phase (Cohort), our first and second year
teacher education students in the Special Education and Middle Childhood
Education programs receive instructional theory rather than actual practice working
with students with disabilities. Upon entering Cohort and their classroom practica,
students struggle to apply theoretical knowledge and develop the skills necessary to
effectively differentiate instruction to accommodate the diverse needs of all learners.
Additionally, for those who are seeking a science endorsement, our teacher education
students take multiple courses in chemistry and biology, but only one course each
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INCLUSIVELY-DESIGNED SCIENCE METHODS
in geology and astronomy. As a likely result, they struggle to succeed in these areas
on the Ohio Assessment for Educators (OAE) licensure exam. Taken together, our
students need (1) more time working directly with students with special needs, and
(2) opportunities to develop stronger content knowledge related to the Earth system,
weather and climate, the solar system, and energy.
Students who are non-matriculating, those with more severe cognitive and
behavioral disabilities, are often marginalized from participating in mainstreamed
post-secondary learning experiences (Brennan & Peña, 2016). Integrating these
students into traditional university courses not only helps the pre-service teachers
train to provide effective accommodations to support them in the classroom, but this
inclusion also helps promote social awareness and self-confidence for both groups.
To address the gap in pre-service teacher preparation, we have created a high-
TXDOLW\ SUHOLPLQDU\ VFLHQFH PHWKRGV FRXUVH FHQWHUHG RQ LQFOXVLYH LQVWUXFWLRQDO
design. In this course, Early and Middle Childhood, and Special Education teacher
candidates work collaboratively with students with mild-to-moderate cognitive and
GHYHORSPHQWDOGLVDELOLWLHVLQPHDQLQJIXOHTXLWDEOHVFLHQFHGLVFRXUVH
The two focus populations include pre-Cohort (first and second-year) science
and special education students, and students from the university’s Transition and
Access Program (TAP). Bringing these two diverse student populations creates an
active learning community focused on science content and inclusive instructional
development. Atchison, a scientist and educator by training, teaches science
methods courses. Carnahan is a special educator by training who studies reading
comprehension interventions to help increase access to science content for students
with developmental disabilities. A couple of years ago, driven by the desire to include
individuals with disabilities in his science courses and change how we prepare
our future educators, Atchison proposed a new course: The Nature of Scientific
Exploration and Instruction.
Pre-service teacher candidates enter into Cohort in their junior academic year.
Prior to this, they do not receive any opportunities for hands-on teaching experience
in the classroom. During Cohort, as part of the Ohio Dean’s Compact on Exceptional
Children, math and science education students are paired up with Special Education
students in content methods courses. The Dean’s Compact is a state-wide initiative
which seeks to build educational capacity by promoting the implementation of
effective instructional strategies and practices that more fully develop Ohio’s often
marginalized students, including those with disabilities [www.ohiodeanscompact.org/].
In this program, teacher education candidates in Special Education have the option
of pursuing dual licensure in areas of Natural Science and Language Arts, or
Mathematics and Language Arts.
The TAP program is a four-year non-degree program for students with mild to
moderate intellectual disabilities. Many of the students in this program also have
physical and sensory disabilities. The program provides students active engagement
in the full college experience, including participation in regular college classes,
living independently on campus, engaging in professional internships, and enjoying

via free access
an active social life with friends. Students who complete the program receive a
certificate, and have training and experiences necessary for successful, competitive
employment.
Instructional Design
The Nature of Scientific Exploration and Instruction is an early science methods

course for pre-Cohort students to learn and practice inclusive strategies in science
instruction before entering their junior-year Cohort. Once in Cohort, students enroll
in two more rigorous science methods courses and three semester-long practical
classroom experiences. Students are introduced to various instructional strategies,
although time spent on pedagogical content is minimal. Rather, various strategies are
modeled in real-time and discussed as a whole group to evaluate their effectiveness
in reaching the diverse abilities of the entire class.
This course also provides an opportunity for students to work with science content
found in the introductory-level science discipline courses, which is also found on
the Middle Grades Science OAE licensure exam. As mentioned above, the science
content presented in this course is derived from identified problem areas on the
OAE. These problem areas were determined through a survey of students who had
completed the exam and collecting the topic areas that students scored the lowest. The
science content within this course focuses specifically on Earth and space sciences.
The course meets three hours per week, each week of the semester. Students are
divided into groups of three-to-five students per group. Each group has access to a
computer and a large-screen television monitor, and students can connect their own
devices to the monitor. Instructors also have the capability to broadcast the main
overhead with each monitor, or share individual monitor displays with the entire class.
7KH ( /HDUQLQJ &\FOH serves as the foundation for how we organize the
academic content (Bybee et al., 2006; Eisenkraft, 2003). Each class session includes
engaging activities, demonstrations, videos, and additional small and large group
discussions that foster learning and natural evaluation strategies. Our goal is to
create a socially constructive learning environment where all students learn from the
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(DFKWHUPVWXGHQWVDUHUHTXLUHGWRUHVHDUFKDVSHFLILFWRSLFVHH7DEOHWKURXJK
online readings and activities in advance of the next class activities, an aspect of
flipped instruction (Milman, 2012). TAP students also attend pre/post-instructional
sessions. These sessions help students monitor their progress, discuss group
activities, readings, assignments, and to prepare for the next class session.
Experiential learning. During the course, instances of experiential learning

'HZH\)UDQNHQDEOHVWXGHQWVWRHQJDJHZLWKWKHFRQWHQWDQGWKHLU
own learning in an atypical classroom setting. Each of the matriculating students
DUHUHTXLUHGWROHDGDGLVFXVVLRQRUDFWLYLW\RQWKHWRSLFRIWKHZHHN3ULRUWRWKHLU
assigned day, each student meets with the instructors to plan and identify aspects
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Table 1. Overview of weekly course topics

Week Topics
1 Course Introduction and Nature of Science

Nature of Science: Myths of the Scientific Method; Hypotheses, Theories, Laws
2 Astronomy:
Understanding the solar system: Sun, Earth, and Moon relationship
3 Physics:
Forces and Motion
Energy
Earth Science:
Weather and the Hydrologic Cycle
Earth Science:
Climate
Scientific Process Skills, continued
6 Earth Science:
Geomorphology: Earth’s changing surface (wind, water, ice, tectonics)
Earth Science:
*HRORJLF+D]DUGV9ROFDQRHV(DUWKTXDNHVODQGVOLGHV
8 Earth Science:
Constructive and destructive processes of the Rock Cycle
9 Earth Science:
Rock Cycle and classification
10 Life and Earth Science:
Fossilization and the Rock Record
11 Weekend Field Experience
Environmental Change and Natural Selection
Environmental Change in the Rock Record
Life Science:
Genetics and Nutrition
Body systems
Final Presentations (open to the public)
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of these experiences is the utilization of appropriate language of scientific process
while building social communication skills (student presentations), and practicing
collaborative problem solving (scientifically and socially).
Weekly class discussions include scientific demonstrations of the concepts being
taught, both in the classroom and outdoors. For example, the concept of Plate
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Tectonics includes a discussion of plate motion, how rocks react to the forces of
tension and compression, and how strata react to these slowly occurring processes.
In this example, a compression box was created to show how layers of different
sedimentary materials (coffee grounds, brown and white sugar) would react to
compression triggered by convergent tectonic plate boundaries (Figure 1). Another
example focused on a discussion of the Hydrologic Cycle. For this, the class was
held outdoors where each phase of the cycle was presented in detail with the use of
a single bottle of water.
Figure 1. Squeeze box representing the processes of convergent plate

boundaries on simulated rock layers
In addition to in-class experiences, the course takes students into the field to
learn science beyond the classroom walls. For example, a three-day weekend trip
to Mammoth Cave National Park provides an opportunity for students to not only
learn about the Earth System, but also the human impact on the natural environment
(Figure 2). Visiting this particular location allows the course to extend the inclusive
learning community concept in real-world scientific scenarios. Scientifically,
students observe and explore three primary aspects of water transport within the
cave system: the surface, or karst landscape, the multi-layered interior cave passages
cut by changing regional and global water levels, and the spring discharge into the
river. Students also study the human impact on the cave system, from pre-history
Native American gypsum mining, to Civil War-era Saltpetre mining, to 19th century
cave exploration and evidence of the first cave tours offered to the public. This
discussion leads to the impact preservation and pollution has on the future of the
fragile geologic and biologic processes.
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Figure 2. Students and faculty inside Mammoth Cave National Park
Cooperative learning (CL). Cooperative learning groups are an approach used in

a variety of content areas to support all students, including those with intellectual
disabilities at the elementary, high school, and collegiate level (Bowen, 2000;
Kyndt et al., 2013). Not only does CL support student engagement, but it promotes
critical skills necessary for success in the workforce as students learn “to value the
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they engage in active problem solving and perhaps, more importantly, learn to work
through challenges with others.
In our course, students work in small groups of three to five members. We work
closely with the director of TAP to identify students who might work well together
and ultimately establish each group based on a variety of learner specific factors.
These factors include characteristics such as communication needs, existing
collaboration skills, and previous experience working with others in groups. We
then assign students without disabilities (SwoD) to each of the groups. At the start
of the semester, we provide direct instruction in how to work collaboratively and
modeled strategies for building communication between group members. The first
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experiences working closely with individuals with significant communication
differences. Students also struggle to identify their roles in the class, often asking
TXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHOHYHORIVXSSRUWWKH\VKRXOGSURYLGHWRRWKHUPHPEHUVRIWKHLU
groups, and strategies for not becoming the teacher or director within the group.
Many of our students with disabilities (SwD) often make it clear that they need
WKHLU YRLFH WR EH KHDUG DQG WR EH VHHQ DV HTXDOO\ FRQWULEXWLQJPHPEHUV RI WKHLU
groups.
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To address these needs, we collaboratively build a communication plan during

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communication plan includes tips such as:
&RQVLGHUDVNLQJ\HVQRTXHVWLRQV
Provide each other with choices. You might write choices on a board and ask each
group member to make a selection.
Listen carefully, think about your answer, then speak.
Use appropriate voice volume. Louder isn’t always better. Sometimes you need to
VSHDNTXLHWO\IRURWKHUSHRSOHWRKHDU\RX
Remember, just because you can see something doesn’t mean other team member
will be able to see it. Consider presenting information in a variety of visual formats.
Don’t talk about other people. Speak to them.
We have found that direct instruction followed by modeling and coaching helps
students navigate new relationships and learn to work together. We provide mini
lectures detailing each suggestion and incorporate examples and non-examples,
modeling, and then opportunities for practice. From the very first session, we model
different communication approaches and coach all students on strategies they can
try when speaking and listening. Once students settle into their groups (around week
three in the term), we move to activities that encourage more critical thinking of
science topics and collaborative problem solving. After short mini lessons, students
manage their content understanding through a variety of resources including online
videos, short texts, and mini demonstrations and experiments. They use their learning
to create short presentations and their own mini lessons, and then share these with
the entire class at the end of each session.
Admittedly, we push students in many ways, both in and out of their personal
comfort zones, as they work in groups. We expect them to learn science content
while also building their collaboration, critical thinking, and teaching skills. Students
often express concern at the beginning of the term, but we work hard not to solve
problems for them. Watching our students struggle is difficult, and when we are in
the moment we want to give them solutions. Providing solutions for them, however,
minimizes the learning by interrupting their ability to process and problem-solve.
Instead, we model strategies similar to those mentioned in the communication plan
above, that might support their critical thinking processes, encourage intensive
reflective practice, and provide many opportunities for students to engage in problem
solving conversations.
Reflective practice. Reflective practice is a critical conceptual aspect of our course.

We know they are learning values and skills that shape who they are as young people
and who they will become later in life. Thus, our goal is to move beyond their simple
participation in the course to engage in metacognitive practices that deepen their
learning. Integrating a Photovoice (PV):DQJ %XUULVSURMHFWDQGZHHNO\
conversations serve as the basis for supporting their reflection.
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Our weekly PV process involves students capturing meaningful, personal events

during each class through photographs and written reflection. They then select two
to three photographs to post on the course site in a weekly blog, and respond to these
SKRWRJUDSKVLQZULWLQJ7KHEORJSURPSWVLQFOXGHWKHVHWKUHHHVVHQWLDOTXHVWLRQV
What is it? Describe the picture.
What were you thinking when you took the picture?
Why is the picture important to you?
Each week, we review the posts before class and then discuss the emerging themes
DV D JURXS DW WKH VWDUW RI FODVV ,QLWLDOO\ VWXGHQW UHVSRQVHV WR WKH EORJ TXHVWLRQV
DUHVKDOORZDQGZHXVHUHFLSURFDOTXHVWLRQLQJWRVXSSRUWGHHSHURUPRUHH[WHQVLYH
responses.
At the end of the term, each student selects his/her ten favorite pictures, and then
narrows the selection to three to five. They share their photographs with their small
groups, describing why they selected the specific photos. Once each person shares,
the groups work to sort all of the images into themes. They identify and develop
rationales for theme selection and importance. Students work through the final PV
process during the last two sessions of the term, and the culminating project is for
the CL groups to present their images and themes to the class and faculty from the
School of Education.
Upon completion of the presentations, students share thoughts regarding their most
important learning from the semester. Inevitably, comments include reflections such
as, “It was exciting when we finally figured out together how to share information
in a way we could all understand” or “I never had an experience like going into the
cave. It was so awesome.” Other comments include, “It was hard at times. Really
hard. I sure learned a lot.” These comments reflect the complex relationships that
exist in all classrooms when we strive to build community, embrace diversity, and
learn to apply scientific processes.
Concluding Comments
Preparing pre-service teachers for inclusive experiences is a critical aspect of teacher

development, but has historically been achieved through theoretical discussions
and field experiences. The increasing number of individuals with intellectual
and developmental disabilities on college and university campuses provides an
opportunity for us to bridge the gap between these two constructs.
Focus on community. Building community with any new group of students

who meet one time per week is challenging. Diverse communication abilities
seem to exacerbate these challenges. Thus, the biggest barriers we consistently
face are getting to know our students, identifying the ways they can consistently
share the depth of their learning, and supporting relationships within groups. The
communication discussions that occur at the beginning of the term combined with
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the ongoing coaching and modeling helps students move past their discomforts to
build bonds within and across their groups. Once they feel connected, they are open
to the perspectives and strengths of others.
Critical thinking within a science context. Reflection is an essential element of our

course and supports students’ individual and collective growth. By the end of the term,
our pre-service teachers consistently tell us that the most compelling aspects of their
learning are the individual moments that culminate in attitude shifts. For example,
when they transition from trying to “teach” science to learning the multiple perspectives
of science alongside their peers with and without disabilities is always a theme. An
HTXDOO\ LPSRUWDQW VKLIW RFFXUV ZKHQ RXU VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV UHDOL]H WKDW WKH\
are not only contributing members of their teams, but essential to the group learning.
Our students report that the opportunity to work through moments of discomfort in a
supported environment is critical to their success and depth of learning.
Practical experiences to support teacher dispositions. Our course is designed to

support positive teacher dispositions necessary for inclusive science instruction. These
include respect, patience and perseverance, and commitment to connecting with all
OHDUQHUV7KH(OHDUQLQJF\FOHDQG&/JURXSVVHUYHDVWKHIRXQGDWLRQIRULQFOXVLYH
science teaching and learning. Practicing teachers rarely get the opportunity to see
inclusively-designed instruction modeled, or truly hear SwD describe what they need
to be successful. In our course, pre-service teachers work collaboratively with the
SwD, and hear the stories of ways teachers have supported them both academically
and socially. Through the CL groups, all students develop a deeper understanding
RILPSRUWDQWVFLHQFHFRQFHSWV2IHTXDOLPSRUWDQFHWKLVFRXUVHHPSRZHUV6Z'WR
share their perspectives on strategies that support their learning, and SwoD engage in
inclusive practices to increase the accessibility of science content.
REFERENCES
Ashan, M., Sharma, U., & Deppeler, J. (2012). Challenges to prepare pre-service teachers for inclusive
education in Bangladesh: Beliefs of higher educational institutional heads. Asia Pacific Journal of
Education, 32±
%ODQWRQ / 3 *ULIILQ & &:LQQ -$ 3XJDFK 0 & Teacher education in transition:
Collaborative programs to prepare general and special educators. Denver, CO: Love.
%RZHQ & $ TXDQWLWDWLYH OLWHUDWXUH UHYLHZ RI FRRSHUDWLYH OHDUQLQJ HIIHFWV RQ KLJK VFKRRO DQG
college chemistry achievement. Journal of Chemical Education, 77±
Brennan, B., & Pena, E. (2016). Autism, inclusion, and communication in higher education. ACPA:
College Student Education International, 3±5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSGHYHORSPHQWVP\DFSDRUJ
autism-inclusion-and-communication-in-higher-education/
Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Van Scotter, P., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., & Landes, N.
(2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins, effectiveness, and applications. Colorado Springs,
CO: BSCS.
&RKHQ(*Designing group work (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience in education. New York, NY: Touchstone.
(LVHQNUDIW$([SDQGLQJWKH(PRGHOScience Teacher, 70±

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)UDQN / Journey toward the caring classroom: Using adventure to create community.
Oklahoma City, OK: Wood ‘N’ Barnes.
Kyndt, E., Raes, E., Lismont, B., Timmers, F., Cascallar, E., Dochy, F. (2013). A meta-analysis of
the effects of face to face cooperative learning: Do recent studies falsify or verify earlier finding?
Educational Research Review, 10±
Mills, B. (2010). Why faculty should adopt cooperative learning approaches. In B. Mills (Ed.),
Cooperative learning in higher education: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Sterling, VA:
Stylus.
Milman, N. B. (2012). The flipped classroom strategy: What is it and how can it best be used? Distance
Learning, 9±
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self-efficacy for teaching in inclusive classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
18±GRL
6KRJUHQ.:HKPH\HU03DOPHU65LIHQEDUN** /LWWOH75HODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQVHOI
determination and post school outcomes for youth with disabilities. The Journal of Special Education,
48±GRL
9\JRWVN\/6Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
:DQJ& %XUULV0$3KRWRYRLFH&RQFHSWPHWKRGRORJ\DQGXVHIRUSDUWLFLSDWRU\QHHGV
assessment. Health Education & Behavior, 24±
Christopher L. Atchison
School of Education and Department of Geology
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio
Christina R. Carnahan
School of Education
Cincinnati, Ohio

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SECTION 4
SCIENCE PRACTICE AND DEVELOPING
EXPLANATIONS
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Aligned to the multi-dimensional A Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC,

2012), the three chapters within this section provide a practical application of
strategies that promote skills for all students to develop scientific explanation and
understanding. Each of these chapters provide resources and strategies to engage all
students in an inclusive and accessible scientific classroom.
Starting this section, Maya Israel, Saadedine Shehab, and Quentin Wherfel
(Chapter 18) present ways in which the principles of Universal Design for Learning
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students with special needs in exploratory and discovery-based learning activities.
The authors provide several strategies for including students with disabilities in
NGSS-supported science instruction (NGSS Lead States 2013).
Next, Kevin Finson (Chapter 19) shares the importance of making the skills
of scientific investigation and reasoning more accessible to students with special
needs. This chapter discusses strategies teachers can follow to provide opportunities
to instill the skills necessary for every student to engage in science exploration and
communicate their conceptions in an inclusive community of learning.
Finally, Kevin Fleming and Dina Secchiaroli (Chapter 20) focus on using scientific
argumentation to develop stronger engagement and conceptual understanding in an
inclusive science classroom. Argumentation is not a simple concept, yet the authors
present literature-based guidelines that can enable any teacher to assist all of their
students as they delve deeper into scientific understanding.
REFERENCES
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next generation science standards: for states, by states. Washington, DC:
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MAYA ISRAEL, SAADEDDINE SHEHAB
AND QUENTIN M. WHERFEL
18. INCREASING SCIENCE LEARNING

AND ENGAGEMENT FOR ACADEMICALLY
DIVERSE STUDENTS THROUGH SCAFFOLDED
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND UNIVERSAL
DESIGN FOR LEARNING
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) outlined a process
to move science instruction towards active student engagement in both using and
DSSO\LQJVFLHQFHNQRZOHGJH+DUULVHWDOE\HQFRXUDJLQJVWXGHQWVWRGHYHORS
models, show their reasoning, and use evidence to justify their conclusions (Krajcik,
&RGHUH 'DKVDK %D\HU 0XQ ,Q WKLV ZD\ VWXGHQWV FDQHQJDJH LQ VFLHQFH
LQPRUHVRSKLVWLFDWHGSURMHFWEDVHGZD\VWKDWLQYROYHLQTXLU\ZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRI
EXLOGLQJDQGDSSO\LQJVFLHQFHNQRZOHGJHUDWKHUWKDQLQLVRODWLRQ.UDMFLN,I
VWXGHQWVKDYHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRLQYHVWLJDWHUHDOZRUOGTXHVWLRQVWKDWDUHUHOHYDQWWR
WKHPDQGWKHQDQVZHUWKRVHTXHVWLRQVE\FRQGXFWLQJLQYHVWLJDWLRQVDQGFROODERUDWLQJ
with peers, they may experience science in more authentic ways. Therefore, content
DQGLQTXLU\DUHLQH[SOLFDEO\FRQQHFWHGIRUDXWKHQWLFXQGHUVWDQGLQJ+DUULVHWDO
INCLUDING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES IN INQUIRY

AND PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
)RU VWXGHQWV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV DQG RWKHU VWUXJJOLQJ OHDUQHUV LQTXLU\EDVHG

instruction has advantages and disadvantages. On one hand, discovery-based
science is less reliant on reading, which historically has been a barrier for many
students with disabilities (Mastropieri et al., 2006). Multiple studies have pointed
WRZDUGV WKH EHQHILW RI LQTXLU\EDVHG DSSURDFKHV DV FRPSDUHG WR WUDGLWLRQDO WH[W
and lecture approaches (e.g., Taylor et al., 2011). On the other hand, these same
studies explain that open-ended scientific experiences can make learning difficult
for many students with disabilities because of a high likelihood that they will
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For example, students might draw inaccurate conclusions about static electricity
being a “sticking” force from an exploratory activity wherein they rub a balloon on
their head and the balloon “sticks” to the classroom wall. Additionally, although
exploratory approaches provide students with opportunities to collaborate
and construct their own knowledge, students with disabilities may struggle
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M. ISRAEL ET AL.
for reasons such as; lack of background knowledge, difficulties with complex
multistep problem solving, and lack of academic self-regulation strategies (Israel,
Maynard, & Williamson, 2013).
When considering students’ challenges with both conceptual understanding of
GLVFLSOLQDU\ FRUH LGHDV DQG LQTXLU\ DFWLYLWLHV LW EHFRPHV DSSDUHQW WKDW WHDFKHUV
must have a sophisticated toolkit to address their learners’ needs. Teachers need
to have both a deep understanding of NGSS-supported science instruction as well
as tools for addressing the barriers that many students with disabilities may face
within this type of instruction. Often, for students with disabilities, an effective
strategy is to include a specific structure to open-discovery activities as well as
opportunities for receiving specific feedback and explicit strategic instruction
(Watt, Therrien, Kaldenberg, & Taylor, 2013). For example, teachers can create
D SURMHFW SODQQLQJ JXLGH ZLWK SODFHV IRU VWXGHQWV WR ZULWH GRZQ TXHVWLRQV DQG
predictions alongside steps they will take to carry out exploratory activities. In this
way, the teachers can look at the students’ planning guides to better understand the
students’ conceptual understanding, problem-solving steps, and areas of confusion.
The need for deep knowledge of NGSS science instruction and pedagogical
approaches that support students with disabilities has significant implications for
teacher educators preparing both future science teachers and special educators. Two
approaches that teacher educators should consider including in their preparation
programs to help students with disabilities and their peers be more successful in
science instruction include: (1) scaffolding WKH LQTXLU\ SURFHVV %DQFKL %HOO
2008; Israel, Maynard, & Williamson, 2013) and (2) planning through the Universal
Design for Learning (UDL)IUDPHZRUN&$67$OWKRXJKVFDIIROGHGLQTXLU\
and UDL are separate approaches, they can be integrated to support all learners,
including those with disabilities. This chapter describes how these two approaches
can be integrated into a seamless instructional model. It also provides examples
that teacher educators can use to show new teachers how they can strategically
increase the level of authentic exploration to move students to meaningful scientific
experiences through the UDL framework to help their struggling learners fully
participate within scientific community of learning.
Scaffolding Exploration
Special educators often state that their students are lost within open exploratory
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2QHPHWKRGIRUVFDIIROGLQJLQTXLU\EDVHGVFLHQFHIRUDOOOHDUQHUVLQFOXGLQJ
those with disabilities, is to consider how to help students progress from primarily
teacher-guided to a more student-led approach. Banchi and Bell (2008) classified
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JXLGHGDQGRSHQLQTXLU\7KHVHOHYHOVRILQTXLU\UHODWHWRKRZPXFKLQIRUPDWLRQ
and guidance teachers provide to their students. This work is based on previous
UHVHDUFKE\+HUURQDQG6FKZDE
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INCREASING SCIENCE LEARNING AND ENGAGEMENT
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SURFHGXUHV DQG VROXWLRQ IRU WKH LQTXLU\ DFWLYLW\$W WKLV OHYHO ZKLOH GRLQJ WKH
experiment, students follow directions to collect data and generate results that are
known in advance.
6WUXFWXUHGLQTXLU\7HDFKHUVSURYLGHVWXGHQWVZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQDQGSURFHGXUHV
but not the solutions. The students then use collected data and draw their own
conclusions for the activity.
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VWXGHQWVGHYLVHWKHLURZQSURFHGXUHVWRJHQHUDWHDQDQVZHUWRWKHTXHVWLRQXVLQJ
collected data.
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own conclusions.
Within the context of the NGSSWKLVW\SHRILQTXLU\FDQPRYHWRZDUGVDXWKHQWLF
H[SORUDWLRQZKHUHLQVWXGHQWVDUHILUVWJLYHQTXHVWLRQVRURSWLRQVRITXHVWLRQVWKDWDUH
relevant to them and then progress towards authentic project-based learning models.
)LJXUHVKRZFDVHVKRZWKHVHOHYHOVRILQTXLU\IDOORQDFRQWLQXXPIURPWHDFKHU
facilitated activities that provide guidance and support to student-guided activities
that allow for flexibility and open-ended exploration.
Figure 1. Continuum of inquiry activities (adapted from Banchi & Bell, 2008)
Banchi and Bell (2008) posited that these levels can help teachers strategically
develop scientific activities matched to their learning objectives. For example, there
are times when students benefit from practice of specific procedures (such as a
data-collection procedure). In these cases, confirmation activities allow students to
practice these skills, which is often critical for students with disabilities who may
UHTXLUH LQFUHDVHG RSSRUWXQLWLHV WR SUDFWLFH DQG DSSO\ VFLHQWLILF VNLOOV 0DVWURSLHUL
et al., 2006). These activities can also help students learn how to conduct scientific
investigations, collect data, and interpret data. However, students should have
opportunities to extend beyond these limited scientific explorations. With that said,
EHFDXVHRSHQHQGHGLQTXLU\FDQEHFKDOOHQJLQJIRUPDQ\VWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV
203
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M. ISRAEL ET AL.
teachers should use instructional practices that help students move towards successful
open-ended experiences. Thus, UDL can be a helpful instructional framework for
WHDFKLQJVFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\WRDEURDGUDQJHRIOHDUQHUV
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
When considering how to scaffold students’ scientific explorations, the UDL

framework (Rose & Meyer, 2002) and its principles, guidelines, and checkpoints
(CAST, 2011) can prompt science teachers to make instructional decisions that
IDFLOLWDWH VFLHQFH OHDUQLQJ IRU DOO VWXGHQWV GXULQJ LQTXLU\ DFWLYLWLHV $GGLWLRQDOO\
when planning through the UDL framework, teachers begin by thinking about
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then proactively plan instruction and assessment in a manner that addresses those
barriers. UDL rests on three principles:
Multiple means of engagement: Students are motivated to learn by different
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FKRLFHLQWKHW\SHVRITXHVWLRQVVWXGHQWVDVNDVZHOODVZD\VLQZKLFKWKH\DQVZHU
WKRVHTXHVWLRQV)RUH[DPSOHHYHQZLWKLQDWHDFKHUGLUHFWHGLQTXLU\DFWLYLW\VXFK
DV D FRQILUPDWLRQ LQTXLU\ SURMHFW WKH WHDFKHU FDQ RIIHU GLIIHUHQW SURFHGXUHV RU
materials for students to follow and use.
Multiple means of representation: Students have different levels of background
NQRZOHGJH DV ZHOO DV SUHIHUHQFHV IRU KRZ WKH\ DFTXLUH LQIRUPDWLRQ 6FLHQWLILF
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of presenting information including the use of text, video, simulations, and other
multimedia. For example, in an activity about why objects sink or float, teachers
can find multiple sources to present these concepts.
Multiple means of action and expression: Students have preferences for how
they demonstrate their understanding. For example, some students like writing
lab reports whereas other students find these reports difficult (Marino, Israel,
%HHFKHU %DVKDP6FLHQWLILFLQTXLU\DFWLYLWLHVVKRXOGLQFOXGHPXOWLSOH
ways for students to present their findings and solutions including video recording
demonstration activities, writing lab reports, and illustrating their findings in
drawings.
MERGING LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND UDL
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to exploratory science activities with different levels of background knowledge,
misconceptions, and experiences (Yin, Tomita, & Shavelson, 2008). This diversity
of background knowledge and experience is true for both students with and without
disabilities. The UDL framework provides a planning process to address the level
of variability in students’ academic abilities, interest in science, and experiences

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with the natural world. If, for example, students are engaged in activities focused
on floating and sinking, the big ideas explored would include buoyancy and
water displacement as well as interaction of mass, volume, and density of objects.
Students are typically familiar with these concepts due to informal experiences
such as throwing objects in water wherein some sink and others float. The informal
experiences, however, may result in misconceptions that teachers can proactively
address during instruction. For example, when washing silverware made of metal,
students may observe that these objects will sink to the bottom of the dishpan. The
students might, therefore, develop a misconception that all metals will sink in all
circumstances because of a lack of understanding of concepts such as the interaction
of density and water displacement and their combined roles in floating and sinking.
In these cases, the students may not understand how boats made of metal do not
VLQN 2QH ZD\ RI SURDFWLYHO\ DGGUHVVLQJ WKHVH LQTXLU\ VFLHQFH DFWLYLWLHV DQG WKH
known barriers and misconceptions that students may present is through the UDL
IUDPHZRUN7KHIROORZLQJVWHSVFDQJXLGHWHDFKHVLQLQWHJUDWLQJLQTXLU\OHDUQLQJ
with UDL (UDL-IRN, 2011):
Step 1: Establish clear outcomes: These include (a) the standards that guide the
instruction, (b) the big ideas aligned to the standards as well as other outcomes
you hope for the students to achieve (e.g., Individualized Education Program
goals), and (c) barriers to learning and scientific misconceptions associated with
WKDWWRSLF,QRUGHUWRHQJDJHOHDUQHUVLQPHDQLQJIXOVFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\LWLVKHOSIXO
to explicitly state and explain these goals for students. The process of establishing
and explaining goals can also help dispel misconceptions.
Floating and sinking example: In the case of the floating and sinking explorations,
the goals can be to build background knowledge about the relationship between
mass, volume, and density. To understand students’ background knowledge, teachers
can include formative pre-assessments to gauge understanding. For example, the
teacher might have students predict whether different items would sink and float
such as blocks of wood, coins, plastics, fruit, pencils, and sponges. The students
could create a column of items they believe will float and another column with items
that they predict will sink and draw a model to explain the phenomenon of sinking
and floating (see Table 1). The students could then draw a model to explain their
reasoning about why some objects float while others sink (see Figure 2).
Table 1. Float and sink predictions (students respond to this question:

Which objects do you think float and which sink?)
Float Sink

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M. ISRAEL ET AL.
Figure 2. Pre-assessment for sinking and floating activity (students draw a

model in the box that explains their answer)
Step 2: Anticipate learner variability: Teachers should reflect on their students’

strengths and weaknesses and attempt to anticipate barriers to the exploratory
activities planned. This includes examining (a) general barriers such as lack of
background knowledge, lack of strategic approaches to collecting and interpreting
data, as well as physical or sensory challenges that might inhibit their full
participation, (b) students’ preferences for representation, action and expression,
and engagement, and (c) individual students’ strengths and challenges.
Floating and sinking example: Most students are familiar with the concept of
sinking and floating. However, the level of experience with sinking and floating will
be different for different learners. Many may not have considered why something
would float or sink.
Step 3: Plan instruction and assessment: This step includes planning methods to
scaffold exploratory experiences, offer choices that would proactively address
WKHJRDOVRIWKHLQTXLU\DFWLYLW\DVZHOODVWKHQHHGVRIWKHGLYHUVHOHDUQHUVDQG
consider ways to assess learning in a manner that includes options for students to
authentically demonstrate their understanding.
Floating and sinking example:7KHWHDFKHUGHFLGHVZKLFKOHYHORILQTXLU\ZRXOGEHVW
support the learners and creates options for different activities along a continuum
of exploratory activities moving from teacher-facilitated towards student-driven
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principles can be used to guide these instructional and assessment activities.
6WHS5HIOHFW7KLVVWHSLQYROYHVUHIOHFWLQJRQZKHWKHULQVWUXFWLRQUHVXOWHGLQWKH
desired outcomes, what strategies and supports worked well in helping students
DFKLHYHJUHDWHUVXFFHVVLQWKHLQTXLU\SURFHVVZKDWWRROVDQGWHFKQRORJLHVZHUH
helpful, and what did not work well.
206
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Floating and sinking example: 2QFH WKH LQTXLU\ DFWLYLWLHV DUH FRPSOHWH WHDFKHUV
should reflect on (a) the extent to which students’ misconceptions about sinking
and floating were dispelled and (b) the successes of students in learning how to ask
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7KXVWKH8'/,51SODQQLQJVWHSVFDQEHXVHGWRFRQVLGHUKRZLQTXLU\
science can be taught to address both the strengths and challenges that students face
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for how UDL can be used to plan meaningfully engaging science experiences to
students who might otherwise be left out of such experiences.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATING SCAFFOLDED LEVELS OF INQUIRY AND UDL
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WZRLQTXLU\OHVVRQVUHODWHGWRVLQNLQJDQGIORDWLQJPRGLILHGIURP7UQD7URYDDQG
Svobodova (2012) and Banchi and Bell (2008).
Sinking and Floating Teacher Guided Inquiry Activity
If students have limited experience with exploratory science activities, they may be
resistant to attempting an exploratory activity. In these situations, it might be helpful
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Trnova, and Svobodova (2012) described an activity where students are given balls
of different densities and shapes to discover whether they would sink or float. In
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YROXPHHJLURQSODVWLFDQGSRO\VW\UHQHDQGSRVHVWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKLFKEDOOV
will sink and which ones will float when put in water? Students then put each ball in
water to test whether it sinks or floats.
Examples that demonstrate multiple means of engagement: Teachers can promote
interest in this lesson with an exploratory activity using different shapes, sizes
and densities of balls while encouraging students to work on this activity
collaboratively. To obtain meaningful engagement, teachers should also explicitly
state that the purpose of the activity is to dispel misconceptions about floating and
sinking and build background knowledge about the relationship between mass,
volume, and density.
Examples that demonstrate multiple means of representation: Because students
DUHVWLOOOHDUQLQJKRZWRGHYHORSVFLHQWLILFTXHVWLRQVDQGDVVRFLDWHGSURFHGXUHV
using a guided science notebook with directions for how to note observations and
field notes may be helpful for the students. The guided science notebook could
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a tool in clarifying any student misconceptions. To build background knowledge,
teachers can also offer different visual and auditory options such as videos and
simulations showcasing different materials sinking and floating. Lastly, once the

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M. ISRAEL ET AL.
teacher introduces the vocabulary associated with the scientific exploration, he

or she should clarify those words associated with this activity including density,
mass, iron, plastic, and polystyrene.
Examples that demonstrate multiple means of action and expression: The teacher
offers students multiple tools for presenting their data. For example, students can
illustrate their findings as drawings or figures, use a teacher-created or student-
created data sheet, or explain their results verbally. The teacher can then model
how to create a data table and facilitate a discussion about the data.
Students are given support and scaffolding within this exploratory activity. This
type of exploration allows students to learn about data collection and analysis
in a manner that includes teacher support and feedback. Teachers should offer
formative feedback along the way to ensure that the students learn the necessary
data collection and analysis skills that will allow them to move towards other
RSHQLQTXLU\DFWLYLWLHV
Sinking and Floating Guided Inquiry Activity
Once students have a more sophisticated understanding of scientific investigations,

teachers may want to provide them with options for more student-driven exploratory
activities. This does not mean, however, that the students are not going to need some
level of scaffolding and support. Banchi and Bell (2008) provided another sinking
DQGIORDWLQJDFWLYLW\WKDWLVOHVVWHDFKHUGULYHQLHJXLGHGLQTXLU\,QWKLVDFWLYLW\
the teacher begins by asking the students to predict whether a can of regular or diet
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test whether their predictions were accurate. Once they learn that the regular soda
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regular soda sink as compared to a can of diet soda? At this point, rather than giving
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brainstorm their own procedures. The class then discusses the students’ ideas and
collectively decides on a procedure. As a whole group, the teacher guides the
students through the student-developed procedures. In this way, the students directed
the investigation even though the entire class did the experiment. The same types of
UDL instructional planning should go into this open-exploration activity.
Examples that Demonstrate Multiple Means of Engagement
Teachers can facilitate student interest with an opening activity of predicting which
can of soda will float and which one will sink, and then conduct the experiment
to test out if their predictions were accurate. The teacher can also offer students
opportunities to work collaboratively to brainstorm ideas regarding how to test
why the can of regular soda sinks as compared to the diet soda, which floats. For
students with more limited background knowledge or those who struggle with
making complex predictions, the teacher can find other items that may be either
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more familiar to the students or consider alternative demonstrations. Again, the

teacher should explicitly state that the purpose of the activity is to begin to dispel
misconceptions about floating and sinking and build background knowledge about
the relationship between mass, volume, and density.
Examples that Demonstrate Multiple Means of Representation

The teacher offers options for different visual and auditory information by including
resources such as videos and simulations showcasing different materials sinking and
floating. Clarify vocabulary associated with this activity including mass, density,
and relative density. For example, the students can develop a Frayer Model (Frayer,
Frederick, & Klausmeier, 1969) or concept map for vocabulary that includes the
word, a definition, examples, and non-examples (see Figure 3). For students who
struggle with writing, this Frayer Model can be made into a manipulative activity
where students are given the definitions and the “so what” statements and then they
sort examples and non-examples.
Figure 3. Student-developed frayer model for the term density
Examples that Demonstrate Multiple Means of Action and Expression
Offer students multiple options for presenting their procedures and data. For
example, students can illustrate their procedures in different ways through words
or diagrams. For students who struggle with open-ended activities, it is important
for teachers to check these procedures before they apply them. The students can
then record their findings through either a teacher-created or student-created data
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M. ISRAEL ET AL.
sheet. This type of activity can be modified as well to support students with different
instructional needs. For example, students can work collaboratively on recording
findings and students who use assistive technologies such as text-to-speech software
can dictate their findings using such technologies. Lastly, students can explain their
results verbally as well as through writing or drawings. The students are given a
great deal of support and scaffolding within this exploratory activity.
CONCLUSION
Students with disabilities and other struggling learners can be successful within
authentic scientific exploration. However, unless teacher educators provide new
teachers with the tools for meeting the needs of these learners, these new teachers
might attribute lack of success to the students’ disabilities rather than to a lack
of effective pedagogical approaches. If, on the other hand, new teachers learn to
develop instructional experiences that provide support and guidance, students with
GLVDELOLWLHVFDQEHPHDQLQJIXOO\HQJDJHGLQLQTXLU\OHDUQLQJ7KLVFKDSWHUSURYLGHGD
method for developing engaging instruction by using the UDL framework to develop
VFDIIROGHGLQTXLU\OHVVRQV
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%DQFKL+ %HOO57KHPDQ\OHYHOVRILQTXLU\Science and Children, 46(2), 26.
CAST. (2011). Universal design for learning guidelines version 2.0. Retrieved from
http://www.udlcenter.org/sites/udlcenter.org/files/updateguidelines2_0.pdf
mastery. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education Research.
Harris, C. J., Penuel, W. R., D’Angelo, C. M., DeBarger, A. H., Gallagher, L. P., Kennedy, C. A.,
&KHQJ % + .UDMFLN - 6 ,PSDFW RI SURMHFWEDVHG FXUULFXOXP PDWHULDOV RQ VWXGHQW
learning in science: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
52±
+HUURQ0'7KHQDWXUHRIVFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\School Review, 79±
Israel, M., Maynard, K., & Williamson, P. (2013). Promoting literacy-embedded, authentic STEM
instruction for students with disabilities and other struggling learners. Teaching Exceptional Children,
45±
Kennedy, M. J., & Wexler, J. (2013). Helping students succeed within secondary-level STEM content:
Using the “T” in STEM to improve literacy skills. Teaching Exceptional Children, 45±
.ODKU' 1LJDP07KHHTXLYDOHQFHRIOHDUQLQJSDWKVLQHDUO\VFLHQFHLQVWUXFWLRQHIIHFWVRI
direct instruction and discovery learning. Psychological Science, 15±
.UDMFLN-3URMHFWEDVHGVFLHQFH(QJDJLQJVWXGHQWVLQWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOOHDUQLQJThe Science
Teacher, 82
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of the next generation science standards. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25±
Marino, M. T., Israel, M., Beecher, C. C., & Basham, J. D. (2013). Students’ and teachers’ perceptions
of using videogames to enhance science instruction. Journal of Science Education and Technology,
22±
0DVWURSLHUL0$6FUXJJV7(1RUODQG-%HUNHOH\60F'XIILH.7RUQTXLVW(+ &RQQRUV1
(2006). Differentiated curriculum enhancement in inclusive middle school science: Effects on
classroom and high-stakes tests. The Journal of Special Education, 40±
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teaching of scienceSS±&DPEULGJH0$+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Taylor, J., Therrien, W. J., Kaldenberg, E. R., Watt, S. J., Chanlen, N., & Hand, B. (2013). Using an
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and longitudinal data. Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 15
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J. Holbrook, & F. Rauch (Eds.), Inquiry based science education in Europe: Reflections from the
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UDL-IRN. (2011). UDL in the instructional process: Version 1.0. Lawrence, KS: Author.
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based science classrooms. Teaching Exceptional Children, 45
Yin, Y., Tomita, M. K., & Shavelson, R. J. (2008). Diagnosing and dealing with student misconceptions:
Floating and sinking. Science Scope, 31±
Maya Israel
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Champaign County, Illinois
Saadeddine Shehab
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Quentin M. Wherfel
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KEVIN D. FINSON
19. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND DEVELOPING

EXPLANATIONS FOR ALL
My first encounter with students having special needs occurred nearly forty-five
years ago. I was a relatively new middle school science teacher. My task was to
select curriculum materials usable with students in special education classes. Back
then, most students with special needs were segregated into special classrooms rather
than being placed in mainstreamed classrooms. The “least restrictive environment”
(LRE) concept had not yet been clearly articulated as policy to become standard
RSHUDWLQJSURWRFROLQVFKRROV,QGLYLGXDOVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV$FW<HWLQP\
school, we were already doing mainstreaming as often as possible. In that sense, we
were ahead of the curve, yet we were ill-informed and very clumsy in our approach.
Our entire approach was to find an “easy” textbook we could adopt and give to those
students. We narrowed our selection to a couple of textbooks that were simple in
their reading level and information complexity. The textbook we selected to use for
my eighth-grade students with special needs was actually a fifth-grade book.
The book’s information was superficial and lacked depth, and had few science
activities for students to perform. The activities contained in it were shallow
and limited to the lowest levels of cognition. Most of the activities had limited
focus on observation and collecting simple data, but did not extend much beyond
that. Students were never presented opportunities (or expected) to identify and
control variables, generate and test hypotheses, organize and analyze data they
collected, draw conclusions from results and make explanations about it, or make
connections to other science sub-disciplines or other non-science disciplinary
knowledge. Students were directed through some simple science activities, yet
were not allowed to actually do much science. It was simple, it was direct, and it
was easy.
Unfortunately, many regular education science teachers today regenerate this very
model when having students with special needs in their classrooms. The practice is
most pronounced in those classrooms whose teachers have not had (much) exposure
to special education practices. The goal: to make the science easier by watering it
down. The result is often teaching those students science that is two or more grade
levels below where they actually should be functioning, an idea derived from a
common misconception that those students are also cognitively impaired (Kahn,
:LOG :ROVH\ +DHJHOH ,Q IDFW PDQ\ RI WKHVH VWXGHQWV SRVVHVV DERYH
average intelligence (Finson, Ormsbee, & Jensen, 2011).
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K. D. FINSON
FULL INCLUSION AND ACCESS
From what we know now about effective science instruction, watering down the
science is seriously inappropriate and does a grave disservice to students. The
practice places undue restrictions on students counter to federal and state laws about
OHDVWUHVWULFWLYHHQYLURQPHQWV,QGLYLGXDOVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV$FW)XUWKHULW
fails miserably in addressing national science education standards. The National
Science Education Standards1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLOFOHDUO\QRWHGDOO
students should be effectively engaged in learning and doing science. The Next
Generation Science Standards Appendix D (NGSS Lead States, 2013) continued
E\HPSKDVL]LQJDOOVWXGHQWVVKRXOGH[SHULHQFHKLJKTXDOLW\VFLHQFHVSHFLILFDOO\RQ
SDJHVDQGZKHUHLWVWDWHV
Students with disabilities have their Individualized Education Programs (IEPs),
specific to each individual that mandate the accommodations and modification
that teachers must provide to support student learning in the regular education
classroom. By definition, accommodations allow students to overcome or
work around their disabilities with the same performance expectations of their
peers…
The goal of science instruction for students having special needs should not be
to make science easier by degrading or watering it down, but instead by making it
more accessible to those students and helping them attain the same performance
expectations targeted for other students (Hardman & Dawson, 2008). The science
teacher can accomplish this in one of three ways by dealing with science written
PDWHULDOVVFLHQFHSURFHGXUHVDQGRUVFLHQFHHTXLSPHQWVHH)LJXUH
Figure 1. Three types of revisions to meet the accommodation needs of students
By making accommodations, we are setting the stage for students to be more fully
engaged in doing the kind of science and learning that is appropriate cognitively,

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SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND DEVELOPING EXPLANATIONS FOR ALL
developmentally, and conceptually. Making accommodations must be deliberate.

Teachers must be made aware of what they are and how to do them, and then support
must be provided to help teachers make them. In special education terminology,
adaptations are steps taken in educational environments that allow students with
disabilities to participate fully in learning by compensating for their weaknesses.
Accommodations are changes made to accomplish adaptations without changing
the curriculum. Students receiving accommodations read the same material and
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(GXFDWLRQ *XLGH 6XFK FKDQJHV PDNH LW PRUH OLNHO\ WKDW VWXGHQWV KDYLQJ
VSHFLDO QHHGV FDQ DGHTXDWHO\ DFFHVV OHDUQLQJ RSSRUWXQLWLHV LQ VFLHQFH DQG KDYH
success in their science learning. In their observations of students with special
needs in middle school classrooms, Wehmeyer, Lap-Rinker, and Agran (2003) noted
WHDFKHUVDFWXDOO\DGDSWHGPDWHULDOVOHVVWKDQRIWKHWLPH6XSSRUWVKRXOGDOVR
emphasize adaptations are to be made to help students succeed and build upon their
capabilities. In their study of teacher-made curricular adaptations, Kurth and Keegan
IRXQGWKDWKDOIWKHLUWHDFKHUVUHSRUWHGPDNLQJDGDSWDWLRQVEHFDXVHRIVWXGHQW
deficits rather than student potentialities and capabilities.
Specific instructional design principles effective in improving students’ science
comprehension, understanding of science process skills, and higher order thinking
were identified by &DUQLQHDQG&DUQLQHDQGHPSKDVL]HGE\&KLDSHWWDDQG
Koballa (2006) (see Figure 2). Each of the principles should be systematically
Figure 2. Effective instructional design principles

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K. D. FINSON
incorporated throughout instruction. Krutts, Matthews, and Smallwood (2009) added

to this the importance of utilizing multiple means of representation (visual, graphic,
auditory), and providing students means to share their understandings via multiple
means of expression. These strategies were supported by Barton-Arwood and Little
(2013) in their work examining the impact of graphic organizers on learning in
students having special needs.
The Role of Graphic Organizers
A wide variety of graphic organizer exist that could be of utility to the science
teacher. Among them are concept maps, word webs, Frayer model diagrams (see
Figure 3) (Frayer & Klausmeier, 1969), and Venn diagrams.
Figure 3. Frayer model diagram
)LQVRQ2OVRQDQG(PLJHPSKDVL]HGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWHDFKHUVFDUHIXOO\

in selecting or creating the types of visual representations used in graphic organizers
to teach students science concepts. What is effective for one student need may be
different than what is effective for another. The teacher should take time to teach
students how to interpret various parts of a graphic representation in order to make
sense of the whole. Barton-Arwood and Little (2013) noted visual representations
can make obscure content more readily understandable and accessible, which in turn
helps students connect relevant facts to key concepts and more clearly understand
them. A key is for the teacher to be aware of the cognitive loading associated with
each type of graphic representation. The more iconic the representation, the less
cognitive load demand typically placed on the learner (Finson, Olson, & Emig,
DQGWKHPRUHHIIHFWLYHDQGHIILFLHQWWKHOHDUQLQJEHFRPHV.LQJ6HDUV
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Dickenson et al. (2011) noted the additional importance for the teacher to control
for extraneous load by eliminating construct-irrelevant information in graphic
organizers and simplifying language wherever possible.
Additionally, the teacher should provide students opportunities to generate and
explain their own visual representations to convey their understandings of science
FRQFHSWV%RWK)LQVRQHWDODQG%DUWRQ$UZRRGDQG/LWWOHVSRNHWRWKH
importance of teachers using appropriate scaffolding with graphic representations,
guiding students to the point where they can independently generate their own.
Inherent in such guidance is teaching students how to identify main conceptual ideas
and relevant key points, how to select appropriate kinds of graphic organizers to use,
and where to place it within the organizers.
Another critical component of this process is dialog. The teacher must take
time to genuinely dialog with students on both the process- and content-related
aspects of the task. This dialogue is not just a top-down approach from teacher to
VWXGHQW([SODQDWLRQVDQGJXLGLQJTXHVWLRQVXVLQJDSSURSULDWHDFDGHPLFODQJXDJH
are important. Dialogue helps students better understand and put into practice
LPSRUWDQWDQGQHFHVVDU\VFLHQFHSURFHVVHVUHTXLVLWHIRUVFLHQFHLQYHVWLJDWLRQDQG
see how content can inform which processes to use, and how data derived from
the application of those processes can connect to content. Dialogue helps students
conceptually connect written and verbal language to representations they see and
make, and helps students understand interconnectivities between different forms of
representations. The importance of this cannot be overemphasized. Olson (2013)
identified a spectrum of types of visual representations ranging from very concrete
LFRQLFWRYHU\DEVWUDFWV\PEROLF±DQRWLRQDQWLFLSDWHGE\-HURPH%UXQHU6LPSO\
Psychology, 2013) (VHH)LJXUH).
Figure 4. Spectrum of types of visual representations (after Olson, 2013)
Virtually any science concept can be conveyed in each of these representational

forms. An example is the moon’s phases. The moon’s position relative to the earth
and sun can be shown in 3D models, and similarly shown in photographs and

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K. D. FINSON
drawings. The concept can also be shown in data tables and graphs. As a student
grows in understanding the fullness of the concept, he/she can more readily interpret
and see how each of the representations conveys something about that same concept.
The student can then draw from that learning to relate and explain his/her level of
understanding about the concept of moon phases in a more holistic way.
Other Steps to Improve Access
The science teacher may do other things to increase access to science. Finson,
Ormsbee, and Jensen (2011) worked with science and special education teachers
to develop guidelines specific to the purpose of adapting science activities and
assessments. Although many of the guidelines were derived directly from successful
teaching experiences, the effectiveness of these guidelines has been verified through
research. Although we do not have enough space here to go through all of them,
several of them have repeatedly appeared in literature: simplifying, breaking things
GRZQ.LQJ6HDUVLQFUHDVLQJZKLWHVSDFH'LFNHQVRQHWDOXVLQJ
templates, matching visual representations to words/terms, guiding notes (Jimenez,
/R 6DXQGHUV RSHQLQJ UHVSRQVH PRGHV DQG DFFHVVLEOH HTXLSPHQW DQG
materials. The basic characteristics and some examples of each are shown in
Table 1.
Within the step of Breaking Things Down, a task analysis may be helpful. Within
a complex procedural step in an activity’s directions, something must be done first,
and then there is something else that must be done second. Certain tasks must be done
prior to other tasks in order to complete the step. In a task analysis, you determine
ZKDWWKHVHWDVNVDUHDQGWKHVHTXHQFHLQZKLFKWKH\VKRXOGEHGRQH2QHZRXOG
also do well to teach task analysis to your students as a potential problem-solving
approach. When confronted with a complex task, students may feel overwhelmed,
particularly if they have difficulties processing large amounts of information in
short periods of time and/or have reading processing issues. The strategy is for
them to learn to identify what the overall task is trying to get at, then determine the
VXEVWHSVQHFHVVDU\WRJHWWKHUHDVZHOODVWKHVHTXHQFHWKURXJKZKLFKWKRVHVXE
steps should be followed. Browder et al. (2012) successfully utilized this strategy
with middle school students having moderate to severe developmental disabilities.
For the Using Templates step, both Finson et al. (2011) and Browder et al. (2012)
described using templates to help students work through processes and problem-
solving. Finson et al. (2011) presented two examples of using templates, one for an
DFWLYLW\RQWHVWLQJS+VHH)LJXUHDQGRQHIRUXWLOL]LQJDIRUPXODIRUVSHHGVHH
Figure 6).
With respect to Matching Visual Representations to Words/Terms, many science
teachers are able to comfortably associate a scientific term with a visual representation
showing or including the term. To many students with special needs, this is not the
case. Browder et al. (2012) investigated 21 middle school students’ learning through
DQLQTXLU\LQYHVWLJDWLRQRIPDJQHWLVP6WXGHQWVZHUHSUHDQGSRVWWHVWHGUHJDUGLQJ
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Table 1. Some steps to improve access
Step Characteristics Example

Simplifying Communicates ideas without complex Taking a longer complex sentence and making two or three
grammar and punctuation (or more) shorter and simpler sentences out of it. Reducing
Challenges science understanding punctuation (e.g., excessive commas). Reducing use of
Avoids “dumbing down” material prepositional phrases. Using clear subject-verb agreement, etc.
Avoids challenge of reading readiness
Breaking Things Identifies a task and breaking it down into Using Task Analysis: Determine end task to be accomplished,
Down VPDOOHUVHTXHQWLDOVXESDUWVPRUHHDVLO\ then determine the higher order precursor tasks necessary to
done complete end task. Then determine successive lower-order
Aids with processing large amounts of precursor tasks necessary for each of the higher order precursor
information tasks. Continue breaking down tasks until a base level is reached
(level at which students can already function)
Increasing White Decreases cognitive load by separating Separating sub-steps of complex procedures by additional white
Space information with white space so the line spaces.
eye can more easily focus on relevant Placing a graphic in its own space below/above text rather than
information within the text itself.
Makes information easier to digest in Placing white space between images or parts of images.
parts
Using Templates Helps students work through processes Using template in pH testing wherein students attach strips of pH
and problem-solving, papers used in testing
Helps students keep track of results Using mathematical formula template, starting with sentence
Helps students present results in form, then word form, then symbolic form with blanks or boxes
organized manner for values to be inserted
Organizes information in graphic format
(Continued)
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220
Matching Visual Associates a scientific term with its Placing different visual representations close to each other so
K. D. FINSON
Representations to relevant visual representation VWXGHQWVFDQTXLFNO\VKLIWWKHLUIRFXVIURPRQHWRWKHRWKHU

Words or Terms Helps students learn more complex while supporting those representations with written text (short
words/terms and associate them with narratives, labels, etc.)
pictures related to them, and then use
those words to form concept statements
Guiding Notes Outlines of lectures or of reading with Students use an outline form to mine key information from an
blanks inserted where students are to auditory presentation and place it into a visual representation that
fill in key information from presented is easier for them to process
material
Helps students receive information in a
concise, visual format
Helps students who typically have delays
in processing auditory inputs (e.g.,
autism)
Of growing usefulness in contexts with
relaxed time constraints (e.g., flipped
classes)
Opening Response Provides many opportunities to broaden Changing from primarily lecture mode to incorporate more
Modes the modalities through which information visual and tactile experiences. Providing graphic organizers and
LVSUHVHQWHGWRVWXGHQWV±DXGLWRU\WDFWLOH visual representations, allowing students to have more tactile
YLVXDO±DQGWKURXJKZKLFKVWXGHQWVFDQ experiences with lesson-relevant materials connected to the
respond to instruction. “lecture” material.
Uses multiple response modalities to Allowing students to share their learning and understandings in
improve likelihood learning will occur multiple modes (writing, creating graphic representations, etc.)
Allow student to draw on a Smart Board to show conceptual
information from activity
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Accessible 3URYLGHVVWXGHQWVZLWKHTXLSPHQWWKDW Audio-output pH meters and thermometers and balances
(TXLSPHQWDQG enables them to successfully conduct 8VLQJ%UDLOOHOHWWHUVDQGQXPEHUVRQHTXLSPHQWVXFKDVPHWHU
Materials science investigations VWLFNV±REWDLQDEOHWKURXJKWKH$PHULFDQ3ULQWLQJ+RXVHIRUWKH
3XUFKDVLQJRUPDNLQJHTXLSPHQWDQG Blind (www.aph.org)
materials to support special learning :KHHOFKDLUIULHQGO\$'$WUD\VIRUWDEOHWRSV±REWDLQDEOHWKURXJK
needs Scientific Plastics, Inc. (www.sales@scientificplastics.com)
/DZUHQFH+DOORI6FLHQFHHTXLSPHQWDQGDFWLYLWLHVIRUVWXGHQWV
having visual and/or physical disabilities (SAVI-SELPH) now
available through curriculum entities such as FOSS
,QIRUPDWLRQRQKRZWRPRGLI\FODVVURRPPDWHULDOV±7KH1DWLRQDO
0LGGOH6FKRROV$VVRFLDWLRQKWWSZZZQPVDRUJQHVVXPKWP
Information about development of curricula and instructional
PDWHULDOVIRUVWXGHQWVDWDOOOHYHOVZLWKDQ\PDQQHURIGLVDELOLW\±
through Science Education for Students with Disabilities (SESD)
(http://www.sesd.info/aboutus.htm)
Ideas for modifying materials for special needs learners available
through the University of Washington’s DO-IT (www.washington.
edu/doit/)
Materials development ideas through the teacher education
department at the University of Northern Iowa
Guidelines for modifying written activities and assessments through
Corwin Press book co-authored by Finson, Ormsbee and Jensen
7HDFKHUPRGLILHGHTXLSPHQWVXFKDVDWWDFKLQJKDQGOHVWREHDNHUVRU
graduated cylinders, or marking metersticks with colored masking
tape along the edges of each decimeter section
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K. D. FINSON
Figure 5. Template for pH papers
Figure 6. Template for formula
their understanding of magnetism and terms related to the concept. The test focused
RQVWXGHQWV¶DELOLW\WRLGHQWLI\DQGFUHDWHTXHVWLRQVDQGK\SRWKHVHVFROOHFWGDWDDQG
use measurement tools, analyze data, and communicate results. Findings revealed
when students were able to associate written words with pictorial representations,
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they were able to learn and retain more complex understandings of the concept. In a
VLPLODUZD\)LQVRQHWDOGLVFXVVHGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISODFLQJGLIIHUHQWYLVXDO
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVFORVHWRHDFKRWKHUVRVWXGHQWVFDQTXLFNO\VKLIWWKHLUIRFXVIURPRQH
to the other, and that image proximity enhanced associations students were able to
make about a concept or part of a concept.
7KH LQTXLU\EDVHG FODVVURRP SURYLGHV PDQ\ RSSRUWXQLWLHV WR EURDGHQ WKH
modalities (auditory, tactile, visual) through which information is presented to
VWXGHQWVDQGWKURXJKZKLFKVWXGHQWVFDQUHVSRQG6FLHQFHLQTXLU\OHQGVLWVHOIYHU\
nicely to Opening Response Modes (National Association of Special Education
Teachers, n.d.). An old axiom in special education is that the more response
modalities one can incorporate into the learning process, the more likely it is that
learning will occur.
With regard to Accessible Equipment and Materials, the issue is not the modality
EXWLVSURYLGLQJVWXGHQWVZLWKHTXLSPHQWWKDWHQDEOHVWKHPWRVXFFHVVIXOO\FRQGXFW
VFLHQFHLQYHVWLJDWLRQV2QHFDQSXUFKDVHRUFUHDWHVSHFLDOL]HGHTXLSPHQWGHSHQGLQJ
upon the special need. Table 1 provides some sources teachers may turn to for help
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APPLICATIONS TO THE INVESTIGATIVE PROCESS:

BRINGING IT TOGETHER
In robust science investigative processes, students are either presented with or

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Whether they next refer to related background information they may have already
encountered or do that after analyzing their data, at some point students should be
expected to connect what they’ve learned to other science and non-science content.
The formulation of a hypothesis typically follows, along with a study design (steps
to follow, items to use, etc.). Predictions are made, protocols enacted, data are
collected and analyzed, conclusions are made based upon collected evidence, and
then that is communicated with others. Less robust instances may involve only one
or two of these processes. A number of very good tools are available to help teachers
successfully guide students through such processing steps. One of the most well-
NQRZQ LV WKH ( %\EHH HW DO +RZ \RX DSSO\ WKH ( VWHSV RU IRU DQ\
another model or strategy) in an effective way should be much the same as you apply
it with other students. What might be different is how you utilize each of the steps.
)LJXUHSURYLGHVVRPHXVHIXOGHWDLOVDERXWKRZ\RXFDQGRLW
CONCLUSION
Making science accessible to all students via specific accommodations is not only
ZKDWWKHQDWLRQDOVFLHQFHVWDQGDUGVSURPXOJDWHDQGIHGHUDODQGVWDWHODZUHTXLUHV
but is the moral and ethical action science educators should strive to do. Students
with special needs are no less deserving of experiencing the excitement of science
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K. D. FINSON
Figure 7. Five-E model with accommodations
than anyone else. They are no less deserving of understanding that which will help
them in their lives ahead. The key is to get students involved with investigative
science. Teachers should not present science in a watered-down approach to
students who are intelligent and struggle with disabilities that limit the ways they
can access learning. Rather, teachers should strive to engage students and immerse
them in the richness of exploration and investigative science. Science is virtually
XQLTXH DPRQJ GLVFLSOLQHV LQ WKH YDULHW\ RI ZD\V LW FDQ EH XWLOL]HG DQG H[SORUHG
represented, understood, and shared. The multidimensional attributes of science
provide the teacher many ways to help students access science and engage with it.
That is what makes science so ideal for teaching to students who have special needs.

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REFERENCES
Barton-Arwood, S. M., & Little, M. A. (2013). Using graphic organizers to access the general curriculum at
the secondary level. Intervention in School and Clinic, 49±GRL
Browder, D. M., Trela, K., Courtade, G. R., Jimenez, B. A., Knight, V., & Flowers, C. (2012). Teaching
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Peoria, Illinois
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KEVIN FLEMING AND DINA SECCHIAROLI
20. LEARNING SCIENCE BY DOING SCIENCE

Developing Scientific Explanations and Engaging in Argumentation
in the Inclusive Science Classroom
To fully appreciate the role of science, students must recognize how science can
provide the means to construct explanations for phenomena occurring in our
universe. Students’ meaningful learning in the NGSSEDVHGFXUULFXOXPUHTXLUHV$//
students in an inclusive classroom to integrate the three dimensions (disciplinary
core ideas, crosscutting concepts and science and engineering practices) (NGSS
Lead States, 2013). Science is not about memorizing facts and figures, but rather
making sense of the world around us, driven by observations and evidence. When
constructing scientific arguments, claims must be supported by evidence and
justified with reasoning. Argumentation and constructing explanations are essential
skills students need to be scientifically literate citizens.
To make sense of scientific phenomena, students use the practices of constructing
explanations and engaging in argumentation within the phenomenon’s context, not
just extracting the underlying science content on a cursory level. Authentic science
learning is not about learning the content first, then seeing it confirmed in a lab or
in a demonstration but instead is a process of discovery. Moving from merely cause
and effect to a more comprehensive chain of reasoning is driven by students drawing
conclusions, constructing explanations and making arguments. Authentic science
OHDUQLQJZLWKGLVFRYHU\DVWKHIRXQGDWLRQUHTXLUHVDQLQFOXVLYHVFLHQFHFODVVURRP
ZKHUHDOOOHDUQHUVFDQDFWLYHO\HQJDJHZLWKHTXLW\RIDFFHVVWRDWWDLQPDVWHU\
The National Research Council’s (NRC) A Framework for K-12 Science
Education defines scientific explanations as “accounts that link scientific theory
ZLWK VSHFLILF REVHUYDWLRQV RU SKHQRPHQD´ S 6WXGHQWV GHPRQVWUDWH
their understanding of scientific ideas and phenomena by developing their own
explanations based on the evidence collected, measured, or observed. Students also
have the challenge of evaluating competing explanations, where the emphasis of
evidence-based thinking is underscored. Students not only construct explanations,
EXWWKH\DOVRFULWLTXHHYDOXDWHDQGUHYLVHWKHLUUHDVRQLQJ5HDVRQLQJLVWKHORJLFDO
thinking that explains why the reasons makes sense and how students came to
determine them. In order provide an inclusive setting where all learners can engage
in these active learning processes, the utilization of a strengths-based model such as
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) accessibility model is critical. In doing so, all
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K. FLEMING & D. SECCHIAROLI
students have the opportunity to engage in discovery, collaborative sense-making,

constructing scientific explanations, and making arguments (Center for Applied
Special Technology (CAST), 2011)
THE ROLE OF EXPLANATION AND ARGUMENTATION IN SCIENCE
The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) defines argumentation as

³WKH SURFHVV E\ ZKLFK H[SODQDWLRQV DQG VROXWLRQV DUH UHDFKHG´ S 7KH
argumentation process is needed to advance and defend an idea or explanation in
science. To participate fully in learning science, we need to teach all students the
VNLOOVUHTXLUHGWRJHQHUDWHVFLHQWLILFDUJXPHQWVDQGWREHDEOHWRLGHQWLI\SRVVLEOH
weaknesses or limitations. The reasoning behind an argument is where issues of
the validity can be addressed. When students exchange and evaluate competing
arguments they further build their scientific understanding. Building capacity for all
VWXGHQWVWRHQJDJHLQDUJXPHQWDWLRQDQGFRQVWUXFWLQJVFLHQWLILFH[SODQDWLRQUHTXLUHV
active efforts to utilize inclusive design of instruction and sustain rigorous, but
supported learning experiences.
CHALLENGES FOR STUDENTS AND INCLUSIVE STRATEGIES

TO SUPPORT ALL LEARNERS
Constructing explanations and engaging in argument are challenging endeavors for

students, exacerbated by the fact that these skills are often not taught explicitly or
are omitted entirely from instruction (McNeill, Lizotte, Krajcik, & Marx, 2006).
7HDFKHUVPD\RSHUDWHRQWKHSUHVXPSWLRQWKDWVWXGHQWVDUHDOUHDG\HTXLSSHGZLWK
the skills and tools needed to engage in argument or explanations. Perhaps teachers
may struggle with instructional approaches to build all students’ capacity. “Without
support for learning these new ways of knowing, doing and talking science, students
may not relate to science and even actively resist learning it” (McNeill et al., 2006,
S $ ODFN RI OHDUQLQJ VXSSRUW FDQ KDYH GHOHWHULRXV HIIHFWV RQ WKH LQFOXVLYH
science classroom, resulting in disparities or deficit thinking. By anticipating and
understanding possible challenges, and applying the principles of UDL, teachers can
strategically design instruction to support all learners (Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST), 2011; described in Chapters 9, 11, 12, and 18).
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Strategic instructional design in an inclusive setting involves utilizing a repertoire of

high-leverage instructional strategies that promote the diverse strengths of students
and align with the UDL framework accessibility model, which is “a research-based
set of principles to guide the design of learning environments that are accessible and
effective for all” (CAST, 2011). UDL has guidelines representing its three primary
principles: Provide multiple means of representation so all students can access content;
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LEARNING SCIENCE BY DOING SCIENCE
provide multiple means of action and expression so all students can participate and
show learning; and provide multiple means of engagement so all students can be
HQJDJHGLQWKHOHDUQLQJ&$67S0XOWLSOH'UDIW5HDGLQJ0'5 is one
strategy that supports students’ utilizing evidence when students are constructing an
explanation or engaging in argumentation accomplished by reading a text multiple
times with a specific focus for each reading (Gallagher, 2011). The negotiation
SURFHVVIDFLOLWDWHVHTXLW\WKURXJKVWXGHQWVSXEOLFL]LQJWKHLUWKLQNLQJZKHQHQJDJLQJ
LQDUJXPHQWDWLRQ7KHQHJRWLDWLRQSURFHVVSURYLGHVDVWUXFWXUHWRHYDOXDWHDQGFULWLTXH
SURSRVHGDUJXPHQWVZKLFKUHTXLUHVVWXGHQWVWREHUHFHSWLYHWRPXOWLSOHSHUVSHFWLYHV
The Four Corners Debate promotes student discourse and provides multiple means
of engagement through a protocol with various roles for students to take within
interdependent groups. Other strategies such as language frames are more utilitarian,
providing support for students to articulate their thinking across multiple modalities.
Utilizing Evidence
The challenge of using appropriate and sufficient evidence to justify arguments and
support scientific explanations may be an obstacle. For some students, the struggle
may lie with understanding the nature of evidence, including having the capacity
and confidence to sift through evidence in order to identify appropriate and relevant
evidence to use. One challenge may be the preponderance of evidence and sources
that students may need to draw upon (McNeill & Krajcik, 2012). A saturation of
evidence may further confound students’ selection of evidence best-suited to support
their explanation or argument. Students may also hold a reliance on anecdotal
information such as opinions or personal views.
Multiple Draft Reading (MDR) facilitates students’ learning from models of
explanations and arguments (Gallagher, 2011). While printed material is fixed,
using MDR makes the information more malleable for students as they dissect the
text through multiple layers of salience. However, MDR can be used with any text
modality, whether it is in print, a visual or an object (e.g., newspaper article, graph,
experiment’s procedure, etc.) aligning well with the tenets of UDL (CAST, 2011).
In MDR students close read a text multiple times with the teacher setting a different
purpose for each read (Table 1).
For example, in a ninth-grade physical science class, students analyzed arguments
regarding the use of minerals mined from conflict zones (conflict minerals, which
are mined and sold to continue the conflict) in the Congo, a topic that optimized
relevance and authenticity, which support UDL (CAST, 2011). While reading,
students gathered evidence to support their arguments as to whether businesses should
be responsible for ensuring metals used in their products do not fund militarized
JURXSV LQ WKH &RQJR $V VWXGHQWV LQLWLDOO\ UHDG WKH\ UHFRUGHG TXHVWLRQV DERXW
the text. In small-group discussions, students clarified their understanding before
analyzing the arguments. Group discussion after reading allowed for confusions and
misconceptions to be clarified and for the class to co-construct understanding. In the
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second reading, students underlined important claims, evidence, and reasoning

found in the texts. Students discussed their analyses before the final read, writing
down any connections between the texts or insights in the margins.
The intent of using this strategy is engaging students in “purposeful knowledge-
construction interactions” (Reiser & Kenyon, 2012, p. 9). Students used their deeper
understanding of conflict minerals and natural resources to develop claims, supported
with textual evidence collected during MDR. Students then answered the prompt
through argumentative writing. Students later investigated the minerals’ distribution,
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XVHGWRIXUWKHUUHILQHVWXGHQWV¶WKLQNLQJDQGWRFULWLTXHDQGUHYLVHWKHLUDUJXPHQWVDW
the end of the unit.
Table 1. Possible uses for multiple draft reading
Sample usage Reading focus

Close reading a news article to evaluate Draft 1: Circle claims being made
an argument Draft 2: Underline evidence used
Draft 3: Place in brackets where author
provides reasoning
3HHUFULWLTXHDQDUJXPHQWIURPDSHHU¶V Draft 1: Identify evidence
lab report to provide feedback on Draft 2: Evaluate reasoning
constructing and revising an argument Draft 3: Identify weaknesses in the
argument/propose revisions
Close read a graph or figure’s utility in Draft 1: What are the parts?
supporting a scientific explanation or Draft 2: What does it say?
argument Draft 3: What does it imply?
Gather evidence-based accounts and Draft 1: What’s similar across texts?
explanations from multiple texts/ Draft 2: What’s contrary?
sources Draft 3: Which sources have greater
validity? Which have greater bias?
Going Public with Students’ Argumentative Thinking
After developing an explanation or argument, students can then go public with their
WKLQNLQJRSHQWRRWKHUV¶HYDOXDWLRQRUFULWLTXH6RPHRIWKHFKDOOHQJHVZLWKJRLQJ
SXEOLFPD\LQFOXGHDVSHFWVRIWKHOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWVXFKDVHTXLW\RIYRLFHV
supporting students in taking risks, and ensuring that students are actively listening
to understand rather than listening to respond. Students may struggle to consider
alternative perspectives. Considering competing arguments and explanations can
help further inform a student’s own understanding.
Using a negotiation process creates an environment where students can share their
understanding while considering multiple perspectives. Negotiation is an iterative
process where students collaboratively engage in argumentation and construct
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scientific explanations (Figure 1). In negotiation, students begin by analyzing a

TXHVWLRQ DQG LGHQWLI\LQJ ZKHWKHU WKH TXHVWLRQ LV WHVWDEOH LQ WKH FODVVURRP VHWWLQJ
or better suited for information research. The negotiation process has multiple
avenues of representation where all learners have appropriate resources and
important information to contribute to the co-construction of the argument (Kuhn &
McDermott, 2013). Providing multiple means of representation as well as action
and expression are two of the primary principles of UDL (CAST, 2011). Students
FDQ FRQYH\ WKHLU WKLQNLQJ WKURXJK PXOWLSOH PRGDOLWLHV RSWLPL]LQJ WKHLU HTXLWDEOH
and active contribution to the community of diverse learners. In doing so, support is
provided without diminishing rigor and authenticity.
Figure 1. Negotiation process adapted from Kuhn and McDermott (2013)

and UDL (CAST, 2011)
For example, in a middle school earth science unit students engaged in

developing a design solution to landing the Mars rover. Before breaking into
student design teams, the class collaboratively came to consensus on the criteria
and constraints in designing a solution. Student teams explored proposed design
features, articulating their reasoning for why these proposed claims would address
the design problem. By collaborating during the gathering of information and
generation of arguments, student thinking was made visible allowing students to
learn from each other.
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Once teams developed their first ideas through a visual of their design plan
and written narrative, students presented the group’s argument (i.e., their design
VROXWLRQ (TXLSSHG ZLWK VXIILFLHQW HYLGHQFH WR VXSSRUW WKH DUJXPHQW VWXGHQWV
provided justification and coherent reasoning. Articulation of logic can be difficult
IRUVWXGHQWVUHTXLULQJWKHPWRGUDZXSRQFRQWHQWNQRZOHGJHDQGLQTXLU\VNLOOVWR
provide the “why” in the argument or explanation. Providing language frames can be
used to support thinking and improve communication (e.g., “I wonder what would
happen if_____;” or “I predict that if we ____ then ___ will happen”). However,
language frames do not replace student thinking. Language frames promote
multiple means of engagement as they assist students expressing their thinking,
which could benefit a student with an Autism Spectrum Disorder who may need
support in social pragmatics when engaging in discourse. Language frames can also
be used within other strategies, striking the balance between providing appropriate
VXSSRUWIRUVWXGHQWVZLWKRXWSURSDJDWLQJGHSHQGHQF\.LQVHOOD )HOGPDQ
such as a student with dysgraphia who may need some support in articulating
through writing.
Using language frames, teams presented their arguments and other teams offered
FULWLTXHVKHOSLQJHDFKJURXSUHYLVHDQGGHHSHQWKHLUWKLQNLQJHJ³0\UHDVRQLQJ
was similar/different than __ group’s because___,” or “How would this be different
if___,” or “I am wondering about___”). Debriefing afterwards allowed students
WR UHIOHFW RQ KRZ WKH FULWLTXHV KHOSHG VKDSH WKHLU WKLQNLQJ DQG QH[W VWHSV <RRQ
Bennett, Mendez, & Hand, 2010).
After teams made revisions, students used a graphic organizer to compare their
proposed design solutions to those found in research (e.g., two simulations from
https://mars.nasa.gov/ showing how the rovers landed), where students identified
similarities and differences between their proposed designs and elements of the
NASA lander systems. This additional information was used to further revise their
arguments, not to supplant students’ thinking. Seeing their initial ideas supported by
the ideas of practicing engineers also served to promote students’ willingness to go
public with their thinking and take intellectual risks, aligning to an important aspect
of UDL (CAST, 2011).
Considering Multiple Perspectives
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explanations and arguments, students’ ability to objectively apply evidence-based
thinking is challenging. Information not fully aligning with students’ preconceived
notions or personal beliefs may by subjectively rejected rather than objectively
considered (McNeill & Krajcik, 2012). This cognitive dilemma may be influenced
by students’ understanding of the nature of evidence and the content knowledge
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHSKHQRPHQRQRULGHDXQGHUVWXG\&RQVHTXHQWO\DFRPPRQVWUXJJOH
for students is the ability to maintain their perspective and defend their argument
ZKLOHEHLQJUHFHSWLYHWRRWKHUSHUVSHFWLYHVWKDWPD\VHHPHTXDOO\VRXQG
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Four Corners Debate.HQQHG\LVDGLVFRXUVHULFKVWUDWHJ\WKDWHQJDJHV

students in argumentative thinking around a claim that elicits multiple responses.
Sample topics could include genetic engineering in agriculture, clear-cutting forests,
EXLOGLQJ LQ HDUWKTXDNH RU IORRG ]RQHV RU IRVVLO IXHOV YHUVXV DOWHUQDWLYH HQHUJ\
sources. This strategy works well at any point in a unit as it allows teachers to
assess content knowledge and students’ abilities to construct explanations and make
arguments.
In a high school biology class, the teacher uses the strategy to evoke student
thinking about varying perspectives on humanity’s impact on ecosystems. In the
first step, students are presented with the claim “Killing elephants for their ivory
is justified,” which elicits varying levels of agreement. Students initially decide
what level of agreement they have with the claim (e.g., Strongly Agree, Agree,
Disagree, or Strongly Disagree) and write a rationale for their position with at least
two reasons. Having students organize their thoughts before a discussion helps to
support executive functioning and serves as a “scratch pad,” allowing students to
discover their thoughts, capturing it for future use (CAST, 2011). This step can
be particularly helpful for a student with an attention disorder who may become
distracted and not convey their initial ideas before responding to others in the
group. This step would also benefit students who may need a starting prompt when
speaking to others.
Next, students move to meet with others at the corner representing their perspective
where chart paper or a dry erase board is posted. Before students move, clear paths
for all students to reach their corner are ensured (e.g., space for students who utilize
mobility aids). After the differentiated roles for collaboration are explained, students
choose their role, negotiating as needed (Table 2). “When carefully structured […]
peer cooperation can significantly increase the available support for sustained
engagement” (CAST, 2011, Checkpoint 8.3).
Guided by the student-facilitator and supported by the peacemakers, students
share their written reasoning within the corner group to activate background
knowledge. Having each corner’s argument recorded in writing honors students
varying processing rates as students can refer to the group’s recordings throughout
the lesson, benefitting students with auditory processing disorders who may not
recall the entirety of the conversation. Each group also gathers evidence to support
the group’s claim. Making sure all learners could access information, some students
watch videos while others read articles or study infographics, providing multiple
PHDQV RI UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ 7KHVH YDULRXV PHDQV UHGXFH EDUULHUV DQG LQHTXLWLHV
establishing multiple avenues for students to activate their background knowledge,
which contributes to co-construction of new learning (CAST, 2011). Students
share evidence that includes data on elephant poaching rates, elephant population
dynamics, elephants’ niche in the food web, reaching consensus on why students
support their position. The recorder drafts the collective argument on the chart paper
or dry erase board.
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Table 2. Sample student roles
Role Function
Facilitator facilitates the discussion, ensuring
HTXLW\RIYRLFH
Recorder records the claims and rationale
Peacemakers upholds and encourages following
the norms
Presenter(s) presents the group’s argument
Timekeeper keeps the group on pace to finish
within time limits
In the third step, each corners’ presenters then share their initial claims, evidence
and reasoning with the class, while everyone actively listens, with the option of
recording notes in a graphic organizer. Providing an auditory representation of the
information that was recorded at each group’s corner supports the needs of diverse
learners. Students then have the chance to revise their positions, and move again to
the corner representing their current thinking. Students who move to a new corner
briefly share their rationale and explain how the sharing of multiple perspectives
informed the shift in thinking, building a culture of receptive listening.
Finally, students in their new corner have the opportunity to re-examine the
argument and refine their claim, evidence and reasoning before conducting a gallery
walk. Providing this opportunity allows students to conduct a self-assessment and
reflect. During the gallery walk, students use two types of sticky-notes, providing
an active reminder to students who may need task prompts while circulating the
URRP 2Q WKH VTXDUH VWLFN\ QRWHV VWXGHQWV SRVH TXHVWLRQV DQG XVLQJ UHFWDQJXODU
sticky notes, students offer rebuttals and counter-claims. For students who benefit
from additional processing time, they could remain at their own corner longer to
FRQWLQXHWRUHIOHFWDQGSRVHDGGLWLRQDOTXHVWLRQVWRWKHJURXSEHIRUHFLUFXODWLQJWKH
room. Within a diverse classroom, there can be an array of potentially threatening
conditions to learning. Using sticky-notes as the vehicle of feedback rather than direct
conversations reduces potential threats or risks perceived by students, minimizing
anxiousness or frustration by students who may have a speech impediment or
are deaf or hard of hearing. However, all learners are still actively engaged and
accountable for their contributions.
Transformation of information is an active process and “the purpose of education
is not to make information accessible, but rather to teach learners how to transform
accessible information into useable knowledge” (CAST, 2011, Guideline 3). Four
Corner Debate’s interactive nature promotes students’ co-constructing and revising
their thinking within the multiple perspectives among the groups. As one biology
teacher reflects, the strategy “allows all students to share their current levels of
understanding and their opinions about a topic without the pressure of being right or

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wrong” (personal communication). In doing so, “students learn the value of finding
evidence to back up and strengthen their positions, showing the difference between
argument versus opinion,” promoting evidence-based thinking and reasoning
(biology teacher, personal communication). The welcoming of multiple evidence-
based arguments “… gives [all students] more confidence to share with the class”
(biology teacher, personal communication). Four Corners provides an opportunity
for all learners to enter the unit with a real-world application that grounds the unit
conceptually, a critical guideline within UDL (CAST, 2011).
CONCLUSION
Challenges students may encounter should not propagate deficit thinking. The focus
needs to shift to a strengths-based model focusing on the whole child (Connor, Valle, &
Hale, 2012), utilizing a repertoire of instructional strategies that align with a model such
as UDL that promote active inclusion. Students enter the classroom with experience in
argumentation and explanatory ability. Strategic planning allows teachers to capitalize
on these strengths and should focus on active inclusion to facilitate engagement with
multiple ways to access content. Teachers’ conveyance of clear expectations and
defined success criteria allow all students to self-regulate their own learning across
multiple means of representation, expression and engagement (CAST, 2011).
Three-dimensional learning within the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS
Lead States, 2013) and the NRC Frameworks (NRC, 2012) is grounded in ensuring
science for all. The next generation of citizens need to have a solid foundation in
VFLHQFH DQG LQTXLU\ UHJDUGOHVV RI ZKDW FDUHHU SDWK WKH\ FKRRVH $UJXPHQWDWLRQ
DQG VFLHQWLILF H[SODQDWLRQ DUH TXLQWHVVHQWLDO LQ GHYHORSLQJ VFLHQWLILF OLWHUDF\ 7KH
featured strategies can help create a classroom environment where all learners have
HTXLWDEOHDFFHVVWRHQJDJHLQFRQVWUXFWLQJVFLHQWLILFH[SODQDWLRQVDQGHQJDJLQJLQ
DUJXPHQWDWLRQ%\HTXLSSLQJVWXGHQWVZLWKWKHVHVNLOOVZHFDQHPSRZHUDOOVWXGHQWV
to make sense of the world around them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their contributions:
Heather Biancheri, Peter Dimoulas, Roseanne Haughton, Jillian Vigliotti, and our
ACES colleagues.
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Connor, D., Valle, J., & Hale, C. (2012). Forum guest editors’ introduction: Disability studies in education
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Gallagher, K. (2011). Write like this: Teaching real-world writing through modeling & mentor texts.
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15±
concepts and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
1DWLRQDO 6FLHQFH 7HDFKHU$VVRFLDWLRQ ,Q 1*66#167$ Science and engineering practices:
Engaging in argument from evidence. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from http://ngss.nsta.org/
3UDFWLFHVDVS["LG
Reiser, B., Berland, L., & Kenyon, L. (2012). Engaging students in the scientific practices of explanation
and argumentation: Understanding a framework for K-12 science education. Science Scope, 35(8),
±
Yoon, S., Bennett, W., Mendez, C., & Hand, B. (2010). Setting up conditions for negotiation in science.
Teaching Science, 56±
Kevin Fleming
Area Cooperative Educational Services
Professional Development and School Improvement
Hamden, Connecticut
Dina Secchiaroli
Area Cooperative Educational Services
Professional Development and School Improvement
Hamden, Connecticut
236
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SECTION 5
PROMOTING LITERACY IN SCIENCE
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Science for all Americans (AAAS, 1989, 1993), A Framework for K-12 Science
Education (NRC, 2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead
States, 2013) all call for egalitarian access to science education based on the
premise that all children can learn and practice science, including students from
underrepresented groups with special needs. The chapters in this section outline
methods to promote science and disciplinary literacies for all students.
:LOOLDP /LQGTXLVW DQG 5HEHFFD 1HDO &KDSWHU OHDG RII WKH VHFWLRQ ZLWK
narratives and vignettes. Within this chapter the authors describe 1) the central role
of science notebooks; 2) engagement in the doing of science; 3) the importance of
UHDOLDWKHXVHRIVFLHQFHWREXLOGHQJDJHPHQWIRUOLWHUDF\DQGH[SOLFLWVXSSRUW
in this understanding and use of the academic language of science. Throughout
their chapter, the authors share cornerstones of their own practices and present
models of how practitioners can fully embrace inclusive student-centered learning
environments supportive of scientific literacy.
Next, Michele Koomen (Chapter 22) focuses on disciplinary literacy (reading,
writing, and communication) in science. This chapter begins with the voices of
students with special needs included in general science education classrooms where
they talk about their experiences related to disciplinary literacy. Next, the author
presents a number of strategies that support students in reading expository text in
science classrooms. The author concludes the chapter by articulating strategies that
support writing in the discipline of science for all students. The strategies align
with the general principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL, CAST, 2012;
described in depth in Chapters 9, 11 and 12, ) making disciplinary literacy accessible
for all students in science.
REFERENCES
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). Science for all Americans. Washington,
DC: Author.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
concepts, and core ideas. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.
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WILLIAM LINDQUIST AND REBECCA A. NEAL
21. PROMOTING EQUITY, INCLUSION

AND ACCESSIBILITY IN LITERACY-RICH
SCIENCE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
In this chapter, we share our story of how we create an inclusive, student-

centered learning environment supportive of science and literacy for all students.
6FLHQFHLQVWUXFWLRQSUHVHQWV D XQLTXHO\ULFKHQYLURQPHQWSURYLGLQJGLUHFWKDQGV
on interactions with interesting phenomenon in a way all students are assured a
common foundation to collaboratively develop skills and conceptual understanding.
Through narrative and vignettes we describe (1) the central role of the use of a
science notebook; (2) engagement in the doing of science; (3) the importance of
UHDOLD WKH XVH RI VFLHQFH WR EXLOG HQJDJHPHQW IRU OLWHUDF\ DQG H[SOLFLW
support in the understanding and use of the academic language of science. We share
cornerstones of our practice, make connections to the relevant literature, and present
an image of how practitioners can completely embrace a fully inclusive, student-
centered learning environment supportive of science and literacy.
THE NEED FOR HIGH QUALITY INCLUSIVE SCIENCE EDUCATION
The role of science education has waxed and waned in importance throughout
our nation’s history. The post-Sputnik era raised the stark need for our nation to
reform the way our schools address science instruction resulting in a rich array of
new hands-on curriculum materials. This was heralded as successfully bringing an
improved landscape to science and mathematics classrooms. Unfortunately, this
UHIRUPLQVFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQGLGQRWLPSDFWDOOVWXGHQWVZLWKHTXDOEHQHILW³6FLHQFH
was seen as an elite subject. Despite claiming that the United States needed to
focus on science and mathematics, the reality was that only a small population had
full access. Mainly middle class white males benefited from that era of science
HGXFDWLRQ´3UXLWWS
Today’s Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013) focus on
DFRPPLWPHQWWRKLJKTXDOLW\VFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQDFFHVVLEOHIRUDOO<HWWKHUHUHPDLQ
both challenges and opportunities for English language learners and students with
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service teachers must take into consideration the diversity of students in such a way
they enter the field as teachers with the foundational skillset to effectively work with
all learners.
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W. LINDQUIST & R. A. NEAL
The Farkas Duffett Research Group (2012) conducted a survey of 3rd through
12th grade teachers to gain a picture of current classroom practice. They found
RIHOHPHQWDU\WHDFKHUVVXUYH\HGUHSRUWHGWKHH[WUDDWWHQWLRQJLYHQWRPDWKDQG
language arts has served to crowd out other subjects, including science. Teachers
described a trend toward more tightly scripted lessons and away from project-based
learning. Forty percent report struggling students getting extra help in math and/
or language arts were being pulled from their science classes. This is particularly
unfortunate in that effective science instruction has the power to engage the learner
at the students’ interest levels and abilities allowing them to “make sense of the world
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Quality science instruction serves to help all students “accelerate their competencies
LQOLWHUDF\DQGQXPHUDF\DVZHOODVVFLHQWLILFOLWHUDF\´3UXLWWS
THE USE OF SCIENCE NOTEBOOKS
Science notebooks are a foundational element in our pre-service elementary

science methods course. We use notebooks in a manner that provides each teacher
candidate a differentiated pathway to learning specific to their strengths and
capabilities. Notebooks provide a central place for students at all levels to bring
together language, data, and experience to form meaning for themselves (Klentschy,
2008). We model our use of science notebooks on that of practicing scientists as
they capture investigative data, make drawings, create charts, and formulate their
reflections and wonderings (Campbell & Fulton, 2003). The notebook we use is
consistent with those used in elementary classrooms. It is a locally made notebook
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SDJH FP î FP QRWHERRN 7KHVH ILW QLFHO\ LQ HOHPHQWDU\ VWXGHQWV¶ GHVNV
are right-sized for a unit of study, and can be personalized for both the teacher
and student. Students paginate their notebooks, date entries, capture key ideas in
an index, and organize the whole with a Table of Contents. Entries are a mix of
open ended narrative and response to prompts providing a structure to support the
academic language of the discipline.
Science notebooks provide students a means to bring substance to their thinking
in concrete, tangible ways aligned to their preferred learning styles. Students
choose the way to represent their thinking in words, phrases, sentences, pictures,
charts, graphs, photographs, etc. (Kotelman, Saccanie, & Gilbert, 2006). Seen as
a cornerstone to accessibility, one teacher candidate wrote on the role of science
notebooks as a natural tool for differentiation:
I especially like that science notebooksUHTXLUHDGLIIHUHQWVW\OHRIZULWLQJ«
I think it allows kids who otherwise might struggle with writing to have
another kind of writing experience with different expectations, “rules,” and
possibilities. It might give a struggling writer a chance to develop his or her
skills in a new way.

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PROMOTING EQUITY, INCLUSION AND ACCESSIBILITY IN LITERACY-RICH SCIENCE
Our methods course includes students whose native language is not English. A
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in a personally meaningful way. One teacher candidate wrote, “The drawing did help
me to note down the things that I didn’t know how to describe in appropriate scientific
ways.” These teacher candidates often use their native language in the notebook
bypassing the complex cognitive work necessary to translate while thinking.
When students are able to select their own way of representing knowledge through
combinations of writing and drawing, learning is enhanced and deepened (Shepardson &
Britsch, 2001). Children frame understandings of observed phenomenon through their
own experiential lens allowing them to pull an “external phenomenon into an internal
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ILQGLQJ³,WLVQRWDQRWHERRNRIIDFWVEXWUDWKHUDQRWHERRNRILQTXLU\±RIZRQGHULQJV
WKLQNLQJREVHUYDWLRQVFODLPVDQGH[SORUDWLRQ´$VFLHQFHQRWHERRNLVDWRRO±DWRRO
that allows the learner to “mess about” with their thinking in rough draft form. The
primary audience is the learner themselves removing a sense of judgement for doing
it the “right way” (Kotelman, Saccanie, & Gilbert, 2006). This non-judgmental space
to process their experience creates a safe space for learning to occur.
TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM
This section is divided into three main parts: engagement in the doing of science,
use of realia, and Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI). Through the use
of several vignettes, we share how we utilize a literacy-rich program of science
education to create fully inclusive, student-centered learning environments.
The following vignette describes an activity on the first night of class as we
begin work building concepts of density and relative density using common fruit in
uncommon ways.
Professor: “What do you know about apples?”

Teacher Candidate: “They’re red. They’re sweet. They have seeds.”
P: I probe a bit further “Are all apples red? Are all apples sweet? Do they
all have seeds?”
TC: “I think…” they say as their eyes gaze upward and their voice takes
on a slight lilt.
P: Holding the apple over a basin of water, I ask “What will happen if I
put it in the water?”
TC: “It will float.”
P: “What does floating look like? Is the apple on top of the water? Some
of it? How much? What orientation will it have? Red side up? Stem up?”

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The class begins to engage in the act of doing science. Teacher candidates
are put into groups, get an apple and basin of water, make a prediction and
carry out a test. I circulate, listen, and probe further, alert for someone to
say something about the concept of density. We pull together. I raise the
comment Elena (attributing the learning to the learning community) made
about density and build on it. We refine our current understanding of the
concept and develop a collaborative definition to capture in their notebooks.
More fruit is set out (e.g., kiwi, pears, mango, and oranges). Teacher
candidates continue to make predictions and perform tests. A high percentage
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and dissected into parts. They are startled to find the density of a banana is
not evenly distributed.
Questions emerge throughout the investigations. The singular concept of
density isn’t sufficient to know if an object will float or sink. We also need to
know the density of the fruit relative to the density of the water. As we continue
to seek understanding our discussion leads to the concept of relative density.
A new definition is crafted and added to the notebook.
During the second week, we return to these emerging ideas as we calculate the
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LQYHVWLJDWH WDON LQ JURXSV DQG VKDUH LQ FODVV ± WKDW FRQFHSWXDO GHYHORSPHQW
begins to firm up. It is this discourse based on a common experience that serves
to cement understanding. $GDSWHGIURP/OHZHOO\Q
Basing conceptual exploration in this kind of hands-on engagement with common

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Our teacher candidates come away surprised at how much interest, intrigue, and
unexpected surprise they found in the simple phenomenon of floating fruit. One
wrote:
Who knew bananas would float! I was certain it would sink, and declared so
loudly, right before it floated to the top of the water! Our motto tonight was to
“be OK with being wrong” I got to practice it multiple times.
Through this practice of engaging all students in the active doing of science,
each is able to gain the conceptual knowledge of the science content under
investigation without the need for previous knowledge, reading complex texts,
or computing intricate mathematical computations. Scientific understandings
are developed through the public interactions we have as a group. Promoting
science literacy through this pedagogy of doing DOORZV HTXDO DFFHVV WR
participation and knowledge building. Scaffolding in this way helps all students
make connections with the curriculum without a dependency on language level or
reading ability.

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IMPORTANCE OF REALIA
Central to effective and inclusive science education are the bridges we construct
with concrete, real materials. To illustrate the power of realia, teacher candidates
are given an unidentified fruit (tamarind) wrapped in a paper towel. A tamarind is
a fruit native to tropical Africa and India, widely grown in Mexico and unknown
to the majority of our learners. It is a pod-like fruit containing up to 12 large seeds
embedded in an edible pulp. Brown, brittle, outer shells open to a sticky, tart paste
enclosed by coarse, fibrous strands. Opening the pods provides a rich exploration
into this stringy, sticky substance.
As teacher candidate pairs explore, they are asked to generate as many
descriptive words as they can. Tools are made available (hand lens, rulers, scales,
pliers, cutters, hammers, etc.) to invite deeper explorations. The descriptive lists
grow deep and long. After a time of exploring, teacher candidates share out their
words. As they do so, I capture their words on the board organized by the five
senses. Once all observations are shared out, we step back and marvel at the rich
and descriptive language that came about as a result of active engagement with
realia.
In the following vignette, the professor describes what happens next.
I then suggest going back 30 minutes in time, and ask, “If I presented only a
picture, which of these descriptors would no longer remain on our list?” One by
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I then suggest going back in time once again, “If I presented only the word,
which descriptors would remain?” We go through the list again typically erasing
all of it.
I ask, “What do we typically give kids?”
When presented with a word that fails to connect with a concept from our
lived experience, we find ourselves in a blank stare. The first time I did this
as a participant I found I was able to use my phonemic awareness skills to
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any meaning to the word. Without context, it was only a collection of letters
arranged in phonemic patterns. All too often, this is where we begin with
learners. All too often, this is what our students with English as their second
language and special learning needs experience. We present a word, sound it
RXWVKDUHDFRQWH[WDQGDVNVWXGHQWVWRXVHLWLQDVHQWHQFH±DOOZLWKRXWWKH
vital processes of concrete experience and meaning making. It is critical we
begin with hands-on experience to build a reference set all students can use as
they seek meaning making.
In post-activity discussion, teacher candidates state this experience drives
home the stark difference of a learning experience grounded in realia vs. the
empty symbolism present within a simple arrangement of letters.

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CONCEPT-ORIENTED READING INSTRUCTION (CORI)
Questions that emerge naturally from investigations of interesting phenomenon

provide a focal point and purpose that drive students to learn more. This desire to learn
provides the motivation for further investigation or to look to text. Once engaged,
students are able to open the door to a waiting world of discovery. The intersection
of science with literacy creates engaged readers hungry to fill new gaps that have
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as those that apply their background knowledge as they encounter phenomenon
IRUPLQJTXHVWLRQVWKDWGULYHWKHPLQWKHLUVHDUFKIRULQIRUPDWLRQ³(QJDJHGUHDGHUV
want to learn; they take satisfaction in successful reading … they persist in the
face of difficulty and exert continuing effort until they have attained their goals
IRU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ«´ S (QJDJHG UHDGHUV XVH WKLV TXHVW IRU LQIRUPDWLRQ WR
consciously add to their knowledge base and expand the conceptual structures they
have been able to build.
Multiple studies have found literacy instruction building from a hands-on
investigative context creates significant growth in reading comprehension and
scientific understanding across achievement levels from at-risk to high-performing
(Guthrie et al., 2009; Romance & Vitale, 2001). Additionally, students have been
shown to display “significantly more positive attitudes and self-confidence toward
ERWKVFLHQFHDQGUHDGLQJ´5RPDQFH 9LWDOHS,PPHUVLQJRXUWHDFKHU
candidates in this kind of work provides them with the lived experience necessary to
meet the diverse learning needs of their future elementary students.
This rich intersection of science and literacy is based on the Concept-Oriented
Reading Instruction (CORI) DSSURDFK GHYHORSHG E\ -RKQ *XWKULH HW DO
A compelling characteristic of CORI is the attention to both science and literacy in a
way that is mutually respectful of each discipline. Improvement in science knowledge
exists side-by-side to the improvement of reading comprehension as desired
outcomes. “Students conduct science experiments to address a conceptual problem,
not merely to perform the procedure. Likewise, students use a reading strategy
to gain understanding and learn concepts” (Guthrie et al., 2009, p. 18). As such,
science provides the engaging context for students to utilize their skills of reading.
CORI integrates science experiences within the literacy block to purposefully build
engagement for the reading work to be done. Both reading and science are united
in their goal of gaining conceptual understanding. When integrated, performance
in the recognition and use of vocabulary, reading comprehension, and fluency of
texts containing science content along with an increase in proficiency of associated
science content knowledge is increased (Cervetti, Hiebert, Arya, & Pearson, 2006).
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE
Addressing academic language in the classroom is a critical element of creating

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OHDUQLQJ6WXGHQWVPD\KDYHZHOOIXQFWLRQLQJVNLOOVWKDWDOORZWKHPWRRSHUDWHTXLWH
successfully in the world, yet their ability to participate in the world of school, and in
particular the world of science, may fall short. Instructional support in the academic
language of science helps all students gain access to the world of science learning.
It provides students with the tools and support they need to communicate in the
language of science. That involves three parts: (1) technical vocabulary, (2) language
functions, and (3) language forms used by scientists.
Technical Vocabulary of Science
6WXGHQWV QHHG WR NQRZ WKH YRFDEXODU\ RI WKH OHVVRQ (TXLSSLQJ VWXGHQWV ZLWK
this vocabulary goes beyond copying words and definitions on a worksheet. It
begins with a reasoned identification of vocabulary to be introduced in a lesson,
vocabulary to be reinforced, and vocabulary identified for exposure only. To attain
a deep mastery of the vocabulary, students need direct and immediate experience
with the word. Building on that experience, they can successfully begin to develop
conceptual understandings. Anchored in their experience along with socially
HQJDJHG LQWHUDFWLRQV WKH\ DUH EHWWHU HTXLSSHG WR KROG RQ WR WKHVH QHZO\ DUULYHG
nouns of science. As the concepts arise within our hands-on work, we take the time
to collaboratively develop a working definition. These definitions are added to
students’ notebooks and the classroom Word Wall for future reference and support.
Academic Language Functions: The Processes of Science
Engaging in science is an active process. To be successful, students need a fully

developed understanding of what it means to speak of actions like analyze, explain,
interpret, or justify with evidence. Instruction must include meaningful interactions
with these words and how to use them.
Scientists act on their world. They create, they test, they predict, and they present
their findings with direct support from their evidence. Engaging in science operates
through verbs. To fully function in the language of science, students need to be
FRPIRUWDEOHQRWRQO\ZLWKWKHYRFDEXODU\QRXQVRIVFLHQFHWKH\QHHGWREHHTXDOO\
proficient in the actions (verbs) of science. We scaffold students’ learning as a way to
support them as they make these connections. As students interact with materials and
HDFKRWKHUWKURXJKDVNLQJTXHVWLRQVPDNLQJSUHGLFWLRQVFRQGXFWLQJLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
formulating and re-formulating their emerging conceptual understanding we take the
time to explicitly connect the language functions we have been using.
Academic Language Forms of Science
How do you talk in the language of science? How do you construct explanations?
How do you make comparisons? How do you write conclusions? What sentence
frames or structures can you make available for students? With the right tools, all

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students can successfully talk and write in the language of science. Developing the
rudiments of the academic language of science provides the structure necessary for
English Language Learners and students with special needs to express themselves in
the written language of science. Scaffolding prompts provide a language form that
VXSSRUWVDOOVWXGHQWVLQWKHLUVSHDNLQJDQGZULWLQJ)XOZLOHU)RUH[DPSOH
“I noticed ______; I wonder _____; I think _______” scaffolds an entry into the
language of science. The use of prompts may also help to facilitate clarification
of reasoning or extend scientific dialog (i.e., “I think _____ because ______,
also _________”). Through the use of written prompts, students gain the tools
to effectively write scientific conclusions and construct a meaningful narrative
)XOZLOHU
CONCLUSION
This chapter shared our story of how we support pre-service teacher candidates
as they gain the skill-sets and knowledge necessary to create inclusive learning
environments reflective of the breadth of diversity existing in today’s classrooms. In
summation, our methods course:
1. Engages teacher candidates in the doing of science using concrete interactions
with common materials.
2. Develops conceptual understanding based on shared experiences allowing all
teacher candidates to mutually benefit from ensuing discussions.
3. Utilizes science notebooks as a tool to foster thinking and archive development
of thought.
Uses science experiences as engagement for exploration with text following the
CORI model.
Provides support in the development of the academic language of the discipline
empowering all learners to talk and write in the language of science.
REFERENCES
%\EHH 5: 1*66 DQG WKH QH[W JHQHUDWLRQ RI VFLHQFH WHDFKHUV Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 25±
Campbell, B., & Fulton, L. (2003). Science notebooks: Writing about inquiry. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cervetti, G. N., Hiebert, E. H., Arya, D. J., & Pearson, P. D. (2006). Literacy outcomes in a large-scale
implementation of an integrated science and literacy program. Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Farkas Duffett Research Group. (2012). Learning less: Public school teachers describe a narrowing
curriculum. Washington, DC: Common Core. Retrieved September 1, 2016, from http://greatminds.
net/maps/documents/reports/cc-learning-less-mar12.pdf
NH: Heinemann.
Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A., Coddington, C. S., Klauda, S. L., Wigfield, A., & Barbosa, P. (2009). Impacts of
comprehensive reading instruction on diverse outcomes of low-achieving and high-achieving readers.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42±

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*XWKULH-7:LJILHOG$ 3HUHQFHYLFK.&Motivating reading comprehension: Concept-

oriented reading instruction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hakuta, K., Santos, M., & Fang, Z. (2013). Challenges and opportunities for language learning in
the context of the CCSS and the NGSS. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56 ±
GRL-$$/
Klentschy, M. P. (2008). Using science notebooks in elementary classrooms. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Kotelman, M., Saccani, T., & Gilbert, J. (2006). Writing to learn: Science notebooks, a valuable tool
to support non-fiction modes/genres of writing. In R. Douglas, M. Klentschy, & W. Binder (Eds.),
Linking science and literacySS±$UOLQJWRQ9$167$3UHVV
/OHZHOO\Q ' Inquire within: Implementing inquiry-based science standards in grades 3–8.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
National Academies Press.
3UXLWW61H[WJHQHUDWLRQVFLHQFHVWDQGDUGV*LYLQJHYHU\VWXGHQWDFKDQFH,Q2/HH(0LOOHU
R. Januszyk (Eds.), NGSS for all studentsSS±$UOLQJWRQ9$167$3UHVV
Romance, N. R., & Vitale, M. R. (2001). Implementing an in-depth expanded science model in elementary
schools: Multi-year findings, research issues, and policy implications. International Journal of
Science Education, 23±
Shepardson, D., & Britsch, S. (2001). The role of children’s journal in elementary school science
activities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38±
William Lindquist
School of Education
Hamline University
Saint Paul, Minnesota
Rebecca A Neal
School of Education
Hamline University
Saint Paul, Minnesota

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MICHELE KOOMEN
22. SOME OF THEM HAVE PROBLEMS,

TOO, LIKE ME
Science Disciplinary Literacy for All
OVERVIEW
This chapter will begin with voices of students with exceptionalities included in
regular science classrooms where they talk about their experiences in reading and
literacy followed by a section that overviews disciplinary literacy in science. The
next section of the chapter will present strategies that support students in reading
expository texts (texts that inform or explain vs. narrative text that is storied) that
are common in science classrooms and practical and feasible for science teachers.
Finally, various strategies that will support all students as they engage in writing in
the discipline of science, including the use of argumentative text structures, will be
outlined.
VOICES OF STUDENTS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

ON READING AND LITERACY
Anthony
I hated popcorn reading. Popcorn reading is literally when you read a

paragraph out loud to the class or however much you want to read and then
you just say “popcorn Anthony” and then Anthony would read the next part
and then Anthony would popcorn John and then John would continue. So, in
my experience popcorn reading is just totally up to students’ choice of who’s
reading as well as who reads next. In elementary school, I was a really slow
reader and I would try to read fast to make it seem that I wasn’t slow but then
I would miss over a lot of words. So, it’d be even worse than if I would have
actually just taken my time and read it. Whenever there was popcorn reading,
I would honestly do everything I could to like look away and tell most of my
classmates not to call on me.
One of the things that I had that was really nice was shared reading. I would
read with an aid or a paraprofessional and I would read a paragraph and then
she would read a paragraph and then I would and then she would. Because it
would give me the chance to look away from the words and just listen to what
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M. KOOMEN
she was saying and just really take in the information. That was really kind of
a nice way to just give my body a break from the struggles of reading.
I take a lot of breaks when I read. That’s a big thing just in terms of my
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±SDJHVRIWKLFNDFDGHPLFWH[WERRNWDNHVPHDERXWWKLUW\PLQXWHVDVORZ
pace, but the breaks really help. Another thing I will do especially in textbooks
is look at all of the headings and I check all of the bold words.
Christy
In science, there are all of those big words. I look around the classroom and
I see that some kids are doing okay, but some of them have problems too,
like me. It is kind of hard to understand what she [the teacher] is teaching
because of all of those big words that she talks about. In the book, the big
words are darker so you know exactly the words you really should learn and
they have pictures to help you. But when my teacher is talking, she does not
use as many pictures and that makes it hard for me to understand. It is also hard
for me to write a summary or something like that. I just can’t get what I am
thinking onto a piece of paper.
DISCIPLINARY LITERACY IN SCIENCE
Disciplinary literacy is discipline specific literacy aimed at learning how to read,

think about, write, communicate and use information like each discipline’s expert,
LQWKLVFDVHOLNHDVFLHQWLVW=\JRXULV&RH7KXVGLVFLSOLQDU\VSHFLILFOLWHUDF\
involves the tasks and processes of reading, writing, thinking, and communication
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emphasizing the habits of mind that are specific to each discipline (Zygouris-Coe,
2012). By promoting engagement in these processes, disciplinary literacy “builds
an understanding of how knowledge is produced in the disciplines, rather than just
EXLOGLQJ NQRZOHGJH LQ WKH GLVFLSOLQHV´ 0RMH S 7KH LPSRUWDQFH RI
reading, writing, and speaking literacies to scientists is championed in new science
education reform documents. The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead
States, 2013) and A K-12 Framework in Science Education (National Research
Council, 2012) share common emphases in scientific sense-making and language
use across the interrelated practices of science and engineering.
Disciplinary Literacy Strategies
Students who have difficulty in reading often are learning to read and reading to
learn at the same time. While they read, they practice and apply reading strategies
and at the same time deepen their knowledge of fundamental literacies such as letter

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SOME OF THEM HAVE PROBLEMS, TOO, LIKE ME
and sound relationships, word families, and spelling patterns (Robb, 2002). This
section will focus on reading comprehension and vocabulary strategies, applicable
in elementary and secondary science classrooms where science and informational
texts are used to support development of knowledge of science. The strategies will
align with the general principles of Universal Designed in Learning (UDL, described
in Chapters 9, 11, 12, and 18) making disciplinary literacy accessible for all students
in science (UDL; Center for Applied Special Technology, 2012). The three UDL
principles promote multiple means of representation, engagement and expression
for all students.
Reading Comprehension Strategies
Teaching comprehension strategies is an attempt to teach students how to think while

they read. Students with difficulty comprehending text may not realize that they
should actively monitor while they read for comprehension and go back and reread
passages that are difficult. They also may not know what strategies to use as they
read to monitor themselves (Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, & Baker, 2001). The research
and practitioner literature feature a plethora of reading strategies that will support
students in reading texts that are common in science classrooms, including read
alouds, shared reading, text structures, graphic organizers, QTA, self-monitoring
strategies and summarizing (Koomen, Weaver, Blair, & Oberhauser, 2016).
Read alouds and shared reading. Read alouds and shared readings are two common
strategies used to develop comprehension strategies. In a read aloud, the teacher
reads the text, often to a whole class, while students listen. Read alouds introduce
important text to students they might not otherwise be able to read and comprehend
independently. “Read alouds create opportunities for the teacher to use multiple
pathways to promote understanding of the content of the text including intonation,
facial expressions, and gestures” (Fisher & Frey, 2008, p. 80) which are all very
important for students who are challenged by reading. The purpose for the read
aloud is to focus on the content of the text with students. In shared reading, students
follow along in their own text while the teacher reads. Shared reading is a bridge
between teacher directed read aloud and student directed independent reading, a
strategy noted as helpful by Anthony. Shared reading allows teachers to address
comprehension strategies through modeling while they are reading such as: pointing
out text structures, interpretation of text graphics and visuals, making inferences,
summarizing, and self-monitoring (UDL principles of representation, engagement
and expression). Popcorn reading experienced by Anthony is neither a read aloud
or shared reading strategy and puts a reader who struggles in an uncomfortable spot
light.
The use of props, diagrams, manipulatives and illustrations while reading
DQGVWRSSLQJSHULRGLFDOO\WRDVNTXHVWLRQVRIVWXGHQWVDUHRWKHUPHWKRGVWRVXSSRUW
emerging readers (UDL principle of representation). For example, in the excerpted

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M. KOOMEN
text of an adaptation of a primary scientific article (Figure 1: adapted findings text;

Burghardt, Tallamy, & Shriver, 2008), the teacher would read the text while the
VWXGHQWVIROORZHGDORQJSRLQWRXWEROGHGNH\YRFDEXODU\ZRUGVDQGDVNTXHVWLRQV
about what the findings mean (Figure 1: adapted table). Teachers and students would
engage in rich discussions about the text and what it means.
Adapted findings. The scientists found that caterpillar abundance was about four times
higher in native yards than non-native yards, and species richness was almost four
times higher in native yards (Adapted table). Native bird abundance and richness
(the number of types of birds) were also significantly higher in the native yards.
Interestingly, more insectivores (insect-eating) birds were observed in native versus
non-native gardens, but there was no difference in omnivore abundance across the two
types of properties.
Adapted table: Native and non-native plots
Measurement Native (SE) Non-native (SE) p

Caterpillar <0.001
abundance
Caterpillar species 6.6 (1.1) 1.8 (0.8) <0.001
richness
Bird abundance 16.9 (1.8) 11.0 (1.0) <0.001
Bird species richness 18.8 (3.1) <0.001
Insectivore
abundance (birds)
Omnivore abundance 3.8 (1.1)
(birds)
Figure 1. Adaptation of text and table (from Burghardt, Tallamy, & Shriver, 2008).
Abundance is a measure of the total number of individual caterpillars and birds
observed (for birds this was averaged across all of the points in the yard, and
for caterpillars it was the total number observed at all 12 sampling points).
Species richness is a measure of the number of species observed
(adapted from Burghardt, Tallamy, & Shriver, 2008).
Text structures. Text structures help guide students’ comprehension of text and help
students access text and understand its purpose, noted by Christy above. In science
informational and textbooks, text structures break up the running text and help the
reader navigate. Example of text structures might be the table of contents, heading
and subheadings, and titles or subtitles (Cummins, 2013). Additional elements of the
text may provide further support for student comprehension and concept building

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as they read the running text, including maps, diagrams, photographs, illustrations,
and captions (UDL principle of representation). Using informational texts such as
National Geographic Explorer (http://ngexplorer.cengage.com/pathfinder/) or the
1DWXUDO,QTXLUHUKWWSZZZQDWXUDOLQTXLUHURUJDOORZWHDFKHUVWREXLOGDZDUHQHVV
of the text features in use rather than in isolation.
Graphic organizers. Graphic organizers are visual displays that illustrate

relationships between terms, facts and ideas with far less text. Graphic organizers
help students to organize information as students read (UDL principles of
representation and expression). Two examples of common graphic organizers are
found in Table 1.
Table 1. Examples of graphic organizers
Classifying things Cluster topic web

Write your topic in the center circle
and details in the smaller circles.
Add circles as needed.
What is it? Is it living or How do
nonliving? we know?
Self-monitoring. In reading, self-monitoring means that students are noticing what

they do and do not understand while reading and repairing the meaning when it
breaks down. Self-monitoring is a strategy that proficient readers use when they
come across a passage in a complex text that is confusing or lose track of where they
are but are able to automatically refocus and repair their understanding (Cummins,
2013). For example, after reading a paragraph or passage in a text, students code
their thinking with the following symbols on a sticky note:
* This information is familiar
+ This is new information
? I’m not sure I understand that information
! Wow!
QTA (Question the author). When we read, we do not understand what the author
is saying; rather we figure out what the author means. Authors cannot tell us
everything. Readers construct meaning by understanding what the author is saying,

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M. KOOMEN
figuring out what the author means, and forming opinions based on the author’s
meaning and what the reader already knows. The teachers job in a “QTA is to post
WKHW\SHVRITXHVWLRQVWKDWFDQKHOSVWXGHQWVXVHZKDWWKH\NQRZDQGILJXUHRXWZKDW
WKHDXWKRUPHDQV´&XQQLQJKDP $OOLQJWRQSS±VXFKDVSURPSWV
like: What is the author telling us about ___?
Summarizing. In order for students to summarize a text, students have to

“restate the essence of the text or an experience in as few words as possible or in
DQHZ\HWHIILFLHQWPDQQHU´:RUPHOLS$WHDFKHUZRXOGPRGHOKRZWR
use a summarizing tool such as a graphic organizer (Table 2) first by reviewing
a text passage with the students. After reading the text, students generate the
main idea in their own words using supportive text and evidence from the passage
(UDL principle of expression). After the summary is complete, have the students
share it with a partner or group and go back to the text as needed to polish their
thoughts.
Table 2. T-chart for summarizing
T-chart summarizing tool

Main idea Details, evidence, examples
Example:
Research team used comparative
plots for their study
Vocabulary Development
Science is loaded with many technical terms that challenge students with difficulty
reading, as noted above by Christy. There are many strategies that will support students
with challenges in vocabulary skills, such as preview and pre-teach difficult vocabulary
and concepts, word sorts, and 10 most important words, to name just a few.
Preview and pre-teach difficult vocabulary and concepts. Teachers can pre-teach
difficult vocabulary or concepts before students begin reading a science text. Pre-
teaching using pictures and illustrations will allow students to have a mental model
of the vocabulary word before they begin the reading. Vocabulary words can also be
built into a science word wall or bank (a science specific version of a word wall or a
FODVVOLVWWKDWLQFOXGHGHILQLWLRQV=\JRXULV&RH
Word sorts. Word sorts (Table 3) are a non-intimidating vocabulary strategy that
has hidden potential for creating semantic relationships among words and reasoning
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RSHQZRUGVRUWVRUFORVHGZRUGVRUWV*LOOHW .LWD,QDFORVHGZRUGVRUWWKH

teacher selects the words and also the categories that the words will be sorted into. In
an open word sort, the teacher gives students words but asks them to then categorize
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words related to plant life cycles, but the student would categorize the words. This
makes the word list an open word sort.
Table 3. Life cycle word sort
stem soil
flower plant
corn bean
grass sunflower
seed coat embryo
food storage cotyledon
sun soil
Ten most important word strategy. 7KH WRS PRVW LPSRUWDQW ZRUGV 7DEOH LV
a vocabulary strategy that promotes deep understanding of words within a text and
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student in close reading of text and thinking about the meaning of the words in a
student’s own words. It invites a student to explain what the words mean and why
they are important for his or her understanding (UDL principles of representation and
expression).
Table 4. Ten most important words
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

During reading (on my What does the word Explain why the word
own) mean? is important to this
Identify what you think Definition in my own article’s topic. (Complete
are the 10 most important words after reading and use to
words of this article. discuss with others why
this word is important to
your understanding of the
topic)
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1993) suggest a number of tools that will support
students with reading challenges, including organizational pictures, maps,
diagrams and summary charts and tables, all of which would help students like
Christy build science vocabulary (UDL principles of representation and expression).

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M. KOOMEN
Organizational pictures, maps and diagrams. Organizational pictures integrate

concepts and information presented in texts such as life cycle of a butterfly, food
chains, open and closed circuits, or diagrams about how blood moves through the
body. They are similar to graphic organizers although they originate within the
written text. Organizational pictures can be displayed in the classroom as points of
references for all students and added to science notebooks. Different parts of the
organizational pictures can be represented by different colors to facilitate student
orientation to the schematic components.
Summary charts and tables. Summary charts and tables allow students to
synthesize important information covered in reading texts and decrease the need
for reading skills. For example, summary charts may contain pictures of the types
of simple machines, accompanied by short phrases describing the main attributes
of the simple machine. These same charts and tables can also be included in student
notebooks.
Advance organizers. Advance organizers prompt students to think about their

prior knowledge related to a topic such as using analogies, KWL charts, or
skimming text excerpts. They can be presented to students before they begin a
reading to help focus attention, get students thinking about their prior experiences
about the topic or concept, and preview the reading coming up. The teacher would
prompt students with phrases such as: What do you know about simple machines
or a food chain?
Writing in the Discipline
Writing in science provides students with a way to communicate, think about,

process, and synthesize science content and scientific investigations. Writing
in science promotes meaningful learning in science content (the concepts
and principles or the big ideas of science), scientific thinking (reasoning
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observations, developing hypotheses, planning, testing and analyzing data, and
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<RXQJ,VHEUDQG 2EHUKDXVHU 6FLHQFH ZULWLQJ IRU VWXGHQWV ZKR DUH
challenged in writing may be mediated by the use of graphic organizers and
sentence frames.
Using graphic organizers and sentence frames to teach science skills. Like
reading, graphic organizers help students to organize information as they write.
)XOZLOHU GHVLJQHG WKH IROORZLQJ JUDSKLF RUJDQL]HU 7DEOH WR IDFLOLWDWH
student writing as they make observations. Sentence prompts or frames guide all
students in their writing (UDL principles of representation and expression).

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Table 5. Fulwiler sentence frames for observations
Observations and thinking Prompts

Think of the four senses (not taste) Size, color, lines, patterns, texture,
weight, smell/odor, sound, behavior…
I observed ______.
I noticed ______.
Connect it with what you know or have It reminds me of ______ because of
investigated ______.
Observe and record cause and effect When it ______, it ______.
Note any changes At first, ______. But, now ______.
%HFXULRXVDQGDVNTXHVWLRQV\RXPLJKW I am curious about ______.
investigate It surprised me that ______because
______.
I wonder what would happen if ______.
How does ______ affect ______.
Source: Adapted from Fulwiler (2007, p. 156, with permission of Heinemann Publishers)
Useful words and phrases in scientific writing. A useful tool to promote

independent writing for all students is to create a class chart that includes a
variety of sentence prompts or frames that they can use in their writing (Table 6).
Developing written scientific explanations and argumentation. In scientific

argumentation, the goal is to generate, verify (through empirical and experimental
data), communicate, debate, and modify explanations for the purpose of refining
and building consensus about scientific ideas or phenomenon (Llewellyn,
2013). This chapter draws from the work of McNeil et al. (2006) and Llewellyn
(2013) to delineate a framework for explanation (first four components) and
DUJXPHQWDWLRQDOOFRPSRQHQWVZULWLQJ7KHFULWHULDIRUHDFKFRPSRQHQWDUH
listed below.
Evidence: is the scientific data that support the claim. Data are information
such as observations and measurements that come from natural settings or
FRQWUROOHG H[SHULPHQWV DQG FDQ EH HLWKHU TXDQWLWDWLYH RU TXDOLWDWLYH (YLGHQFH
can be represented in multiple ways, from a figure to a detailed description. To be
effective, data need to be appropriate, sufficient and scientifically relevant.
ClaimLVDVWDWHPHQWWKDWH[SUHVVHVWKHDQVZHURUFRQFOXVLRQWRDTXHVWLRQRUD
problem. A claim concludes a scientific investigation by answering the research
TXHVWLRQ
Reasoning: the reasoning provides a logical connection between the evidence
and the claim. It relies on patterns, theories, and scientific principles to justify
why the evidence supports the claim. Each piece of evidence may have a different
justification for why it supports the claims.

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M. KOOMEN
Table 6. Fulwiler useful words and phrases in scientific writing
Questions Observations Contrasts Sequence of time,

cause and effect,
reasoning
What would happen I observed __. __, but __. First, __.
if __? I noticed __. __, whereas, __. Next, __.
How does (the When __. However, in Then, __.
changed variable) After __. contrast, __. Finally, __.
affect (the At first __. If, __, then, __. So,
measured, observed, But now, __. This leads to __.
or responding As a result, __.
variable?). &RQVHTXHQWO\BB
Evidence Reasoning Adding information, Conclusions
evidence, and
reasoning
__ because __. __ because __. Also, __. Therefore, I think
For example, __. I think this In addition, __. __.
For instance, __. because __. Furthermore __. In conclusion, I
The evidence is __. I think this think __.
The data show __. means __. Therefore, __.
The data provides In conclusion, __.
evidence that __.
Source: Adapted from Fulwiler (2007, p. 158, with permission of Heinemann Publishers)
Explanation: a summary based on the claim that provides interpretation and

validation of the evidence.
Rebuttal: a counterclaim (supported by evidence) provided by others about the
legitimacy or validity of the original claim.
A method to promote the development of explanation and argumentation in
science is through the analysis of data presented in the form of graphs generated
through student investigations. For example, in Figure 2, student researchers
FROOHFWHGWKHIROORZLQJGDWDWRDQVZHUWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQHow does the type of
milkweed plant affect how many eggs the monarchs will lay on them?
Using Figure 2, students first identify what they see. For example, there were
fewer eggs on common milkweed. Next, they would be asked to think about what
the data means. The teacher would ask students to write an explanation summary
using the following prompts (UDL principles of representation and expression):
Think about the patterns in the data above. What patterns do you see?
What is your evidence for the patterns?
What do the patterns mean?
What claims can you draw from the evidence?
260
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Figure 2. Number of eggs on four different kinds of milkweed
Based on your evidence, claims and reasoning, make a case about the type of
milkweed that should be planted in your school yard gardens.
CONCLUSION
The voices of Anthony and Christy allow us as science and teacher educators to
understand the discomfort around being put on the spot to read (Anthony) and
challenges in decoding science words (Christy). Anthony felt supported in his
reading when it was “shared” by the teacher. Likewise, Christy felt supported
when vocabulary was linked with graphics or pictures. This chapter used their
recommendations and other research based strategies in science to illustrate how we
might support all students in the reading and writing that is embedded within all we
do in science.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank both Anthony and Christy for their insight.
REFERENCES
Burghardt, K. T., Tallamy, D. W., & Shriver, W. G. (2008). Impact of native plants on bird and butterfly
biodiversity in suburban landscapes. Conservation Biology, 21±
Cummins, S. (2013). What students can do when the reading gets rough. Educational Leadership, 71(3),
±
&XQQLQJKDP 3 0 $OOLQJWRQ 5 / Classrooms that work: They can all read and write.
Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy: Content area strategies at work.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
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M. KOOMEN
)XOWRQ/ &DPSEHOO%Science notebooks: Writing about inquiry (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
NH: Heinemann.
Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies
to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2),
±
*LOOHW-: .LWD0-:RUGVNLGVDQGFDWHJRULHVThe Reading Teacher, 32±
.RRPHQ 0 + %ODLU 5 <RXQJ,VHEUDQG ( 2EHUKDXVHU . 6 6FLHQFH SURIHVVLRQDO
development with teachers: Nurturing the scientist within. Electronic Journal of Science Education,
18±
Koomen, M. J., Weaver, S., Blair, R., & Oberhauser, K. S. (2016). Disciplinary literacy in the science
classroom: Using adaptive primary literature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 53±
Llewellyn, D. (2013). Inquire within. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Mastropieri, M., & Scruggs, T. (1993). A practical guide for teaching science to students with special
needs in inclusive settings. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue Research Foundation.
McNeill, K. L., & Krajcik, J. S. (2011). Supporting grade 5–8 students in constructing explanations in
science: The claim, evidence, and reasoning framework for talk and writing. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Moje, E. B. (2008). Foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: A call for
change. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52±
Robb, L. (2002). The myth of learn to read/read to learn. Instructor, 11±
:RUPHOL5Summarization in any subject: 50 techniques to improve student learning. Alexandria,
VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Zygouris-Coe, V. I. (2012). Disciplinary literacy and the common core state standards. Topics in Language
Disorders, 32±
=\JRXULV&RH9,Teaching discipline-specific literacies in grades 6–12: Preparing students for
college, career, and workforce demands. New York, NY: Routledge.
Michele Koomen
262
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SECTION 6
ASSESSMENT IN SCIENCE
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Assessment of science learning for students labeled with disabilities has proven
to be a particularly challenging area. This is in large part due to the development
of assessments that measure only a narrow swath of science understanding while
over-relying on reading and writing skills (Seifert & Espin, 2012; Sumida, 2010).
'HYHORSPHQW RI DVVHVVPHQWV WKDW DUH WUXO\ HTXLWDEOH DQG LQFOXVLYH UHTXLUHV
tremendous thought and planning, as well as an understanding of students’ strengths
and talents so that all are able to readily demonstrate what they know. This section
addresses some of the challenges, triumphs, and areas for future growth in the field
of inclusive science assessment.
Chapter 23 traces a myriad of measurement tools designed to assess science
learning for all students. In this chapter, Jonte’ Taylor, Karen Koehler, Karen
Rizzo, and Jiwon Hwang discuss the design and use of several science measures
for students with disabilities including standardized assessments, curriculum-based
measures, strength-based science assessment, contributory assessments, and alternate
assessments and accommodations for the purposes of ensuring that all students have
the opportunity to express their knowledge through appropriate science measures.
,Q&KDSWHU-XGLWK/HGHUPDQDQG6HOLQD%DUWHOVGHVFULEHDYLVLRQRIVFLHQWLILF
OLWHUDF\WKDWGHPDQGVDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIVFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\DQG1DWXUHRI6FLHQFH
In order to measure students’ understanding of these critical constructs, the authors
describe the development and implementation of a valid and reliable assessment
protocol entitled the Young Children’s Views About Science (YCVS). This oral
evaluation tool is capable of eliciting views of science from students who may not
be cognitively, physically or emotionally able to fully express themselves in writing.
REFERENCES
Seifert, K., & Espin, C. (2012). Improving reading of science text for secondary students with learning
disabilities: Effects of text reading, vocabulary learning, and combined instruction. Learning
Disabilities Quarterly, 35±
Sumida, M. (2010). Identifying twice-exceptional children and three gifted styles in the Japanese primary
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JONTE’ C. TAYLOR, KAREN KOEHLER,
KAREN RIZZO AND JIWON HWANG
23. THE RISE OF MEASUREMENT

Assessing Science and the Implications for Students
with Special Needs for Inclusive Science Education
In its most basic form, assessment is the process of gathering information to make
decisions. Assessments are those necessary evils in education that are both overused
and underdeveloped. Unfortunately, assessments are the necessary evils that have
been overused for everything from evaluating teachers to evaluating student
achievement; yet, underdeveloped as creative, effective, and purposeful tools for
successfully evaluating students with special needs. Moreover, students with
disabilities are sometimes not provided with the appropriate types of assessments
RU DFFRPPRGDWLRQV WR SDUWLFLSDWH IXOO\ RU DGHTXDWHO\ GLVSOD\ WKHLU WUXH VFLHQFH
knowledge. This chapter discusses the design and use of science measures for
students with disabilities focusing on standardized assessments, curriculum-based
measures, strength-based science assessment, contributory assessments, and
alternate assessments and accommodations for the purposes of ensuring that all
students are assessed through appropriate science measures.
STANDARDIZED MEASUREMENT OF SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT
Standardized assessments in science are designed to allow comparisons of groups on

predetermined content or skill sets regarding knowledge and understanding. Aligned
with the overall use of standardized assessment, standardized measures of science
have been used for decision making purposes at both the international, national, and
state levels.
The main international science assessments provide specific instruction on the
exclusion of students with disabilities at the student, school, and national levels
-RQFDV )R\7KHVHH[FOXVLRQVFDOOLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHUDWHVRISDUWLFLSDWLRQ
and thus, true international science achievement levels for students with disabilities.
Nationally, standardized science assessments test students’ knowledge and
understanding of science content and ability to practically apply science in one of
four practices (i.e., identifying science principles, using science principles, using
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J. C. TAYLOR ET AL.
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OHYHODQGRQO\ZHUHDWRUDERYHWKHSURILFLHQWOHYHO1&(6$WWKHVWDWH
level, science standardized assessment is mandated by the Every Student Succeeds
$FW (66$ DQG UHTXLUHV WKDW HDFK VWDWH 'HYHORS KLJKTXDOLW\ VWXGHQW
academic assessments in science; (2) Assess science no less than one time during
JUDGHVWKURXJKJUDGHVWKURXJKDQGJUDGHVWKURXJK$GPLQLVWHU
a single summative assessment or derive a summative score through interim
assessments during the academic year to evaluate student achievement or growth;
,QFOXGH DOO VWXGHQWV H[FHSW VWXGHQWV ZLWK VLJQLILFDQW FRJQLWLYH GLVDELOLWLHV LQ
the same assessments that can be delivered via portfolios, projects, or extended
performance tasks or other multiple means of expression consistent with using the
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DQDOWHUQDWHDVVHVVPHQWLQVFLHQFHDWURXJKO\RIVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVDERXW
RIDOOVWXGHQWV
CURRICULUM-BASED MEASUREMENT FOR ASSESSING SCIENCE
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a valid, reliable, and low-cost assessment

based on standardized procedures and criterion-referenced measures that can
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throughout a school year. The data is reviewed and analyzed by the teacher(s)
to inform practice, monitor progress, predict outcomes on high-stakes tests, or
recommend placement decisions.
CBMs are not to be confused with benchmark testing nor considered synonymous
with curriculum-based assessments (CBA). Benchmark tests are summative
measures necessary for accountability efforts; however, they lack the formative
feedback needed to inform daily instructional decisions and fail to reflect student
growth in a precise and timely manner. This means that when using CBMs, each skill
being taught for a school year is measured with each assessment given throughout
the entire school year. As a formative assessment tool, CBM supports the goals
of response to intervention and UDL (Hall, Vue, & Mengel, 2003; Tindal, 2013).
Additionally, CBMs promote the development of self-regulated learning which
has been shown to lead to increased motivation, engagement, authentic learning
opportunities, early detection of emerging concerns, awareness of personal strengths
and needs, and improved practice (Capa-Aydin, Sungur, & Uzuntiryaki, 2009).
CBMs have not traditionally been used as a science assessment; however,
researchers have begun to demonstrate progress in the creation of science CBM
(S-CBM). Vannest, Parker, and Dyer (2011) demonstrated how key vocabulary
terms could be used to generate S-CBM probes for monitoring student progress.
Probes were created from a computer-generated, cumulative, grade-specific,
FXUULFXOXP OLVW (VSLQ HW DO GHPRQVWUDWHG WKH WHFKQLFDO DGHTXDF\ RI
268
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THE RISE OF MEASUREMENT
vocabulary-matching as an indicator of student performance and progress. Tindal and

colleagues have explored the use of concept (attributes and examples/non-examples)
based assessments (Tindal, 2013). Current research in the area of S-CBMs show
promise as an assessment practice as evidenced by their potential to:
DGGUHVVIRXQGDWLRQDOFRQFHSWVWRGHYHORSKLJKHURUGHUVFKHPDDQGTXHVWLRQV
address fluency (to align with Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead
States, 2013) goals of science literacy);
SURYLGHIRUPDWLYHIHHGEDFNWRVXSSRUWLQTXLU\EDVHGLQVWUXFWLRQDQGGHWHUPLQH
daily progress for adapting instruction);
provide a list of science concepts and processes, by grade level, (to allow teachers
the ability to create appropriate and effective science probes);
save time and money (to maximize instructional time); and
be used in the general education setting (to support collaboration between
teachers).
The NGSS arose, in part, from a commitment to improving classroom science
instruction. Adopting assessment tools that align with the NGSS helps to establish
a firm relationship between assessment and instruction. As interest in assessing
science increases, S-CBMs may prove to be invaluable as a means for allowing
students with special needs to demonstrate what they know about science.
CONTRIBUTORY MEASURES IN SCIENCE
There is no doubt that standardized assessments and CBMs are valuable tools;
however, they are not the only tools that ought to be used. All students, particularly
students with disabilities, deserve a well-rounded approach to assessment of their
science related understanding. Considering broader outcomes, both directly and
indirectly related to science, can better encapsulate what students with disabilities
know and may need to know about science. The authors of this chapter assert that
to truly evaluate science understanding, we must go beyond standardized and
curriculum based measurement and include what we have coined as contributory
assessments.
Strength-Based Measures
In considering science assessment from a strength-based approach, it is important

to remember: (1) Every child has strengths; (2) Any area that is not strength is
an area for learning; (3) Focusing on strengths can motivate and improve student
SHUIRUPDQFHDQG6FLHQFHLQVWUXFWLRQVKRXOGLQFRUSRUDWHVWXGHQWVWUHQJWKV)RU
example, Sumida (2010) developed the Gifted Behaviour Checklist in Science for
Primary Children to identify strengths in specific science-related areas. In addition
WRFKHFNOLVWVWHDFKHUVFDQXVHDQHFGRWHVDXGLRUHFRUGLQJVTXDOLWDWLYHWHFKQLTXHV
narratives, and other methods to focus on and utilize each student’s strengths.
269
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J. C. TAYLOR ET AL.
Multimodal Representations
The National Research Council (NRC, 2012) explains that science literacy means
more than knowing the meaning of science specific vocabulary. This is especially
pertinent for students with disabilities as using multimodal representations can
provide support for their understanding of complex science concepts, align well with
UDL principles, and give students options for demonstrating science understanding.
Hwang and Taylor (2016) provide a broad list of multimodal representations that
should be considered as a means of assessing science knowledge for students
with disabilities including the use of the Arts. For example, students can display
their understanding of the water cycle via drawing a picture of the process or an
interpretive physical display (dance) of the process. Nam (2011) describes a
framework for analyzing multimodal representations through use and embeddedness
components constructing understanding, integrating and representing multiple
modes, and providing valid claims and evidence. Use can be described as the type of
representations that students chose while explaining science (e.g., drawing, picture,
chart, verbal explanation, interpretive dance, etc.). Embeddedness refers to how and/
or where students use representations while explaining science (e.g., after defining
three vocabulary words related to acceleration, a student draws pictures of three
ramps of various heights and writes “the higher the ramp, the faster the car went” to
illustrate the in-class experiment).
Student Engagement
In simple terms as explained by Gettinger and Walter (2012), engagement can be

considered the time students are involved or participate in the classroom during
instructional time. Broadly, students with disabilities’ engagement in science
classrooms should be considered in two domains: student interaction with content
and/or instruction and student interact with peers and/or teachers. Fredricks and
McCloskey (2012) categorized methods of assessing engagement as student
self-reporting, experience sampling, teacher rating of student, interviews, and
observations. In examining engagement, Taylor, Stocker, Therrien, and Hand
(forthcoming) used the Pupil-Teacher Classroom Observation Scale (PTCOS;
6LPSVRQWRHYDOXDWHHQJDJHPHQWWLPHRIVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVLQLQFOXVLYH
LQTXLU\EDVHGVFLHQFHFODVVURRPVYHUVXVWKRVHLQQRQLQTXLU\FODVVURRPVDQGIRXQG
a significant difference.
Internal Processes
Beyond assessing what students know about science, teachers need to consider
how students understand and orient to science (epistemology) and how students
incorporate science into their lives (dispositions). The NRC (2012) defines epistemic
NQRZOHGJHDV³FRQVWUXFWVDQGYDOXHVWKDWDUHLQWULQVLFWRVFLHQFH´S'LVSRVLWLRQV

via free access
allow students to take on the essential elements of a discipline (i.e., values, ideas,
practices) and apply those elements to other contexts (Gresalfi & Cobb, 2006). It is
also important to understand what students think or perceive about science.
Student self-reports have been the primary means of assessing epistemic
knowledge, science dispositions, and perceptions of science. For example, Elder
(2002) developed a scale to measure student epistemic knowledge; Nashon and
Madera (2013) developed the Instrument for Assessing Disposition for Contextual
Learning of Science to evaluate students’ dispositions in science; and the Test of
Science-Related Attitudes was developed by Fraser (1981) to self-report students’
perceptions of science. Alternative means of assessing students’ internal process
have included the analysis of students’ social media use related to science lessons to
GHWHUPLQHVFLHQFHGLVSRVLWLRQV$KQHWDODQGGUDZLQJVWRGHWHUPLQHZKDW
students perceive about science and scientists (Finson, 2002).
Critical Thinking
&ULWLFDO WKLQNLQJ LV UHTXLUHG DV D PDMRU SURFHVV LQ VFLHQFH UHODWHG WR LGHDV DQG
investigation (NRC, 2012). Facione (2000) describes critical thinking as a self-
regulating process of taking into consideration context and making sense of what is
believable and what is not. Although there have been many assertions regarding the
link between science learning and increased critical thinking skills, few research-
based studies exist to support the assertion. However, Taylor, Chanlen, Therrien,
DQG+DQGXVHGWKH&RUQHOO&ULWLFDO7KLQNLQJ7HVWWRILQGWKDWORZDFKLHYLQJ
VWXGHQWVLQWKHLQTXLU\EDVHGVFLHQFHFODVVURRPVRXWSHUIRUPHGWKRVHLQQRQLQTXLU\
science classrooms.
ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT AND ACCOMMODATIONS IN SCIENCE TESTING
The use of alternate assessments and providing accommodations should be

considered an overarching practice for all assessment types. Upon passage of the
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DOO VWXGHQWV ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR SDUWLFLSDWH LQ HLWKHU UHJXODU VWDWHZLGH VWDQGDUGL]HG
assessment with or without accommodations or in alternate assessments (Kleinert &
Kerns, 2010). These alternate assessments, devised by individual states, come in a
variety of forms, one of those being an alternate assessment based upon alternate
achievement standards (AA-AAS; Albus & Thurlow, 2012). AA-AAS evolved
because of concerns over students with severe disabilities being excluded from
accountability measures even though they were primarily being educated in the
general education classroom (Kleinert & Kerns, 2010). AA-AAS is designed to
measure achievement of students with the most significant disabilities, who are
unable to participate in the regular assessments even with accommodations
or adaptations; however, the standards and assessments must align with state
academic standards to ensure that these students are on track to be college and

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J. C. TAYLOR ET AL.
career ready. Roeber (2002) identified three approaches commonly used by states
for AA-AAS as:
Portfolio (systematic collections of student work evaluated via predetermined
criteria),
Performance Assessment (direct measures of a skill based on student needs), and
Checklist (scores based on the number of skills the student successfully
demonstrates).
The majority of students with disabilities participate in regular pen and pencil
assessments or through the use of computer based assessments; however, many
UHTXLUH DFFRPPRGDWLRQV ZKLFK UHPRYH EDUULHUV IRU VWXGHQWV ZLWK FRJQLWLYH
VHQVRU\RUSK\VLFDOGLVDELOLWLHV'RODQ+DOO%DQHUMHH&KXQ 6WUDQJPDQ
Accommodations are variations in the way the test is administered to moderate the
effect that a student’s disability may have on their understanding or expression of
content knowledge (McMahon, Wright, Cihak, Moore, & Lamb, 2016). Common
standardized testing accommodations include: time allowances, alternative media
such as large print or braille, read aloud, a scribe for students who are unable to write,
or text to speech accommodations for students who are unable to access printed
text on a computer based assessment. Students with visual impairments, multiple
GLVDELOLWLHVRUVLJQLILFDQWFRJQLWLYHGHOD\VRIWHQUHTXLUHVSHFLDODFFRPPRGDWLRQVIRU
the alternate assessments including replacing pictures with objects, making a picture
tactile, changing the wording or the use of an augmentative communication device
(Zebahazy, Zigmond, & Zimmerman, 2012).
The use of UDL frameworks attempt to level the assessment playing field for
students with disabilities. UDL is an approach that makes learning accessible to all
students by removing barriers and is a framework to improve and optimize teaching
and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn.
Universally designed assessments are not intended to eliminate individualization, but
they may reduce the need for accommodations and various alternative assessments
by eliminating access barriers associated with the tests themselves (Thompson,
-RKQVWRQH 7KXUORZ
Computer based assessments, with embedded supports and universal tools, are
JLYLQJVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVHTXDODFFHVVWRDVVHVVPHQWVWKDWDOORZIRUVXFFHVVIXO
demonstration of their knowledge. Screen magnification/enlargement, color contrast,
text masking, and text to speech functions are all common features in computerized
assessments. Computerized assessments are also gaining in popularity for assessing
the achievement of students with multiple disabilities due to immediacy of feedback,
efficiency of administration and because of the ability to customize them for the
individual needs of the student. Although promising, computerized assessments
are not a panacea and as highlighted by Winter, Burkhardt, Freidhoff, Stimson, and
Leslie (2013), concerns include: (1) variations in item types (e.g., multiple choice
vs. open ended responses); (2) how test items are generated; (3) accessibility for
DOOVWXGHQWVKRZWHVWVFRULQJRFFXUVDQGDFFRXQWDELOLW\DQGHIILFLHQF\,Q

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addition to computerized and UDL-based assessments, embedded accommodations

may also include American Sign Language, braille or closed captioning for students
ZKR KDYH DQ ,QGLYLGXDOL]HG (GXFDWLRQ 3URJUDP ,(3 RU 3ODQ 5HJDUGOHVV RI
the format of the standardized assessment or disability severity, broader assessment
options allow all students to show progress (Browder, 2001).
CONCLUSION AND CONSIDERATIONS
There has been and will continue to be a need for all students to understand science
information and demonstrate science-related skills. An inclusive, science literate
society supports all of its citizens in the pursuit of effective productiveness. In
OHDUQLQJ VFLHQFH ZKDW DQG KRZ ZH DVVHVV VFLHQFH LV HTXDOO\ LPSRUWDQW:H PXVW
consider our evaluations of science above and beyond the conventional constructs
including the use of alternative assessments. From a student-centered perspective,
accessibility, inclusion and appropriateness should be at the forefront. In
determining how and what you are assessing, consider UDL principals of flexibility
in presentation, expression, and engagement. Additionally, consideration should be
made in assessment for learning (i.e., informal; responsive to students’ needs); of
learning (i.e., determining students’ understanding); and as learning (i.e., helping
students’ understand their own strengths and needs). Students with disabilities can
accurately demonstrate their science and science-related understanding if we provide
the proper supports and use the proper measures, thus making teachers better science
instructors in and out of the classroom.
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LQTXLU\Academic Exchange Quarterly, 18±
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the present. ISRN Education, 2013±
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Jonte’ C. Taylor
Department of Educational Psychology, Counselling, & Special Education
Pennsylvania State University
Pennsylvania
Karen Koehler
School of Education
Shawnee State University
Portsmouth, Ohio
Karen Rizzo
Department of Elementary and Early Childhood Education
Pennsylvania State University-Behrend
Erie, Pennsylvania
Jiwon Hwang
Department of Advanced Educational Studies
California State University, Bakersfield
Bakersfield, California

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JUDITH S. LEDERMAN AND SELINA BARTELS
24. ASSESSING THE ULTIMATE GOAL

OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
Scientific Literacy for All!
INTRODUCTION
International science education initiatives as well as the Next Generation Science

Standards (NGSS; NGSS Lead States, 2013), consider Scientific Literacy the ultimate
goal of science education for all K-12 students. Scientific Literacy necessitates
students having the knowledge, attitudes and abilities to respond to personal, social
and global issues. All of our students deserve the opportunities to be educated in
RXUVFLHQFHFODVVURRPVWRWKHOHYHOWKDWWKH\FDQDGHTXDWHO\XVHDQGHYDOXDWHWKH
science they are being taught. Being scientifically literate empowers our students to
be wise consumers of science as they deal with science related issues in their adult
OLYHV7KHXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRI6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\6, and Nature of Science (NOS) are
FRQVLGHUHGWREHHVVHQWLDOIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVFLHQWLILFOLWHUDF\&RQVHTXHQWO\
the only way to truly achieve the vision of the NGSS and develop scientifically literate
citizens is to incorporate SI and NOS into all science instruction for all students.
+RZHYHUZLWKRXWYDOLGDQGUHOLDEOHDVVHVVPHQWWHFKQLTXHVWHDFKHUVDUHXQDEOHWR
discern the effectiveness of their efforts to substantiate the capabilities of all of their
students to become scientifically literate. The development of valid and reliable
assessments of NOS and SI for students with disabilities serves to inform teachers
about student understandings and the success of their instructional approaches.
They provide the evidence of the ability of all students to become scientifically
literate. Additionally, these assessments enable teachers and curriculum developers
to produce more targeted and effective materials for learners with disabilities. The
Young Children’s Views about Science (YCVS) assessment protocol (Lederman, J.,
2009) is an oral protocol designed to measure students’ understandings about SI
and NOS. Since the YCVS is an oral protocol, it is capable of eliciting views of
science from students who may not be cognitively, physically or emotionally able to
fully express themselves in writing. Research using this oral protocol is contributing
compelling evidence that supports the view that all students are very capable of
GHYHORSLQJLQIRUPHGVFLHQWLILFDOO\OLWHUDWHYLHZSRLQWV6XEVHTXHQWO\WKHSXUSRVHRI
WKLVFKDSWHULVWRGHVFULEHDXQLTXHDVVHVVPHQWSURWRFROWKDWFDQHIIHFWLYHO\DVVHVV
views of science of students with reading and writing challenges.
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J. S. LEDERMAN & S. BARTELS
HISTORY OF ASSESSMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
A variety of assessments have been developed to assess students’ views of

NOS and SI. To assess students and teachers’ understandings of NOS, the
9LHZV RI 1DWXUH RI 6FLHQFH 9126 DQG VXEVHTXHQW IRUPV $' /HGHUPDQ
Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz, 2002) were developed. A revised version,
VNOS-D+ (Lederman & Lederman, J., 2003) is most commonly used. To assess
VWXGHQWV¶DQGWHDFKHUV¶XQGHUVWDQGLQJVRI6,WKH9LHZVRI6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\926,
(Schwartz, Lederman, & Lederman, 2008) was developed. With the introduction of
the NGSSDPRUHLQFOXVLYHLQVWUXPHQWWKH9LHZVDERXW6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\9$6,
/HGHUPDQ-HWDOKDVUHSODFHGWKH926,$OORIWKHVHYDOLGDQGUHOLDEOH
LQVWUXPHQWV LQFOXGH RSHQ HQGHG TXHVWLRQV ZLWK LQWHUYLHZV XVHG DV D IROORZ XS WR
insure accurate interpretations of answers. For students in grades three through six,
WKH9LHZVRI6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\(OHPHQWDU\926,(/HGHUPDQ- .R
and the Views of Nature of Science Elementary (VNOS-E) (Lederman, J. & Ko,
ZHUHGHVLJQHG7KHVHYDOLGDQGUHOLDEOHDVVHVVPHQWVLQFOXGHGDVSHFWVRI126
and SI that students in grades K-6 are capable of understanding and were written
with language that students of that age are capable of reading and understanding.
However, a critical evaluation of these assessment instruments related to NOS and
SI show that they are all in the form of “traditional” paper and pencil assessments.
Instruments of these types are undoubtedly problematic with respect to students
who have difficulties writing, reading and expressing their thoughts in writing in a
coherent manner. Apparently, even with this array of assessments, there still were no
instruments to assess certain populations’ views of SI or NOS. Since they were all
paper and pencil instruments, they precluded use with young children who could not
yet read or write as well as older students who had challenges completing paper and
pencil assessments.
Often, they are invalidly read to students or used in other ways for which they
were never designed. Clearly there existed a mismatch between the nature of
existing paper and pencil instruments and the abilities and skills of students with
some physical and/or learning disabilities that interfere with their completing and
being fairly evaluated by these written assessments. If we accept that all children
are capable of developing understandings of SI and NOS, then, just as with all other
knowledge that is taught, appropriate corresponding assessments are necessary.
THE YOUNG CHILDREN’S VIEWS ABOUT SCIENCE PROTOCOL
Given the apparent void of appropriate assessments of SI and NOS for student
populations with difficulties with paper and pencil instruments, it became apparent
that an orally administered assessment would be an effective alternative to these
existing instruments.
A valid and reliable oral protocol offers a viable alternative to the written
instruments for these populations. The Young Children’s Views of Science (YCVS)

via free access
ASSESSING THE ULTIMATE GOAL OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
/HGHUPDQ-/HGHUPDQ-%DUWHOV/HGHUPDQ *DQDQNNDQLVDQ

orally administered protocol to assess students’ understandings of science, scientists,
NOS and SI. It creates an opportunity to capture students’ understandings of NOS or
SI without the added challenges of reading and writing. This use of the YCVS serves
to not only inform teachers and researchers about student understandings but also of
the success of their instructional approaches or interventions. It provides the evidence
that, when given the opportunity, all students have the ability to develop scientific
literacy. Additionally, this assessment enables teachers and curriculum developers to
produce more targeted and effective materials for learners with disabilities.
The YCVS offers access to understandings of NOS and SI for many students
who have cognitive difficulties reading and responding to open ended assessments,
students who may have anxiety responding to open ended assessments and students
who have physical difficulties writing open ended responses to assessments. The oral
protocol provides teachers insight into students’ understandings of NOS and SI and
helps teachers to further refine their teaching as they guide students to be scientifically
literate adults. The YCVS is administered in groups of three to four students, but each
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assessment. Furthermore, since oral protocol is administered in small groups in an
informal tone, it helps to remove the tension of a high stakes testing environment.
Aspects Assessed by the YCVS
The YCVS considers the following aspects SI and NOS:

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There is no single way or set of steps to conduct a scientific investigation
Science is based on observations and inferences
Scientific knowledge is empirically based
Scientific knowledge is subjective
Scientific knowledge is subject to change
Scientific knowledge is creative
In addition, the protocol has students provide their understandings about what
science is, who are scientists and how do they do their work.
Description of the Aspects Assessed by the YCVS
The following are detailed descriptions of the specific aspects of NOS and SI that
are assessed by the YCVS.
Investigations begin with a question. Scientific investigations all begin with a

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DVNLQJ DQG DQVZHULQJ D TXHVWLRQ DQG FRPSDULQJ WKH DQVZHU ZLWK ZKDW VFLHQWLVWV
already know about the world” (NRC, 2000). In order for scientific investigation to

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RFFXUWKHUHKDVWREHDTXHVWLRQDVNHGDERXWWKHZRUOGDQGKRZLWZRUNV8QOLNHZKDW
is prescribed by “the scientific method,” students do not have to state a hypothesis
before beginning an investigation. Traditional experimental designs typically include
a formally stated hypothesis, but this is not necessary or typical of other designs.
No single method of investigation. 7KHUHLVQRVLQJOHVHWRUVHTXHQFHRIVWHSVIROORZHG

in all investigations. Even when not explicitly communicated, school science often
looks like the scientific method because of an overreliance on experimental design.
Clearly, there are legitimate methods scientists use to do their work and develop new
knowledge. What has been referred to as the “scientific method” is an experimental
design where variables are controlled. The entire field of astronomy relies on ways
of gathering data, drawing inferences, and developing scientific knowledge that
does not follow the “scientific method.” Rather it is descriptive and correlational
research instead. Students need to develop not only an understanding of the variety
of research methodologies employed both across and within the domains of science,
and that, in general, “scientist[s] use different kinds of investigations depending on
WKHTXHVWLRQVWKH\DUHWU\LQJWRDQVZHU´15&
Based on observations and inferences. Students must understand that scientific

knowledge is based on humans’ observations and inferences. Observations are
descriptive statements about natural phenomena commonly understood by young
children as senses. Inferences are statements about phenomena inaccessible to the
VHQVHV /HGHUPDQ /HGHUPDQ - 2IWHQ VWXGHQWV FRQIXVH REVHUYDWLRQV
with facts, and inferences with guesses. Teaching students explicitly at an early age
about observations and inferences and that science is a human endeavor can prevent
misconceptions from forming.
Empirically based. Scientific knowledge is empirically based, thus any

explanations for the phenomena explored in investigations are anchored by the data.
Subjective. Scientific knowledge is subjective. Scientists’ theoretical commitments,

beliefs, previous knowledge, training, experiences, and expectations influence
their work. All these background factors form a mindset that affects the problems
scientists investigate and how they conduct their investigations, what they observe
(and do not observe), and how they make sense of or interpret their observations.
It is this individuality that accounts for the role of subjectivity in the development
of scientific knowledge. Although objectivity may be a goal of science, subjectivity
necessarily creeps into the development of scientific knowledge because science is a
KXPDQSXUVXLW/HGHUPDQ-HWDO
Tentative. Scientific knowledge is never absolute or certain. This knowledge,

including facts, theories, and laws, is tentative and subject to change. Scientific
claims change as new evidence, made possible through advances in technology, is
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brought to bear on existing theories or laws, or as old evidence is reinterpreted from

DGLIIHUHQWSHUVSHFWLYH/HGHUPDQ-HWDO
Creative. Scientific knowledge is, at least partially, based on and/or derived from
observations of the natural world (i.e., empirical), but it nevertheless involves human
imagination and creativity. Science, contrary to common belief, is not a totally
rational and orderly activity. Science involves the invention of explanations, and this
UHTXLUHVDJUHDWGHDORIFUHDWLYLW\E\VFLHQWLVWV/HGHUPDQ-HWDO
The YCVS Assessment Items
The YCVS is comprised of two main parts. The first part of the YCVS determines
if the students know that science is different from other disciplines and seeks to
understand students’ impressions of scientists and how they do their work. What
IROORZVDUHWKHTXHVWLRQVIURPSDUWRQHRIWKH<&96
Can you tell me something you know about science?
Do you ever learn about science in school? Can you tell me what you learned?
Have you ever learned about science somewhere else other than school? Where?
What did you do?
How is science different from other things you learn about?
You have been telling me many things about science. So, what is science? What
is a scientist? What do they do? How do they do their work?
Have you ever seen a scientist? Do you know one? What do they do?
Part two of the YCVS addresses more specifically the aspects of NOS and SI
SUHYLRXVO\GHVFULEHG%HORZDUHWKHTXHVWLRQVIURPSDUWWZRRIWKH<&96
Tell the students that you are going to show them something and that you want
them to watch very carefully. Drop the differently sized paper helicopters one at a
time. Ask each child to make one observation and then one inference about what
they just saw. Then ask: Was what you just watched a scientific investigation?
Why? Why not? If they say it wasn’t, ask them what they would need to do to
make it into an investigation.
There was a woman who loved birds. She traveled around the world to study
them. As she traveled she noticed that birds had many differently shaped beaks.
For example, some were long and thin, some were big and sharp, and some were
tiny and short. She also observed that birds ate different types of food. She asked
WKHTXHVWLRQ³,VWKHUHDFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQELUGV¶EHDNVKDSHVDQGWKHW\SHVRI
food they eat?” (a) Do you think she was working like a scientist? Why or why
not? (b) Do you think her work was an experiment? Why or why not? (c)What
VKRXOGVKHGRQH[WWRDQVZHUKHUTXHVWLRQ"
How many of you know something about dinosaurs? (Students will immediately
start telling you everything they know about dinosaurs…you can get some control of
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the discussion by saying: Each of you tell me one thing you know about dinosaurs…
WKHQJRRQWRDVNWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQVD+RZGRVFLHQWLVWVNQRZWKDWGLQRVDXUV
really lived since there are no dinosaurs around anymore and no one has ever seen
them? (b) What do scientists think dinosaurs looked like? Why do scientists think
they look this way? (c) Scientists don’t always agree on the reasons about what
happened to make the dinosaurs all die away. Why do you think they don’t agree?
(d) If your friend said that he knew the reason for what happened to the dinosaurs,
what would he have to do to make scientists believe him? Why? [Alternative
4XHVWLRQ,IWKHVWXGHQWVDUHWRRGLVWUDFWHGE\WKHGLQRVDXUTXHVWLRQWKHQ\RXPLJKW
choose to use this one instead:] How do the people who predict the weather on TV
use science? How do they decide what the weather will be today? Weather reporters
don’t always agree with each about the weather. Why do you think they disagree?
You have all told me a lot of different facts and ideas about science. (a) Do you
think scientists will change their minds about these same science facts years from
now? Why? (b) Can you give me an example of some science idea that might
change in the future?
Do you think that scientists are creative when they do their work? Can you give me an
example? When do you think they are creative when they are doing an investigation?
Scoring the YCVS
The initial step of scoring the YCVS is to construct a profile for each student. The
profile consists of each aspect of NOS and SI and a label of one of the following
HYDOXDWLRQVIRUHDFKDVSHFWQRDQVZHULQDGHTXDWHPL[HGRUDGHTXDWH,IDVWXGHQW
GLG QRW SURYLGH DQ DQVZHU IRU D TXHVWLRQ WKDW VWXGHQW¶V UHVSRQVH LV VFRUHG DV
³QR DQVZHU´ 6WXGHQWV ZHUH DVVLJQHG ³LQDGHTXDWH´ LI WKHLU DQVZHU GLG QRW ILW WKH
understandings of NOS and SI for their grade or cognitive level. The grade of
“mixed” was assigned if students had a partial understanding of that aspect. The
FDWHJRU\RI³DGHTXDWH´ZDVDVVLJQHGLIVWXGHQWVKDGDILUPJUDVSRIWKHDVSHFW
RESEARCH USING THE YCVS
The YCVS was used in a cross-sectional study to ascertain the changes in elementary
students’ understandings of science and scientists for grades one through five
%DUWHOV /HGHUPDQ 7KH VWXG\ LQYROYHG WKUHH XUEDQ DQG WKUHH VXEXUEDQ
HOHPHQWDU\ VFKRROV LQ D ODUJH 0LGZHVW FLW\ 2I WKH VWXGHQWV LQYROYHG LQ WKH
VWXG\ VWXGHQWV KDG LGHQWLILHG VSHFLDO QHHGV 7KHVH VWXGHQWV DOO KDG GLYHUVH
learning needs identified in their individual education plans (IEP) that interfered
with them being fairly evaluated with traditional paper assessments. The use of the
YCVS oral protocol provided an opportunity to validly include these students in the
study and assess their understanding of science. For example, Isabella, a fifth grader
that was diagnosed as having Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
had an IEP that indicated she had great difficulty taking traditional assessments.
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Table 1. Lists examples of each aspect and examples of the corresponding code
Inadequate Mixed Adequate

Science “About animals.” “Discovering and “it is about the world.”
“making stuff, science making new things in “about how it works.”
projects.” the world”
Scientists “White jackets and “Sometimes wear “everybody can be a

glasses.” glasses” scientists, boys and
“They make potions.” “Some work with girls can learn about
potions” people and the world”
“They do experiments”
“They test stuff”
Begins with a “She was telling what “She was investigating “Was that science?”
TXHVWLRQ the birds do.” about the birds, “Yes because first we
investigations are DVNHGDTXHVWLRQ´
science”
Multiple “Scientists only do “There are many “Scientists can do
Methods science one way, the different ways things different
scientific method” for scientists to ways, sometimes
investigate” they can observe
and perform
experiments”
Observation “Yeah, it is kind of yes “I’ve heard the words. “Why is it an
and Inference and science.” . . .they are different” inference?”
“Because it is what
I think.”
Creative “Artists are creative “Anything is possible “Scientists invent
not scientists.” if they think hard things”
enough”
Empirical “Dinosaurs are purple, “You can look in “They can go where
they were a little soft a book to know there are bones to
and fuzzy.” information” know about dinosaurs.
“I saw a movie of “There are dinosaur Also they collect
dinosaurs that eat bones in museums” bones.”
another dinosaurs.”
Subjective “Scientists always “Sometimes Scientists “Scientists think of
agree, because they agree and sometimes different things from
have to.” they don’t, I’m not different angles”
sure why.”
Tentative “Science is science “They learn from their “Scientists can
you can’t change it.” mistakes and learn learn new things
something new” because they get more
data or see things a
different.”
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The employment of the YCVS allowed her to answer orally without time limits
and gave Isabella an opportunity to thoroughly show her understandings of science
ZLWKRXWWKHFRQVWUDLQWVRIDSDSHUDQGSHQFLOWHVW7KHVHVWXGHQWV¶YLHZVDERXW
science and scientists were for the most part on par with their classmates. However,
they were overwhelmingly more informed on average on the involvement of
subjectivity and multiple methods of doing science than their peers. This makes
sense given the likelihood of these students’ interactions with medical professionals
because of their diagnosed special needs. During the administration of the YCVS,
the students shared various personal stories about their doctor visits and how
different doctors had different points of view and sometimes conflicting suggestions
for their treatments. For example, Nicolas, a third grader in a large urban school,
sees an occupational therapist weekly to help improve fine motor skills and improve
his ability to write. He had “informed” views for the aspect of multiple ways that
science can be investigated. He also mentioned that different therapists had used
GLIIHUHQWH[HUFLVHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVWRKHOSKLP+HH[SODLQHGWKDWGLIIHUHQWVFLHQWLVWV
probably do things differently depending on what they were studying. He was very
passionate about space exploration and talked about how scientists who study other
planets do things differently than the scientists that study animals because, “the
space scientists can’t do experiments out there like the scientists who are studying
animal’s diseases.” Isabella, the student with ADHD, also scored better than her
classmates on most of the aspects measured on the YCVS. She would not have been
able to demonstrate her knowledge about science without an oral protocol.
For the most part, teachers were surprised by their students with special needs
results on the YCVS. Many of these students showed little enthusiasm for science
in their classrooms and were often academically behind their classmates. In the
case of Isabella, her teacher said she was often off task and seldom seemed to be
concentrating on the lessons. Often, the teachers did not call on these students for
fear of them being embarrassed in front of the other students by not knowing the
content. They never considered the knowledge the students learned about science
outside to their classrooms and that the other students never had. As a result of
this study and its findings, teachers began to consider changes to their instructional
practices that not only were more inclusive of their students with special needs but
DOVRKLJKOLJKWHGWKHNQRZOHGJHWKHVHVWXGHQWVKDGDVUHVXOWRIWKHLUXQLTXHSHUVRQDO
experiences with science beyond the classroom.
CONCLUSION
Assessment of student learning is a basic component of teaching and learning. Good

assessments provide feedback to teachers and students about what they have learned
and perhaps what they might still have difficulties understanding. Additionally,
assessments offer a guide to teachers about their students’ understandings and how
they might consider making adjustments to their teaching. There are many students
ZKR UHTXLUH DOWHUQDWLYH DVVHVVPHQWV OLNH WKH<&96 6WXGHQWV ZKR KDYH FRJQLWLYH

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difficulties reading and responding to open ended assessments, students who have
anxiety taking timed tests, and students who have physical difficulties writing open
HQGHGUHVSRQVHVWRDVVHVVPHQWVDOOUHTXLUHDSSURSULDWHDVVHVVPHQWVEH\RQGWUDGLWLRQDO
paper and pencil instruments. If scientific literacy is truly a goal for all of our students,
then all students need to be appropriately taught about the nature of science and
VFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\,QDGGLWLRQWKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJVQHHGWREHDSSURSULDWHO\DVVHVVHG
This chapter offers compelling evidence from our work that supports the vision that
all students are very capable of developing informed scientifically literate viewpoints.
REFERENCES
%DUWHOV6/ /HGHUPDQ-6$SULOWhat do primary students know about science, scientists,
and how they do their work. A paper presented at the annual meeting of the NARST, San Antonio, TX.
Lederman, J. S. (August, 2009). Development of a valid and reliable oral protocol for the assessment of
early childhood students’ conceptions of nature of science and scientific inquiry. A paper presented
at the annual meeting of the European Science Education Research Association, Istanbul, Turkey.
/HGHUPDQ-6%DUWHOV6/HGHUPDQ1 *QDQDNNDQ''HP\VWLI\LQJQDWXUHRIVFLHQFH
Science and Children, 52±
/HGHUPDQ-6/HGHUPDQ1*%DUWRV6$%DUWHOV6/0H\HU$$ 6FKZDUW]56
0HDQLQJIXO DVVHVVPHQW RI OHDUQHUV¶ XQGHUVWDQGLQJV DERXW VFLHQWLILF LQTXLU\ ± 7KH 9LHZV $ERXW
6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\9$6,TXHVWLRQQDLUHJournal of Research in Science Teaching, 51±
Lederman, J. S., & Ko, E. K. (2003). Views of scientific inquiry-elementary school version. Unpublished
Manuscript Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL.
/HGHUPDQ-6 .R(.Views of nature of science, form E. Unpublished Manuscript. Illinois
Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL.
Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. (2002). Views of Nature of Science
Questionnaire (VNOS): Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature
of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29±
/HGHUPDQ 1 * /HGHUPDQ - 6 5HVHDUFK RQ WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ RI QDWXUH RI VFLHQFH
In N. G. Lederman & S. K. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (Vol. II,
SS±1HZ<RUN1<5RXWOHGJH
National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Schwartz, R. S., Lederman, N., & Lederman, N. (2008, March). An instrument to assess views of scientific
inquiry: The VOSI questionnaire. Paper presented at the international conference of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching. Baltimore, MD.
Judith S. Lederman
Department of Mathematics and Science Education
Illinois Institute of Technology
Chicago, Illinois
Selina L. Bartels
College of Education
Concordia University Chicago
River Forest, Illinois

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SECTION 7
ADVOCACY
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Advocacy for inclusive science education can take many forms, including mentoring,
modeling, promoting, and defending the abilities and rights of all students to succeed
in science. To that end, two chapters are presented in this subsection that approach
advocacy through distinctly different yet complementary avenues.
,Q &KDSWHU +HDWKHU 3DFKHFR*XIIUH\ H[DPLQHV D VHULHV RI FDVH VWXGLHV RI
STEM specialists with disabilities in order to identify the factors that influenced
their participation in the field. Using a framework of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986),
the author extracts key themes related to mentorship and role modeling that may
prove to facilitate a greater representation of persons with disabilities entering into
STEM careers.
In Chapter 26, Phillip Boda reflects upon his experiences as a former urban high
school science teacher in order to interrogate the societal and school-based influences
that perceive diversity as a deficiency rather than a strength. Through Critical Race
Theory and disability studies lenses, the author examines the intersection of race and
disability, particularly in the context of urban education, and relays the methods and
mindsets he found to be successful in empowering male students of color who had
EHHQSUHYLRXVO\UHOHJDWHGWRODEHOVRI³GHOLQTXHQW´³GLVDEOHG´DQG³GLVUXSWLYHÉ\
RWKHUHGXFDWRUV&ROH)UHLUHKRRNV
REFERENCES
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
&ROH 0 &URVVFXOWXUDO DQG KLVWRULFDO SHUVSHFWLYHV RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO FRQVHTXHQFHV RI
education. Human Development, 48±
Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers: Letters to those who dare teach. Westview Press.
hooks, b. (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Pluto Press.
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HEATHER A. PACHECO-GUFFREY
25. OH THE PLACES YOU WILL GO!

BUT HOW WILL YOU GET THERE?
Examining the Role of Social Feedback, Mentorship and
Role Modelling in STEM Career Pathways
INTRODUCTION
The National Science Board (2016) stated that science, technology, engineering and
math (STEM) degrees prepare people for a wide range of career opportunities and that
STEM careers boast lower unemployment rates and higher earnings than those of non-
STEM fields. Today, baby boomers are retiring, vacating positions in STEM fields
while our national demand for progress in STEM is rising (Mather & Lavery, 2012).
The National Academy of Sciences declared, “we must invest in research, encourage
innovation and grow a strong and talented science and technology workforce” in
order to cultivate our leading role in the progressive global community of science
and technology (NAS, 2011, p. 18). Now is an ideal time to increase participation in
STEM by broadening participation to include underrepresented groups.
$SSUR[LPDWHO\ RI WKH$PHULFDQ SRSXODWLRQ KDV GLVDELOLWLHV EXW UHSUHVHQW
RQO\ RI WKH 67(0 ZRUNIRUFH 1DWLRQDO 6FLHQFH )RXQGDWLRQ 16)
8QGHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ 67(0 LV QRW OLPLWHG WR FDUHHUV KRZHYHU :KLOH RI
XQGHUJUDGXDWHV DFURVV DOO SURJUDPV DQG RI DOO 67(0 XQGHUJUDGXDWHV KDYH
RQHRUPRUHGLVDELOLWLHVIHZHUWKDQRI67(0JUDGXDWHVWXGHQWVUHSRUWKDYLQJ
GLVDELOLWLHV 16) 3HRSOH ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV WRR VKRXOG EH LQYROYHG LQ WKH
process of meeting our national goals. They, too, should be able to benefit from the
prosperity and security available in STEM careers.
Federal policies have been aimed at increasing access to education and careers
(e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990; Education for All Handicapped
&KLOGUHQ$FW,QGLYLGXDOVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV(GXFDWLRQ$FW$GGLWLRQDOO\
the reconceptualization of disability through disability studies broadly (Goodley,
2011) and in education specifically (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2010) is
working to shift away from a deficit, medical model of disability and toward a model
that considers the social, contextual and cultural aspects of the lives of individuals
and their circumstances and goals to identify factors that truly disable people. Still,
underrepresentation of people with disabilities in STEM careers and education
persists. Why are people with disabilities still so underrepresented in the educational
tracks and careers of lucrative and stable STEM fields despite legislated support
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H. A. PACHECO-GUFFREY
and shifting perspectives? Part of the problem originates in the medicalization of

disability through the legislated mandate that disability must be medically diagnosed.
This creates a legislated ecosystem in which people with disabilities are classified
as “others” who have “needs” that distinguish them from everyone else. Today, our
ODWHVW UHDXWKRUL]DWLRQ RI (OHPHQWDU\ DQG 6HFRQGDU\ (GXFDWLRQ$FW (66$
WRXWVWKHDSSHDOLQJQDPH³(YHU\6WXGHQW6XFFHHGV´VXJJHVWLQJHTXLWDEOHHGXFDWLRQ
for every student. But students with disabilities are still afforded rights through
VHSDUDWH HGXFDWLRQ SROLFLHV ,'($ 7KLV VHSDUDWH WUHDWPHQW VHUYHV WR ERWK
push for students with disabilities to have the educational supports and resources
that they need to be successful, while also naming these students as separate “others”
UHTXLULQJVSHFLDOL]HGHGXFDWLRQGHVSLWHHIIRUWVWRZDUGLQFOXVLRQ7KLVVHWVOHJLVODWLYH
HIIRUWVWRZDUGHTXLWDEOHDFFHVVWRHGXFDWLRQDWRGGV7HDFKHUWUDLQLQJIRUH[DPSOH
is controlled by separate state-level licensure and employment tracks for special
educators, general educators, and science educators. With no one being trained to
ZRUNDWWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHVHWUDFNVKRZLVHTXLWDEOHDFFHVVWRVFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQ
for students with disabilities attained?
,WLVFOHDUWKDWOHJLVODWLRQDORQHFDQQRWHQVXUHHTXLW\IRUDOOFLWL]HQV6RKRZGR
ZHILQGDSDWKIRUZDUGWRZDUGHTXLW\"3HRSOHZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVDUHunderrepresented
in STEM, but they are not unrepresented. I posit that we can leverage the successful
capacity-building born of disability policy, evolving perspectives and the hard
work of many individuals. We can source within the community to learn about the
critical elements that people with disabilities in STEM identify are important for
successfully navigating STEM pathways. Replicable and scalable best practices
can be made widely available through legislation. However, for this re-engagement
with legislation, a shift in power of people with disabilities will have occurred in
which they have more agency. This empowering shift moves away from legislation
for people with disabilities and moves toward legislation of and by people with
disabilities; not an unfamiliar idea to Americans.
The study described within was conceived with this long-term vision of finding
replicable and scalable factors from within the disability community. It is a potential
SDWKZD\ IRUZDUG WRZDUG HTXLW\ IRU IXWXUH JHQHUDWLRQV RI SHRSOH ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV
Findings suggest practices, both salient and concrete, for educators interested
LQ LQFUHDVLQJ HTXLWDEOH DFFHVV WR VFLHQFH HGXFDWLRQ IRU DOO VWXGHQWV 2XU ZRUN WR
LPSOHPHQW WKHVH SUDFWLFHV PDNHV SURJUHVV WRZDUG HTXLW\ ZKLOH UHVHDUFK DQG
hopefully, policy work toward these ends as well.
CASE STUDIES OF STEM SPECIALISTS WITH DISABILITIES
In 2013, I conducted a study of 18 STEM professionals with sensory and/or

orthopedic disabilities to explore the influences that impacted their choice and
participation in STEM careers. The protocol for the phone interviews was adapted
from the Zeldin and Pajares (2000) study of self-efficacy of women in mathematics-
related professions.
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OH THE PLACES YOU WILL GO! BUT HOW WILL YOU GET THERE?
Bandura’s (1986) theory of self-efficacy was used to guide this study because it
allowed for the consideration of many aspects of participants’ personal journeys.
Self-efficacy beliefs are defined as self-beliefs we hold about our own abilities to be
successful in specific tasks (Pajares, 2008). Strong self-efficacy beliefs help people
to persist in the face of challenges because they insulate individuals against failure
DQGUHMHFWLRQ%DQGXUD
Below you will find the stories of four study participants with visual disabilities.
From their recollections and perspectives, along with those of the other participants,
I sought common themes that would shed light on the constraints and affordances
that are associated with the road to STEM for people with disabilities. Those
interpretations are shared below as well.
Wyatt
Wyatt was an engineer in his mid-30s working in water resources management at

the time of the study. He held a B.S. in Civil Engineering. Wyatt had the same visual
disability as his mother, starting out with low vision and eventually becoming totally
blind later in life.
Wyatt’s engineering interests started young. He explained, “I enjoyed playing with
Hot Wheels cars… and not just playing with the pre-made sets, but actually designing
my own.” Wyatt’s father, an environmental engineer, encouraged his young son through
play. Wyatt explained, “Then I used to have enough vision to… use[d] markers and
large sheets of my dad’s drafting paper … [for] drawing and designing my own cities.”
Wyatt recalled his public-school experience, “[There were] a handful of teachers
throughout the years in school…who encouraged me to take challenging math and
science courses and who gave me the opportunities to do that.” Wyatt received
encouragement from those around him, “even if they weren’t sure … of how I would
do something.”
In college Wyatt completed a two-year long internship. He recalled,
I got an internship with the State…Department of Water Resources…mostly
ZRUNLQJZLWKZDWHUTXDOLW\GDWDDQGEXLOGLQJRIIVRPHRIWKHUHTXLUHGHGXFDWLRQ
that I had to take…and found that it was something I could do.
The successes, experiences and people he worked with in this internship showed him
engineering was a viable career. He shared, “I know that it can be challenging for
any person with a disability to get that employment or internship experience, but I
found that if you can get that, [it] makes a tremendous difference.”
Just before college Wyatt met a blind physicist through the National Federation
of the Blind (NFB). Despite the difference in STEM field, Wyatt recalled that he
benefitted from seeing how this scientist conducted his work. He also described the
impact of knowing a blind researcher from his own university, “getting to see him
as an example has been a little bit enlightening, knowing how he did things, even
though it’s not the same as what I do, but to know.” Wyatt shared:
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Wilhelm
Wilhelm was in his mid-20s and a Ph.D. student in computational organic chemistry
at the time of the study. He had been blind since birth. Wilhelm explained his solid
foundation, “My parents were such… great role models and set really high standards
and high values. But they also let me live my own life and be independent.” He
attended public school and in high school, took honors science and advanced
placement (AP) math courses. His chemistry teacher was passionate about chemistry
but not encouraging to Wilhelm. He explained, “…she always told me, ‘Chemistry
is impractical and you shouldn’t study chemistry as a blind guy.’… I loved the
subject but I was being discouraged by her.” Midway through chemistry, Wilhelm
had a revelation. He explained to his teacher that, at a molecular level, chemistry
is not visible to anyone. His skills at developing mental models, which he created
to navigate the world as a blind person in the course of everyday life, were honed
WKURXJK FRQVWDQW XVH 7KHVH VNLOOV PDGH KLP XQLTXHO\ TXDOLILHG WR FUHDWH PHQWDO
models of spatial relations and distances that are needed to think about abstract,
molecular-level chemistry. His teacher understood this reasoning and, he explained,
“[she] became a huge ally of mine.”
When Wilhelm went on to university for Chemistry, he shared, “…people were
skeptical when I was starting undergrad. They didn’t think it would be practical or
possible for a blind person to study chemistry.” He went on, “I showed them little
by little of what I could do. It was really exciting, because their opinions turned…
Now, they’re just such great supporters and allies, everyone I work with.” Wilhelm
earned undergraduate degrees in chemistry and history and a minor in mathematics.
Despite Wilhelm’s success in college, the obstacles of graduate laboratory research,
given his disability, seemed insurmountable. However, one of his professors thought
differently and introduced Wilhelm to a colleague who ran the lab in which Wilhelm
was working when I interviewed him. He explained, “They made the laboratory
accessible to me. Just one thing led to another and I realized, ‘Wow, I can go to grad
school in chemistry!’” Graduate school opened doors and also friendships, sharing
this about a close peer, “He started the same year that I did. He is just a fantastic ally
and role model…He’s always there to talk about chemistry…he just loves to make
things accessible.”
Wilhelm explained how much he valued his social connections, “The truth is,
your [closest] friends and your family are just as important as your NSF grants…
They keep you going just as much as every other positive resource you have.”
Tina
Tina was a computer programmer in her mid-20s with a B.S. in computer science
and a passion for technology. Tina was blind from childhood cancer. Tina attended
public school. While other children were learning to read text and handwrite in
Kindergarten, her mother taught her to type and she then learned Braille. In the third

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grade, Tina got an electronic Braille note taker. Assistive technologies fueled her
interest in computers. Tina was also an innovator. In high school, she was frustrated
with the limitations of her electronic Braille note taker. In the face of challenge, Tina
chose to innovate. She explained:
…in the summer between my sophomore and junior year…I basically shut
myself in my bedroom for maybe a month…and started writing with only one
year of java experience, a program to basically take code if you wrote Nemeth
on an electronic note taker, it would output my text [for sighted teachers to read].
Tina received positive messages along her STEM pathway, saying, “…most
people were…supportive and encouraged me to do it.” Opportunities were not
always available, however. In junior high, Tina took her Visual Basic computer
programming language course online because her school could not accommodate
her. She felt strongly that the way to increase participation of people with
disabilities in STEM is to significantly increase the accessibility of public school
STEM courses.
Tina participated in a collaborative program through NASA and NFB’s Jernigan
Institute. The week-long program was created for blind students showing interest
and promise in STEM. When Tina sought advice about free online accessible
graphing calculators via the program’s listserv, a NASA scientist and co-creator
of the MathTrax accessible graphing calculator responded. He was also blind.
This started a long-term mentorship that supported Tina throughout high school
and into college. He provided support as Tina developed her own assistive
technology and guidance on accessible computer-based technologies that were
more effective than those provided in school. He also helped with Tina’s rigorous
academic work.
Tina emphasized the importance of mentors because of their critical role in
supporting students with disabilities pursing STEM. She said, “…they need to have
mentors that can help walk them through it…and they need to be encouraged, they
need to not have people around them who say, ‘you’re blind, you can’t do this!’”
With such a robust foundation and passion for her work, Tina will likely continue to
innovate and push boundaries in computer science.
Harold
I met Harold when he was in his late 20s and working on his Ph.D. in computer
science. Harold was legally blind with bilateral optic nerve hypoplasia. He grew up
in a rural town outside of a major southwestern city. Harold shared:
The idea of wanting to get out of that isolation and being able to affect my own
transportation and being able to have the intellectual company or companionship
that I really felt that I desired and lacked in these rural settings. Those were
some of the interactions that propelled me toward the career into… STEM…

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Harold’s early successes in STEM comprised “inordinate amounts of time spent

playing online multiplayer video games.” He explained,
It wasn’t unusual for me to come out in first place without any assistive
technology… It was like, if I can come out on top of these more…trivial kinds
of play tasks, then is there any reason why I can’t be effective in more serious
or legitimate things?
While Harold enjoyed support from his family and educators for his public-school
education, there was little support to help him prepare for college. Following his
early high school graduation, facilitated by community college courses, Harold
continued on at the local two-year institution. He decided to pursue computer
science. He explained that around the age of 16 he became:
«DZDUHURXJKO\RIWKHLGHDWKDWIHZHUWKDQRIOHJDOO\EOLQGSHRSOHKDYH
ZRUN LQ WKH 86 « >,@ EHF>DPH@ IHDUIXO WKDW , ZRXOG EH RQH RI WKRVH
or greater…that don’t have work… that I would not be…taken seriously by
the “rest of the people outside my family” …There are all these things that I
wanted to do. I wanted to live independently and be a productive member of
society and have a family.
“Computer science,” Harold explained, “really emerged at the…forefront because
I felt like the computer screen [was]… where my vision and my disability was
least affecting my performance.” At the community college, Harold found a
STEM role model. His calculus teacher, also an engineer, was the first-person
Harold had met who used higher-level mathematics in his job. Harold went on
to University where he found the social connections and opportunities he had
desired in his youth. Friendships were built upon common interests in computers.
As with his pre-college teachers, however, Harold said that many professors at
his university:
…saw me as a capable individual, but doing my own thing…because I often
KDGWKHVHDFFRPPRGDWLRQVUHTXHVWVWKDW,ZRXOGDVNRIWKHP7KH\JUDQWHG
them graciously… but I don’t think that I had really substantive relationships
with most of my professors.
He also met supportive professors. Harold conducted research with a math
professor who, he explained, “…encouraged me to publish, to submit a paper to
an undergrad math conference…he kept encouraging me and eventually I did it…
It turns out my presentation was the best one there.” Harold went on to conduct
research with a computing group on campus. He also engaged in summer research in
machine learning at NASA where Harold found mentors and was given guidance on
publishing and writing grant proposals.
Harold encountered a roadblock while taking upper level math courses. These
classes did not have textbooks so Harold had to rely on the class notes that professors
wrote on the board during class. Until that time, Harold had been using a monocular
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to follow along with notes in class, supplementing his learning with the textbook at
home. But the lack of a textbook was a major obstacle. He shared:
It became clear to me that even if I could push through these particular
classes, right, without some assistive technologies, it wasn’t a
sustainable strategy because hours that I had to spend compensating, even if
it could work out in this case, were not going to help make me competitive in
the future.
Harold shared this with his research colleagues who told him, “Why don’t you
try and fix it yourself?” Harold set to work creating a stable desktop optical zoom
technology that integrated with a tablet to enable users to magnify the board/
professor and generate a display of the video output in near real-time. It also allowed
for annotation on the tablet screen. Harold and his team that came together to
develop this technology won several awards and eventually brought this product
to market. Harold completed his bachelor’s degrees in math and computer science
and Master’s in computer science and later went on to a top U.S. technical school
to develop artificial intelligence applications for wearable computers that support
social interactions for people with visual disabilities.
SELF-EFFICACY THEMES
Participants shared myriad experiences from their roads to STEM participation. Two
sources of self-efficacy emerged as particularly relevant: (1) social persuasions,
the influential verbal feedback we receive from those around us as we engage in
particular tasks and (2) vicarious experiences like role modelling, occur as we watch
others engaging in particular tasks and experiencing the outcomes associated with
their engagement. Participants shared much about these STEM self-efficacy sources
and, from their stories, patterns emerged.
Social Persuasions
Participants received a variety of supportive and unsupportive feedback as they

engaged in tasks relevant to their STEM pathways.
Supportive messages. The five kinds of supportive feedback differed in nature and
function. They included: acceptance, encouragement, membership, high expectations
and advocacy.
Messages of acceptance made participants feel that their presence in STEM
contexts was permitted. Harold described the messages of acceptance he received
from most of his teachers and professors who, he noted, did little to encourage him
but upheld his accommodations without issue.
Encouraging messages built confidence in participants. Both Wyatt and Tina
reported that they were generally encouraged by those around them as they pursued

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their STEM fields. Encouragement, however, was not necessarily accompanied by

any concrete guidance about how to advance in STEM.
Messages of membership came from college peers in STEM. They gave
participants a sense of belonging in their STEM communities. Harold and Wilhelm
shared the welcome sense of camaraderie they felt in college when they found
peers who were interested in the same fields. They built their communities on the
foundation of common STEM pursuits.
Participants identified authority figures who communicated messages of high
expectations, such as Wyatt’s teachers who pushed him to take challenging math and
science courses. Harold had a professor who brought him into undergraduate research
and then urged him to present at a math conference, which he did with great success.
Messages of advocacy came from others who partnered with participants to solve
issues of access such as the researcher who worked with Wilhelm to make his lab
accessible so Wilhelm could conduct research there during graduate school. Tina’s
mother taught her how to type during Kindergarten while other children learned
to handwrite. Some participants had to fight against people or intuitions barring
their access to STEM experiences. In those fights, participants received messages of
advocacy from those who came to fight alongside them.
Unsupportive messages. Participants described unsupportive feedback they

received along their STEM paths. The unsupportive feedback was classified as:
restrictive, corrective and skeptical. Restrictive messaging informed participants that
they were not permitted or capable of engaging in STEM because of their disabilities.
Corrective messages came from individuals who thought they knew more about
participants’ limitations than participants themselves. They told participants that
STEM practices and aspirations were not appropriate for them because of their
disabilities. Though she eventually came to support Wilhelm’s STEM pathway,
his high school chemistry teacher clearly told Wilhelm that he should not try to
pursue a future in chemistry, that he would not be capable of it because he was blind.
Corrective messages were consistently reported as coming from people who thought
they were acting in participants’ best interests.
Finally, messages of skepticism came from those who harbored doubts about
participants’ abilities because of their disabilities. Wilhelm faced skepticism from
those in his undergraduate program because they could not imagine that a blind
person could be successful in chemistry. Over time, he changed their opinions as well.
All participants reported positive messages and no one reported receiving
negative messages alone. Reports of positive messages outnumbered the negative
for all participants.
Vicarious Experiences: Role Models and Mentors
Participants’ role models differed by STEM and disability status: Role models were
encountered both in and out of STEM experiences and with and without disabilities.
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STEM role models, both with and without disabilities, were most commonly
identified.
Role models in STEM without disabilities were encountered at all different times
in participants’ lives, both in and out of formal schooling. Harold’s calculus professor
was the first person he could talk with who worked in applied mathematics. Wyatt’s
engineering role models from his internship influenced his decision to enter his field.
STEM role models without disabilities provided guidance about navigating the road
to particular STEM fields with a focus on the practices and culture of the field.
Participants encountered STEM role models with disabilities only when they
engaged in opportunities beyond school. The NFB emerged as important way for
participants to meet blind STEM role models. From these role models, participants
learned how to engage in STEM. They learned about resources, how to solve issues
of access and how to persist in breaking through barriers. It did not seem to matter
whether or not these role models were in the same STEM field as participants. It
only mattered that they were in some STEM field and had similar disabilities.
Participants often stayed connected with their STEM role models with disabilities
for years. These relationships came to include guidance and support characteristic
of mentoring. Mentors provided support as participants navigated the logistics of
STEM participation.
Underrepresentation of people with disabilities in STEM affects the availability
of role models with disabilities. Participants expressed concern about the lack of role
models because of their importance in the lives of people pursuing STEM fields.
Being networked with organizations that connect people with role models emerged
as an important factor in STEM preparation.
CONCLUSIONS
The future holds increasing opportunities in STEM careers and these promising
careers should be accessible to everyone. Though people with disabilities are
underrepresented in STEM, there are accomplished individuals who have successfully
navigated the road to STEM participation. By learning about their experiences,
we can start to understand influential factors in STEM trajectories. This study
identified distinct kinds of feedback that impacted participants in different ways. It
DOVRUHYHDOHGWKHXQLTXHIRUPVRIJXLGDQFHIURPGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIUROHPRGHOV and
mentors. As educators, our connections within communities and relationships with
students and parents make us well situated to constructively impact the influential
factors identified in this study. You can have a positive STEM impact on your
students with disabilities by:
Understanding what is possible: People with disabilities hold the highest academic
degrees and work successfully at all levels and branches in STEM. Become familiar
with examples of STEM professionals with disabilities and share them with students
and parents so they can understand that STEM can be a realistic career option.
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Being mindful about messaging: The feedback you give learners with disabilities
matters. Be mindful of the types of messages you are communicating and the
authenticity of your words.
Maintaining high expectations: Expect students with disabilities to be in your
classes and in top academic groups. AP and honors courses are important for
preparing students for the rigors of STEM studies.
Providing access to role models: Connect students and parents with STEM-
and disability-based organizations with networks of people who can be role
models/mentors, such as the National Federation of the Blind and the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Providing exposure to STEM opportunities: Keep parents and students informed
about opportunities beyond the classroom. Encourage students to join STEM
internships, research programs, camps, and field experiences where they can have
impactful experiences and meet potential role models.
REFERENCES
$PHULFDQVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV$FWRI3XE/1R±6WDW
need for plurality of perspectives on disability. Remedial and Special Education, 32±
%DQGXUD $ 6HOIHIILFDF\ 7RZDUGV D XQLI\LQJ WKHRU\ RI EHKDYLRUDO FKDQJH Psychological
Review, 84±
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
(GXFDWLRQIRU$OO+DQGLFDSSHG&KLOGUHQ$FWRI3XE/1R±6WDW
(YHU\6WXGHQW6XFFHHGV$FW(66$5HDXWKRUL]DWLRQRIHOHPHQWDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\HGXFDWLRQDFW
3XE/1R6WDW
Goodley, D. (2010). Disability studies: An interdisciplinary introduction. London: Sage Publications.
Mather, M., & Lavery, D. (February, 2012). U.S. science and engineering labor force stalls, but trendsvary
across states. Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2012/scientists-engineers.aspx
National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. (2011).
Expanding underrepresented minority participation: America’s science and technology talent at the
crossroads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Science Board. (2016). Science and engineering indicators 2016. Arlington, VA: National
Science Foundation (NSB-2016-1).
1DWLRQDO6FLHQFH)RXQGDWLRQWomen, minorities, and persons with disabilities in science and
engineering: 20176SHFLDO5HSRUW16)$UOLQJWRQ9$1DWLRQDO6FLHQFH)RXQGDWLRQDQG
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics.
Pajares, F. (2008). Motivational role of self-efficacy beliefs in self-regulated learning, In D. H. Schunk &
B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory, research and applications.
New York, NY: Routledge.
Zeldin, A. L., & Parajes, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathematical,
scientific, and technological careers. American Educational Research Journal, 37±
Heather A. Pacheco-Guffrey
Bridgewater State University
Bridgewater, Massachusetts
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PHILLIP A. BODA
26. EXCLUSION FROM PARTICIPATION

IN SCIENCE
Confessions from an Ally on the Other Side of the Fence
INTRODUCTION
Current calls in science education explicate the need for understanding science
instruction through students’ meaning-making experiences, as well as how these realities
manifest particular forms of culture in the classroom. This leads to science teachers
WDNLQJDQLQTXLU\VWDQFHLQWRWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQVRIWHDFKLQJOHDUQLQJDQGWKHVWXGHQWV
WKH\VHUYH(PGLQ7KHVHUHDOLW\EDVHGLQTXLULHVDV(PGLQSXUSRUWVH[SRVHDQG
interrogate how culture plays a role in urban contexts. Within this approach, there is an
emphasis on cognition where teachers open up their thought processes, putting them in
WKHVSRWOLJKWIRUFULWLTXH,QGRLQJVRWKHUHLVDOVRDIRFXVRQPHWDFRJQLWLRQWRTXHVWLRQ
assumptions of capability, and act on these thoughts in productive ways that respond to
students’ experiences. While there are implicit effects for addressing cultural mismatch
in classrooms by focusing on science teacher education, metacognition (and its impact)
have not been studied explicitly to understand teacher thought and its effect on practice.
In the search for key areas of research to improve science education, metacognition
and its influence on teacher decisions has been on the fringes, at best (Thomas,
2012). However, if we consider novel pedagogy, assessment, and curriculum
responsiveness to the needs of students as a function of challenging assumptions held
about students and their capabilities, this metacognitive activity should be leveraged
more than it is currently done. In other words, if we conceptualize metacognition
DVDQDFWLYLW\WKDWOHDGVWRDFWLRQ±D³WKLQNLQJDERXWWKRXJKW´WKDWKDVDFRQFHSWXDO
component as well as a regulatory component that is relevant to teaching and
OHDUQLQJFI0F(OYDQ\6FRWW /HY\±WKHQPHWDFRJQLWLRQLQWKHIRUP
of addressing assumptions about students that lead to forms of exclusion for students
of color, English-language learners, and students labeled with disabilities is in dire
QHHGRILQTXLU\LQVFLHQFHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQ
7RDGGUHVVWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGQHHGIRULQTXLU\LQWRPHWDFRJQLWLRQWKLVFKDSWHU
presents an account of how I used metacognitive activity and action, and how it
has played a role in my past experiences as an urban science educator over a three-
year period where I taught both general education and special education students
in an inclusive classroom setting. The vast majority of students in my classroom
!ZHUHVWXGHQWVRIFRORUDQGDGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHSHUFHQWDJHZHUHODEHOHGZLWK
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P. A. BODA
DGLVDELOLW\!FRPSDUHGWRWKHQDWLRQDODYHUDJHV7KLVFKDSWHUWKHQXVHVWKH

lens of metacognition as both a body of knowledge about one’s assumptions and a
jump off point from which decisions are made to improve science education for all
VWXGHQWV%XWILUVWZHPXVWVWDUWZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQ:K\"
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF HOW RACE AND DISABILITY INTERSECT
Schooling is an enculturation process where students are expected to behave, react,

DQG WKLQN LQ ZD\V WKDW ³ILW´ LQWR SDUWLFXODU VWUDWD RI VRFLHW\ &ROH 7KHVH
expectations produce subconscious notions about race and disability that intersect
DQGRSHUDWHDVIRUPVRISRZHUWRH[FOXGHVWXGHQWV$QQDPPD)LQGLQJDZD\
to enact systemic change while addressing these pervasive forms of exclusion is,
then, not merely a pedagogical choice in terms of a liberating educational process
(i.e., Freire, 2000). It additionally focuses on all students being able to critically
HQJDJHZLWKVFKRRODVDV\VWHPLQZD\VWKDWFKDOOHQJHRSSUHVVLRQPRUHEURDGO\±
to read the words that articulate oppression and read the world that perpetuates it
(Freire, 1998). In other words, culture, power, and agency need to be addressed in
order for productive “self-work” toward “science-for-all” to occur.
One task to help teachers develop capacities in themselves to address their own
perceptions about diverse student bodies they will teach is to become metacognitive
and pursue this activity as an on-going goal of “good teaching” where students usually
on the margins are at the center (hooks, 2000). This process is both liberating for the
teacher since it seeks to enact novel pedagogical and curricular choices, but also for the
student whose culture has become juxtaposed against standard schooling structures,
and the cultures therein. When students get excluded because of characteristics that
teachers are not familiar with (i.e., race and disability), we find oppression. If we look
at the training of general education teachers as a focus on content specialists whose
“diversity training” should compliment that of the special education specialist, we are
SUHVHQWHGZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQ:KRLVKHOGDFFRXQWDEOHWRPHHWWKHQHHGVRIall students?
It is here where we understand exclusion as a function of socio-cultural intersections,
rather than personal deficit, and the importance of understanding power and agency.
In their recent study of how teacher educators perceive disability studies as a
ILHOGWRLQTXLUHDERXWWKHFRPSOH[VRFLRFXOWXUDOLQWHUVHFWLRQVRIGLVDELOLW\DQGRWKHU
forms of diversity, Cosier and Pearson (2016) describe how use of the word disability
has been shown to merely code for “special education” and “rehabilitation,” and
that disability is only included in about one course for teacher candidates. It should
not be surprising, then, when 1,088 science teachers were recently surveyed, the
vast majority felt that they were unprepared to teach students with disabilities, and
WKDWPDQ\KDGQHYHUUHFHLYHGDQ\IRUPDOWUDLQLQJWRGRVR.DKQ /HZLV
Compound onto this reality of unpreparedness for general education teachers, when
VWXGLHG LQ FRWHDFKLQJ FODVVURRPV WKH W\SH RI LQTXLU\ SHGDJRJ\ XVHG E\ VFLHQFH
teachers has been shown to not meet the needs of students with disabilities (Moin,
Magiera, & Zigmond, 2009).
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EXCLUSION FROM PARTICIPATION IN SCIENCE
In short, science teacher education programs do not provide sufficient support

to teach all students, and even when provided with a special education counterpart
to ameliorate these challenges, teachers will fail to meet the needs of their students
if more is not emphasized about the needs of this population, and the bias laden
within our perceptions of them. This may come as a surprise that this happens
HYHQZKHQXVLQJDIRUPRISHGDJRJ\LQTXLU\FRQVWUXFWLYLVWWRXWHGDVWKHJRDOIRU
science teachers given the par excellence representation for this type of teaching and
learning. However, multicultural science teacher educators have heard this too many
times, and this compliments similar narratives of students in urban contexts.
Growing our science teachers to perceive cultural diversities in their students
as differences rather than deficits has been the mantra for all multicultural science
teacher education agendas thus far (cf., Atwater, Russell, & Butler, 2013; Emdin,
2016). However, further interrogation into the reasoning behind this deficit
paradigm recognizes and deconstructs diversity being coded as a disability within
various eras of history as a function of a perception most akin to “disablement,” and
WKHUHIRUHUHTXLUHVDPRUHWKRURXJKFULWLTXHRIWKHVHHOHPHQWV7RZKLWWKHIXQFWLRQ
RIUDFLDOL]HGFXOWXUH±DZD\RIWKLQNLQJDQGDFWLQJDWWULEXWHGWRDSDUWLFXODUJURXS
RISHRSOHEDVHGRQVNLQFRORU±FRGLQJDVLQWHUQDOGHILFLWKDVOHGWRDSXVKLQJRXWRI
students of color from general education classes into the school-to-prison pipeline
(Archer, 2009) and a decrease in these students’ educational opportunities once re-
VHJUHJDWHG LQWR ORZHU WUDFNV RI DFDGHPLF H[SHFWDWLRQ 0LFKHOVRQ :KHQ
this intersects with disability labels, the deficit paradigm characterizes students’
capability to be successful within a general education classroom since the notion
of disability as lack, and therefore deficit, becomes synonymous within racialized
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\HVWKDWPHDQVZLWKLQLQTXLU\FRQVWUXFWLYLVWSHGDJRJ\WRR
It should be telling through the evidence provided above that the need for
intersectional analyses in science teacher education is not only valuable, it is
pertinent to attain our goal for a scientifically literate citizenry, where all parties that
enter the classroom are encouraged to take advantage of the civic ends of science
education. Moreover, we need examples of such successes and the paths teachers
who embrace such a paradigm take with students of color, students with disabilities,
and the intersection of these two realities. This chapter showcases three such cases,
DQGWKHSDWKWKDW,WRRNWRZDUGLQFOXGLQJWKHPLQVFLHQWLILFLQTXLU\DUJXPHQWDWLRQ
DQG VXEVHTXHQWO\ full participation. Each student case is presented in his own
VHFWLRQ±ILUVWZLWKEDFNJURXQGRIWKHVWXGHQWDQGWKHQZLWKDVFHQDULRWRH[HPSOLI\
the student’s position in the school context where they succeeded.
Roger: On the Making of Juvenile “Delinquency” as a Parameter for Exclusion
I “knew” Roger before I met him. His narrative, presence, and capabilities were
widespread gossip amongst the teachers in the school I was hired for my first year
of teaching. Roger, being over-aged and under-credited, was represented as, for lack
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P. A. BODA
of a better word, “unteachable,” a narrative compounded by his special education

label. Roger’s embodiment of a large student of color didn’t seem to “fit” into the
traditional high school structure and exacerbated his social positioning (Collins,
2013) because he represented a student beyond the reach of the high school teachers’
FDSDELOLWLHV±5RJHUZDVDVRFLDO³GHOLQTXHQW´LQWKHH\HVRIKLVWHDFKHUV7KLVLVQRW
to say that all teachers viewed his as being unable to participate in society; in fact,
many teachers thought he was funny, vibrant when he wanted to be, and charming in
that he had a certain presence about him.
What was ascribed onto Roger was that his disability label, along with his
racialized “street” culture, were inhibiting him from being a productive member of
learning environments that were being instilled as “how we do it here” vis-à-vis the
school’s culture. This then translated into perceptions of his abilities as a function of
his race and disability markers, which excluded him from novel pedagogy in order to
provide “enough structure” for him to learn. However, in my experience, his ability
to participate in science was fostered through a less structured course of study that
valued his individual agency as a learner and able student.
Roger and I met when he took Chemistry. It was my first-year teaching and Roger
was true to his perceived identity discussed by his teachers; he only attended about
once a week, but when he did he exacerbated his “streetness” and his charming
EUDYDGR VKLQHG ± D PLUURU UHSUHVHQWDWLYH RI KLV LGHQWLW\ WKURXJK WKH H\HV RI KLV
teachers. He was often lost in class and we spoke at length about how he felt like he
couldn’t do science because he “just didn’t get it.” Indeed, my role in positioning him
as “unable” was upheld by the pedagogy, curriculum, and assessment I was taught.
(YHQWKRXJK,KDGEHHQWUDLQHGLQDYHU\SURJUHVVLYHLQTXLU\EDVHGXQGHUJUDGXDWH
FROOHJHGHJUHH±LQTXLU\ZDVQRWHQRXJKDQGQRWIRUKLP
While at some points Roger was able to participate with help from his classmates,
much of the time in class was upholding what I coin “included exclusion.” Included
exclusion is where a student is perceived attentive but is trapped within a process of
social positioning attributing a non-academic and “unable” sense of self, therefore
undervaluing their ability to participate in class. This was my first-year teaching
DQG,IDLOHGKLP±OLWHUDOO\DQGPHWDSKRULFDOO\:KLOHKHGLGSDVVRQHVHFWLRQRIRXU
chemistry course, I felt as if he had done so by the replication of a role as “submissive
VWXGHQW´ZKHUHLIKHMXVWGLGQRWFDXVHZDYHVKHZRXOGEHVHHQDVDEOH±DQDUUDWLYH
seen elsewhere by urban educators (Emdin, 2016). However, this failure on my part
enticed me to think about which elements of my classroom were important, and
IRUZKRPWKH\VHUYHG7KLVFRQVWLWXWHGE\PHWDFRJQLWLYHDFWLYLW\±P\³VHOIZRUN´
stage of teacher growth.
My second year of teaching, Roger participated in a pilot course that I designed for
students studying the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013).
Using my experiences from the previous year and student narratives I collected, I
FRQVWUXFWHGWKHFRXUVHIRUVWXGHQWVGHHPHG³XQWHDFKDEOH´±VWXGHQWVZKRIDLOHGLQ
traditional science courses multiple times and therefore placed in this “leftover” class
for “undesirable” students (Erevelles, 2011). Throughout the course we discussed

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the students inherently had about their world. There was one instance, during the
third module about chemical reactions, where Roger flourished in his ability to learn
and grow with his peers, showcasing his brilliance to me and another teacher in ways
that were not evident within the narratives produced about him in the school. This
is where my metacognitive activity kicked in to metacognitive action, and where
power was addressed.
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WUDGLWLRQDOO\HQDFWHGLQWKH&KHPLVWU\FXUULFXOXP±DQGHDFKVWXGHQWSLFNHGDGHPR
that interested them. Students chose demos where they did not know why it occurred,
nor did they know how the chemistry content applied to what they were seeing.
Taking cues from students in the previous year, I knew I needed a different structure
through which students would be active in choosing what they would do, and how
they would investigate further. The next steps in this module involved picking one
teacher that they wanted to present these demos to, and afterwards they interviewed
said teacher about what that teacher observed and knew about the science content
YLDRSHQHQGHGTXHVWLRQV6WXGHQWVGHYHORSHGWKHTXHVWLRQVWRDVNWKHWHDFKHUDIWHU
their own experience with the demos, which then led to consensus building of what
TXHVWLRQVZHUHSHUWLQHQWDQGGLVFDUGLQJRIRWKHUV7KHVWXGHQWVWKHQFKRVHDWHDFKHU
that they wanted to ask to participate in theirFODVVURRPSUHVHQWDWLRQV±WKH\FKRVH
an English teacher that many of them had for third year English and were struggling
in her class. It is here where Roger shined.
5RJHUSUHVHQWHGWKHWUDGLWLRQDOGHPRRIFRUQVWDUFKDQGZDWHU±DQRQ1HZWRQLDQ
solid demo. He presented it to his English teacher, and then interviewed her. He
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responses. The next weeks were spent researching for himself the science content
he needed to know in order to either support or refute her claims based on her
observations. He then took references that he obtained about the science content,
wrote a paragraph for the group essay that would be provided to the teacher at the
ILQDOSUHVHQWDWLRQVHVVLRQDQGPDGHWZRVOLGHVIRUWKH3RZHU3RLQWSUHVHQWDWLRQ±
one with his claims about the demo based on evidence found in his resources and
another with his APA formatted citations. This structure was supported through both
peer interaction and teacher guidance.
The day came for Roger to present to his teacher. He went through his slides
and then proudly at the end of the period showcased his paragraph to her. In his
presentation, he also addressed the claims made by the teacher in terms of accuracy
and depth of description. It was later that this teacher told me: “I have never seen him
write that much, or present information like that, I didn’t know he could do that!”
She was so excited to see Roger being successful, and then (I speculate since she
always lamented that he never came to class and never turned in assignments) ended
up using that science experience as a proxy contributive element for Roger’s English
JUDGH±DJUDGHRISDVVLQJ5RJHUKDGILQDOO\SDVVHG6FLHQFHDQG(QJOLVK5RJHUZDV
finally included in both classes, even by proxy.

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We often speak of our experiences of success outside of context, this scenario

highlights that it was not that Roger was “unteachable” or “unable,” but that he
QHHGHG VRPHWKLQJ EH\RQG WKH LQTXLU\EDVHG VFLHQFH WHDFKLQJ VWUXFWXUH ,W VKRXOG
be evident that the teacher-student binary was broken down in this space and
that students then felt confident in their own understandings because they were
able to find agency in the learning process as an authority of knowledge. While
WKLV VWUXFWXUH GRHV PLUURU HOHPHQWV RI LQTXLU\EDVHG SHGDJRJ\ WKHUH DUH VSHFLILF
elements of democratic science teaching and learning neglected in even the most
reformed science classrooms (see Basu, Barton, & Tan, 2013).
Matt: On the Making of a “Disruptive” Student to Justify Increased Structure
Like Roger, I heard stories about Matt before I had ever met him. Unlike Roger,
Matt did not have a disability label, but his racialized “street” culture was embodied
in every aspect of his being: the way he walked, the way he talked, the way he
expressed joy, and, indeed, the way he learned. Matt was a social butterfly and
also had a larger build like Roger. He was a surly high school student with a full-
JURZQEHDUG0DWWOLNH5RJHUKDGWHDFKHUSHUSHWXDWHGQDUUDWLYHVDERXWKLVTXLFN
temper, disruptive nature in the classroom, and a series of documented disciplinary
actions.
Matt, like any high school student (urban or not), was caught up with being Mr.
3RSXODU+HZDVWKHMRNHVWHUWKHORYHUDQGWKHILJKWHU±DOODSSODXGHGE\KLVSHHUV
seemingly as he embodied everything they wish they could be, but weren’t. Matt
was cool. I met Matt in my first year teaching a standard Chemistry class, and he
embodied everything you would expect in an urban student that you have seen in
media and movies. What I found fascinating was that even though he projected his
streetness as his core identity, the reality was far from that image. Time and time
DJDLQWKURXJKRXWWKHILUVW\HDU,KDG0DWWZHKDGVWUXJJOHVZLWKSRZHU±ZKRKDG
it, who could exert it, and how could it be used productively. He was in the same
structured class as Roger and often felt that “science was just not for him.” Indeed, I
am ashamed to admit that I failed Matt this year, too.
The “holes” in my pedagogy during this first year had to do with my understandings
of race, disability, and the way they interplayed into my pedagogical decisions, as
well as the assumptions I held about how school takes place and what learning
structures should be valued. My metacognitive activity, in Matt’s case, worked
toward viewing him as a productive member of the learning environment, rather
than a disruption to be excluded based on the principle that he couldn’t “fit the
mold” of what a student should embody to participate in science. In my first year
of teaching, Matt was successful in many portions of my Chemistry course but was
QRWDEOHWRSURGXFWLYHO\EHVHHQDVDOHDUQHUE\KLVSHHUVDQGRWKHUWHDFKHUV±KH
like Roger, was consistently positioned as being a part of the “included exclusion,”
valuable only when he was a “silent and submissive” student. This was to change in
my second year of teaching.
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Matt was enrolled in the same pilot course as Roger, but in a different section.
)RU0DWWLWZDVWKHPRGXOHLQYROYLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHZRUOGWKDWWKHVWXGHQWV
had, but had never been answered. That was a pivotal jump-off point where my own
personal metacognitive action took place. This module started from a site of my
RZQSHUVRQDOLQTXLU\:KDWGLGWKHVWXGHQWVZDQWWRNQRZWKDWZDVQRWWDXJKWWR
them? It was enacted so that these students could be seen as both capable of learning
VFLHQFHDVZHOODVDEOHWRDUJXHDERXWWKHLUFODLPV±DJRDORIWKHQHZVWDQGDUGV
yet to be fully elaborated on its application with students labeled with disabilities
and racialized cultures in urban contexts. Topics included moon cycles, celestial
formation, gravity, atomic interactions, light and its properties, the neurobiology
of our eyes, wavelength, color and perception, and the nature of scientific practice.
7KURXJKRXWWKHQH[WIHZZHHNVZHH[SORUHGWKHVHWRSLFVWRJHWKHUDQGVXEVHTXHQWO\
participated in our own version of argumentation that paralleled those imposed by
the explicitly structured scientific version.
As a class, we wanted to showcase student learning through a venue that would
place less of a risk on them as sole responsible agents of their learning process, as well
as holding others accountable to the same standards that the students were expected
of in terms of conceptual knowledge. This is where the aforementioned “interview
DWHDFKHU´VWUXFWXUHFDPHIURPWKDWZDVXVHGLQWKHWKLUGPRGXOH±IURPLQFOXGLQJ
students that had been marginalized because of their disability label and/or their
racialized culture. In this first iteration, it was the students that thought they should
interview the principal and assistant principal to see theirVFLHQFHFRPSUHKHQVLRQ±
thereby reforming agency and authority.
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The students, with my support, decided on having the student next in line to ask a
TXHVWLRQUHFRUGWKHSULQFLSDO¶VUHVSRQVHDVWKHLUFROOHDJXHDVNVWKHLUTXHVWLRQV:H
also decided that it would be good to audio record the session to make sure we had an
extra copy of the experience to draw from if we didn’t get it all. The interview then
took place with the structure that the students created and led to a research period for
WKHVWXGHQWVWRILQGRXWZKDWWKHDQVZHUVZHUHWRWKHLURZQTXHVWLRQV7KLVLVZKHUH
students created a collective essay and coordinated a PowerPoint presentation that
was then presented to the principal, conference style.
The students flourished! These were students with and without disability labels,
but all from racialized cultures that were deemed “unteachable” due to various
infractions and ascriptions of inability, that were able to participate not only in
learning science content but also enacting a scientific way of knowing. It was here
where the principal was also shown that these students didn’t need remediation, nor
GLGWKH\QHHGPRUHVWUXFWXUH±ZKDWWKH\QHHGHGZDVless structure to showcase the
ways they express themselves and learn cooperatively.
This metacognitive action was birthed from metacognitive activity, borne from my
experiences, and bred through student input. In foregrounding the notions of power
and the collective experience of students in my class, critical elements emerged as a
function of challenging my perceptions of race and disability. This, again, provided

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a space from which participation in science was not a function of perceptions of

VWXGHQWV DQG WKHLU ³ILW´ LQWR DQ LQTXLU\EDVHG VWUXFWXUH ELUWKHG IURP UHVHDUFK RQ
“how people learn.” Instead it was a function of challenging the perceptions I held
DERXWOHDUQLQJVFLHQFHDQGWKHVWXGHQWVWKDWOLYHZLWKLQXUEDQFRQWH[WV±ILUVWDQG
foremost a form of metacognitive activity, then an enactment of metacognitive
DFWLRQWRFKDOOHQJHP\RZQELDVHVWKURXJKUHOLQTXLVKLQJSRZHU
Justin: On the Making of a “Disabled” Student through Perceptions of “Safety”
Like Roger and Matt, I knew Justin’s story well before I walked into the classroom
with him. When I met Justin, he was the first student to arrive in my Chemistry class.
I actually didn’t know that this was the same student that teachers had spoke about when
he introduced himself; I was taken aback by his timid nature given his large stature. The
narratives about Justin were pretty straight forward: “Justin has Autism;” “Justin can
get crazy sometimes, so just watch out when he does;” “Justin tends to throw things and
growls like a dragon.” With all these narratives of what would be deemed as “abnormal”
student behavior in my mind, it was curious to me that the student that entered my
classroom that first time, this tall and heavily built young man with glasses, was just
DQRWKHUVWXGHQWZLWKWKHVDPHTXLUNVDQGSHUVRQDOZD\VRIGRLQJWKLQJVWKDWZRXOG
come with any other student. In my experiences, Justin was just being, well, Justin.
Interestingly, the growth that I had in being able to teach Justin was not over
a period of years, and instead over a period of months. Unlike Roger and Matt,
Justin did not embody the racialized street culture that the other two young men had
projected to ensure their respect in the school context. Justin, instead, was a student
of color that would come to school with his uniform on every day, neatly ironed, and
UHDG\WROHDUQ±KHZRXOGLQIDFWEHWKHILUVWVWXGHQWLQP\FODVVURRPHYHU\GD\
along with his friend Louie, who also had glasses and was labeled with a disability. In
the context of a traditional, white science classroom that enforces particular notions
of appropriate behavior, dress, and vernacular, Justin and Louie embodied the ideal
SHUVRQD±WKHZKLWHQRUP,QWKLVILQDOVWXGHQWVFHQDULR,KLJKOLJKWKRZGLVDELOLW\
even when seemingly disconnected with racialized street culture, still intersects with
race in ways that produce exclusion in schools.
It was a standard day in the laboratory. The students were participating in a
melting curve experiment. Students were paired up and, as they always had, Justin
and Louie worked together. This pair, along with others who were paired up with
whoever they felt they could feel most comfortable working with, represented the
“unknown” and “unpredictable” duo by virtue of their disability label, as I was soon
to see when those within the school observed this inclusion.
As my colleague observed the class a bit in passing, and we exchanged words
about something or other, he looked at me, puzzled, and said, “you have Justin
working with glassware and a hotplate, boiling water? I would’ve never done that,
I would figure he would burn himself or end up throwing it at someone, cutting
and burning them.” It was in this moment I realized that safety had become the
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excuse for excluding this Black student labeled with disabilities because he was
³XQSUHGLFWDEOH´LQKLVEHKDYLRU±DWULWHQDUUDWLYHVWHPPLQJIURPWKHLQFRUULJLEOH
Native American savage that needed taming by white people (Emdin, 2016). He had
said this loud enough for Justin and Louie to hear. I responded with a simple, “Of
FRXUVH7KH\¶UHDFWXDOO\RQHRIWKHEHVWODESDLUVLQWKHFRKRUW´±,WRRVDLGWKLV
loud enough for Justin and Louie to hear. To this my colleague seemed taken aback
and in my perception, was made to check his bias, to think about how he perceived
Justin and Louie, and their capabilities as science learners.
This scenario became the crux through which I was able to foster metacognitive
activity within myself and, inevitably, enact a metacognitive action in my science
classrooms. This narrative of safety I had heard before, because it was used elsewhere
to justify exclusion from the general education science classroom by virtue of a
student’s racialized street culture. At the intersections of racialized culture and
disability labels, Roger was often positioned as not only unable, but incompetent,
such that his identity as a student was too far from that of the school “vision” to meet
KLVQHHGV±KLVSUREOHPVUHVWHGZLWKLQKLPVHOIDQGQRWWKHFRQWH[W
It is with this idea in mind that I make the claim in this chapter that exclusion
from participation in science is not merely a function of meeting students’ needs
with material and personnel resources based on scientific observations and teacher
education standards. If that were the case, special education and multicultural
education would not be needed in our diversifying school systems. Indeed, at the
intersections of disability labels and racialized culture we find more than just an
intersection of identity and the politics that sustain their use to exclude. What has
been presented here is the rationale used for excluding students from participation
in the learning environment, the performance of the “included exclusion” role
by students, and the construction of incapability by virtue of race, perceptions of
competency, and disability labels intersecting fluidly.
CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
While the understanding of categorization in special education and the lack of

policy change for urban contexts are important, they will not ameliorate the idea of
included exclusion, or the reasoning used to justify exclusion before participation
ever takes place. Instead, it is both the perceptions of students, their contexts and
their cultures, that first and foremost dictate the first step in presuming inability.
This is then compounded, not added onto but multiplied in complexity in terms
of power, culture, and agency, when the intersections of disability and race meet
to make visible the material realities birthed from the histories of our nation state
VHHLQJWKHVHPDUNHUVRIGLIIHUHQFHDV³GHOLQTXHQW´DQG³GLVUXSWLYH´WRWKHHGXFDWLRQ
process that have produced these positions in our schools as deficit (see Erevelles,
2011 for an extensive elaboration of this lineage).
,QRWKHUZRUGVLWLVQRWVRPXFKWRVD\WKDWGLVDELOLW\PDUNVIRUGHILFLW±ZKLFK
LWGRHVLQPXOWLSOHRYHUODSSLQJZD\V±QRUWKDWUDFHDQGLWVWLHVWRZD\VRINQRZLQJ
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and being in the world (i.e., cultures) code for a subordinate position for students in
XUEDQFRQWH[WV±ZKLFKLWDOVRGRHVLQDP\ULDGRIZD\V5DWKHUWKHZD\VWKDWUDFH
and disability intersect one another function to justify (first) exclusion under the
guise of safety, (second) exclusion under the presumption for the need of structure,
DQGWKLUGLQFDSDELOLW\ZKHQVWXGHQWVDUHSRVLWLRQHGDV³GHOLQTXHQW´³GLVUXSWLYH´
and “disabled.” Teaching our new and in-service science teachers how to enact a
QRYHODQGLQTXLU\EDVHGSHGDJRJ\WKHQLVQRWHQRXJKWRIXOILOORXUJRDORI³VFLHQFH
for-all.” It also involves a preparation of teachers where they are taught to foster
metacognitive activity in their daily lives as professionals at the intersections
between disability labels and racialized culture, and then enact metacognitive
action to challenge issues of culture, power, and agency that play interactive roles in
excluding students from participating in science. Through this type of work, I call
RQDQHPSKDVLVIRUDPRUHWKRURXJKLQTXLU\LQWRD7KHRU\RI'LVDELOLW\6WXGLHVLQ
Science(GXFDWLRQDVWKHQH[WVWHSLQHTXLW\UHVHDUFKIRURXUILHOG
REFERENCES
$QQDPPD6$:KLWHQHVVDVSURSHUW\,QQRFHQFHDQGDELOLW\LQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQThe Urban
Review, 47±
Antonio, A., Astin, H., & Cress, C. (2000). Community service in higher education: A look at the nation’s
faculty. Review of Higher Education, 23±
Archer, D. N. (2009). Introduction: Challenging the school-to-prison pipeline. New York Law School Law
Review, 54±
Atwater, M. M., Russell, M., & Butler, M. (Eds.). (2013). Multicultural science education: Preparing
teachers for equity and social justice. Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media.
Basu, S. J., Barton, A. C., & Tan, E. (Eds.). (2011). Democratic science teaching: Building the expertise
to empower low-income minority youth in science (Vol. 3). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense
Publishers.
&ROH 0 &URVVFXOWXUDO DQG KLVWRULFDO SHUVSHFWLYHV RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO FRQVHTXHQFHV RI
education. Human Development, 48±
Collins, K. M. (2013). Ability profiling and school failure: One child’s struggle to be seen as competent.
New York, NY: Routledge.
Cosier, M., & Pearson, H. (2016). Can we talk? The underdeveloped dialogue between teacher education
and disability studies. SAGE Open, 6GRL
Emdin, C. (2016). For white folks who teach in the hood… and the rest of y’all too: Reality pedagogy and
urban education. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Erevelles, N. (2011). Disability and difference in global contexts: Enabling a transformative body politic.
New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers: Letters to those who dare teach. Cambridge: Westview
Press.
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.
hooks, b. (2000). Feminist theory: From margin to center. Cambridge: Pluto Press.
McElvany, N. (2009). Metacognition: Teacher knowledge, misconceptions, and judgments of relevance.
In C. B. Larson (Ed.), Metacognition: New research developmentsSS±1HZ<RUN1<
Nova Science Publishers.
0LFNHOVRQ5$7KHFXPXODWLYHGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIILUVWDQGVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQVHJUHJDWLRQIRU
middle school achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 52±
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Moin, L. J., Magiera, K., & Zigmond, N. (2009). Instructional activities and group work in the US
inclusive high school co-taught science class. International Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 7±
Reid, D. K., & Knight, M. G. (2006). Disability justifies exclusion of minority students: A critical history
grounded in disability studies. Educational Researcher, 35±
Scott, B. M., & Levy, M. G. (2013). Metacognition: Examining the components of a fuzzy concept.
Educational Research eJournal, 2±
Thomas, G. P. (2012). Metacognition in science education: Past, present and future considerations. In
B. J. Fraser, K. Tobin, & C. J. McRobbie (Eds.), Second international handbook of science education
SS±'RUGUHFKW6SULQJHU
Phillip A. Boda
Stanford University
Stanford, California
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SECTION 8
SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION
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From the beginning, this book sought to mediate the gap in the research and published
literature in inclusive science teacher education. This final section offers insight
from current science and special education teacher educators who present their own
experiences in developing rich and authentic inclusive learning environments for
their science teacher candidates.
,Q &KDSWHU 7HUHVD 6KXPH DQG .HUL 'H6XWWHU OHDG RII WKH VHFWLRQ ZLWK D
presentation of their co-teaching model of collaboration in an elementary science
methods course. This chapter provides an overview of a redesign of their elementary
teacher education program and some of the key program changes.
Next, Lyn Haynes and Maria Turkenburg-van Diepen (Chapter 28) provide
case studies of science teachers with disabilities, giving voice to those in teacher
education programs as well as those with experiences in their own classrooms. In
this chapter, the authors share strategies supporting science teachers with physical
and neurological disabilities, including those who use wheelchairs.
In Chapter 29, Jenna Porter and Kathy Gee describe departmental efforts being
made to model collaboration between general education and special education
teacher candidates with the goal of strengthening candidates’ preparation in both
of those areas. This chapter describes how the principles of Universal Design for
Learning (UDL; CAST, 2012) and Understanding by Design (UbD; Wiggins &
0F7LJKH DUH HPEHGGHG WR GHYHORS XQLWV RI LQVWUXFWLRQ ZLWK VWUDWHJLHV IRU
designing modifications and adaptations for students with disabilities.
The final chapter of this section (Chapter 30), by Catherine Koehler, presents
a story of resilience and perseverance about a teacher candidate with a physical
disability. Aaron’s experiences shed light on the challenges faced by a student
teacher who must overcome more than the typical stresses related
REFERENCES
:LJJLQV * 3 0F7LJKH - Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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TERESA SHUME AND KERI DESUTTER
27. CO-TEACHING FOR INCLUSIVENESS

How Two Teacher Educators Collaborated across Disciplinary
Boundaries in an Elementary Science Methods Course
INTRODUCTION
This chapter offers a duet narrative recounted in the voices of the chapter authors,
a science education faculty member and a special education faculty member who,
together, experienced the risks and rewards of pursuing a co-teaching approach for
strengthening the presence of learning outcomes related to the topic of inclusion in
an elementary science methods course.
When our elementary teacher education program was redesigned with an infusion
of special education standards and a novel structure for integrating field experiences
into coursework, a need arose to better develop teacher candidate knowledge,
skills, and dispositions pertaining to differentiation and collaboration. This need,
compounded by the science education instructor’s dissatisfaction with the way
inclusion was addressed in her elementary science methods course, fueled a decision
to combine our expertise in science education, special education, and co-teaching to
undertake curricular and instructional revisions targeting the topic of inclusiveness
in our program’s elementary science methods course. These efforts yielded a co-
planned and co-taught lesson, revised course materials, professional growth for both
faculty members, and ultimately a powerful expression of programmatic vision for
inclusive elementary teacher education.
In this chapter, we first provide context by explaining the rationale underpinning
the redesign of our elementary teacher education program and describe some of
the key program changes. Our individual motivations to engage in this undertaking
are then explored, followed by an account of the co-planning and co-teaching
processes that highlights recommendations resonating with current professional
literature about co-teaching. Finally, we analyze our co-taught lesson through the
lens of disability studies in education (DSE) and share insights gained through this
experience. Our aim is to capture a distillation of the relevant programmatic context,
essential aspects of our co-teaching story, and a reflective analysis that casts light on
valuable instructional practices for infusing a DSE orientation more deeply into our
elementary teacher candidates’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions.
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T. SHUME & K. DESUTTER
THE BACKSTORY: A NEW VISION FOR OUR ELEMENTARY

TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM
Elementary Inclusive Education
As teacher education faculty members at Minnesota State University Moorhead

(MSUM), we had the privilege of participating first-hand in the development and
implementation of a teacher education program that joined together the preparation
of general elementary education teacher candidates and special education teacher
candidates. The program was established with the goal of better preparing future
regular and special education teachers for the realities of today’s diverse classrooms.
Teacher candidates pursuing regular elementary education licensure experience an
DGYDQFHG VSHFLDO HGXFDWLRQ FXUULFXOXP IRFXVHG RQ PHHWLQJ WKH XQLTXH QHHGV RI
diverse students. As a result of the deliberate placement of special education core
content standards into courses taken by both elementary and special education
teacher candidates, topics such as assistive technology, evidence-based intervention
strategies, and collaboration with families of children with diverse needs are now
studied by elementary teacher candidates. Those preparing for special education
licensure as an Academic and Behavioral Strategist, a Minnesota teacher license
focused on teaching students with a range of mild to moderate disabilities, undertake
an additional 30 credits of prescribed coursework.
The new program is the result of faculty engagement in significant program reform
to update curriculum and improve instructional practices. A notable program feature
is that candidates register for intentionally designed sets of co-enrolled courses that
are deeply integrated with extensive field experiences during the three semesters
prior to student teaching. Additionally, relationships with partner schools have been
enhanced through the presence of faculty liaisons within identified buildings. The
program revisions represent the intense, sustained efforts of teacher preparation
faculty and local K-12 educators. Upon completion of the reform efforts, faculty
voted to officially rename the degree Elementary Inclusive Education (EIE).
Collaboration and Differentiation
Increasing the development of teacher candidates’ collaboration skills was a particular

focus of the newly developed EIE program. Practicing teachers express a need to
collaborate across general and special education in order to provide curriculum
access to students with exceptionalities (Conderman & Johnston-Rodriguez, 2009).
Much of the current literature related to individuals with disabilities supports
inclusion of learners in the regular education classroom to the greatest extent possible
(Schwarz, 2006), and collaborative-teaching (i.e., co-teaching) is increasingly
becoming a means to provide the appropriate supports in these diverse classrooms
0RRUHKHDG *ULOOR&RQVHTXHQWO\0680(,(IDFXOW\IXOO\UHFRJQL]HWKDW
in order to succeed in today’s classrooms, an effective teacher must not only be
willing to collaborate, but have the skills to do so.
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CO-TEACHING FOR INCLUSIVENESS
The revised EIE curriculum also held increased emphasis on differentiation in

order to help candidates develop strategies to provide content curriculum access.
Differentiation or differentiating instruction is a process teachers use to help students
of varying abilities reach identified outcomes or standards by adjusting content,
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many arguments regarding the benefits of differentiation for improving student
OHDUQLQJ DQG IRU FUHDWLQJ DQ HTXLWDEOH FODVVURRP H[SHULHQFH EDVHG RQ VWXGHQWV¶
backgrounds (Moss & Brookhart, 2012). Yet, there remain concerns that practicing
teachers fail to use differentiated instructional practices (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Stecker,
2010).
Inclusive Science Education
In order to achieve the goals of the newly developed EIE program, faculty members
teaching methods courses would need to intentionally create opportunities to
incorporate principles of inclusive education into their course plans. The science
methods course taken by candidates the semester prior to student teaching offered a
prime opportunity for candidates to connect inclusive education principles, such as
collaboration and differentiation, to “real” elementary content they would soon be
responsible for teaching in authentic classroom contexts.
EIE faculty recognized the importance of incorporating inclusive principles into
the science methods course, because “students with disabilities typically receive
science instruction in general education classrooms” (Vannest, Soares, Smith, &
:LOOLDPV S +RZHYHU WKH SURIHVVLRQDO OLWHUDWXUH FRQWLQXHV WR UHSRUW
that beginning teachers feel under-prepared to address the wide-ranging needs
of students in their classrooms (Conderman & Johnston-Rodriguez, 2009). Yet,
Jimenez, Browder, Spooner, and Dibiase (2012) point out that when effective
differentiated instructional practices, such as graphic organizers and peer-mediated
instruction, are utilized in science classrooms which include students with moderate
intellectual disabilities, these students can achieve academic gains related to grade-
level content.
Achieving EIE Goals
Initial implementation of the EIE degree program created significant enthusiasm

amongst higher education faculty, teacher candidates, and K-12 teachers and
administrators. Anecdotal and preliminary data indicate that teacher candidates
are more prepared to teach a wide variety of lessons, are more comfortable
with the diversity of student needs found in local classrooms, and demonstrate
increased initiative for engagement when placed in schools. Yet, while the
endeavor of launching a new program with new courses and redesigned field
experiences is complete, the work of meeting newly established program and course
goals is ongoing. Reflectiveness and responsiveness are necessary to ensure the
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program’s curricular aims and instructional practices are truly calibrated to meet
the learning needs of our teacher candidates. As Darling-Hammond (2010, p. 230)
states:
…teachers must be able to continually learn to address the problems of practice
they encounter and to meet the unpredictable learning needs of all of their
VWXGHQWV±DQGWKH\PXVWWDNHUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUFRQWULEXWLQJZKDWWKH\OHDUQ
not only to their own practice but also that of their colleagues.
To model this professional responsibility in the EIE coursework, a co-taught lesson
has been developed for the science methods course.
THE BACKSTORY: INSTRUCTORS’ PERSPECTIVES
Elementary Science Methods Instructor’s Perspective: Teresa’s Dissatisfaction
The elementary science methods course in our EIE program serves not only as
a pedagogical keystone for three specially-designed science content courses,
but also as one of several content-specific methods courses taken concurrently
that collectively share an embedded field experience. Given the magnitude of
responsibility inherent in designing and teaching such a course, I dedicated
continual efforts to improving and refining all facets of curriculum and instruction.
Several aspects were strengthened over a period of years, but one area remained
frustratingly elusive: inclusiveness in science education. Further, as the EIE
program matured, each successive cohort of candidates arrived with increasingly
sophisticated background knowledge about inclusiveness. The disparity was
becoming more pronounced each semester, as was my own dissatisfaction with how
inclusiveness was addressed in Elementary Science Methods. Eventually, I decided
to approach a department colleague, an expert in special education. Could she help
me find a path forward that would improve the Elementary Science Methods course
outcomes focused on inclusiveness?
Special Educator’s Perspective: Keri’s Interest in Co-Teaching
After attending a weeklong, national, co-teaching workshop with eight colleagues,

I began co-teaching about the topic of co-teaching with another special education
colleague, but I had been eagerly awaiting an opportunity to co-teach with one
of the content area experts that had attended the workshop. I felt confident that
this workshop had provided us a framework that would enable us to successfully
implement co-teaching. Because inclusive teaching demands expertise in content as
ZHOODVDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIOHDUQHUQHHGVDQGXQLTXHWHDFKLQJPHWKRGV,KDYHFRPH
to realize that a feasible way to create strong inclusive environments is through the
use of co-teaching. Teresa was now providing the opportunity I had been waiting for
and I was excited to get started.
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OUR CO-TEACHING EXPERIENCE
The Duet Model
The co-teaching model we chose to implement during the lesson was a team teaching
model (Villa, Thousand, & Nevin, 2013). Often referred to as the duet model, team
WHDFKLQJLVIUHTXHQWO\YLHZHGDVWKHFRWHDFKLQJPRGHOPRVWFRQGXFLYHWRWHDFKHUDQG
student growth when differentiated instructional principles are utilized (Beninghof &
Kunkel, 2012). Co-teachers utilizing this approach fully share responsibility to co-
plan all lesson elements and during instruction work together to fluidly orchestrate
segments of the lesson (Villa et al., 2013). We chose the duet/team teaching model
because it takes full advantage of our areas of expertise and allows students to see
ERWKWHDFKHUVDVLQWHJUDOWRWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVV:HDLPHGIRUFDQGLGDWHVWRHTXDOO\
value the contributions of both instructors.
Co-Planning
We began the co-planning process by reviewing the curricular materials that had been
developed previously. Given the initial impetus was Teresa’s dissatisfaction with the
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shortcomings of her curricular materials to an expert colleague. A pivotal element of
our success was the non-judgmental stance with which Keri approached her initial
review of existing course materials. In particular, she listened carefully and remained
neutral as Teresa explained the original learning activities and existing curricular
resources. Keri’s open-mindedness and supportive orientation established a solid
foundation for developing a trusting professional relationship, key to successful co-
teaching3UDWW
Because one of Teresa’s principal concerns was that existing materials seemed
shallow and fragmented, we decided to start fresh rather than modifying existing
materials. Congruent with recommendations from Villa et al. (2013), we committed
the time upfront, needed to establish a shared understanding of the revision’s purpose,
WKXVHQVXULQJRXUZRUNWRJHWKHUZDVJURXQGHGLQ³FRPPRQDJUHHGRQJRDOV´S
The aim of our co-planning was to produce a lesson that would affirm the value of
XVLQJFKRLFHEDVHGGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQWHFKQLTXHVWKDWIRFXVRQVWXGHQWVWUHQJWKVUDWKHU
WKDQGHILFLWVDQGWRHTXLSFDQGLGDWHVWRLGHQWLI\MXVWLILDEOHPDWFKHVEHWZHHQYDULRXV
IRUPV RI VWXGHQW XQLTXHQHVV DQG DVVHVVPHQW SURGXFWV WDUJHWLQJ SDUWLFXODU VFLHQFH
learning objectives. Over the course of our early meetings together, we considered a
variety of potential learning tasks for candidates and an array of curricular resources
to possibly include in the course materials packet.
Eventually, we narrowed our selections sufficiently to produce a coherent lesson
plan, and shared the work of assembling, modifying, and/or creating the necessary
teaching materials. Similar to Beninghof and Kunkel (2012), we found it helpful to
adhere to agreed-upon practices to enhance efficiency, such as exchanging materials
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before meetings, respecting meeting times and deadlines, and reserving a specific
time for social visiting. Perhaps the most salient characteristic of our approach to
co-planning, however, was our common commitment to a fundamental feature of
successful co-teaching: parity (Villa et al., 2013). We achieved parity by assuring each
RIRXUXQLTXHFRQWULEXWLRQVZHUHYDOXHGE\WKHRWKHUWKURXJKUHVSHFWIXOQHJRWLDWLRQ
based on active listening. While our instructional time together in the classroom was
limited to a single lesson each semester, our co-planning efforts yielded impacts on
course design beyond the co-taught lesson; the representation of inclusiveness was
significantly improved in course packet materials and woven more intentionally and
reflectively into other elementary science methods lessons.
Overview of Co-Taught Lesson
The opening activity for the lesson utilized formative assessment probes based on
DQDUWLFOHE\.HHOH\WKDWFDQGLGDWHVUHDGIRUKRPHZRUN7HDFKHUFDQGLGDWHV
examined examples of formative assessment probes selected from the assigned
reading, the Uncovering Student Ideas in Science series (Keeley, Eberle, & Tugel,
DVZHOODV1D\ORUDQG.HRJK¶VConcept Cartoons (2000). These examples
consisted of cartoon-style drawings of elementary-aged children examining a
scientific phenomenon occurring in daily life, such as why the water level goes down
in a pot of boiling water, or where plants get their extra weight when they grow. In
the drawings, each child depicted offers a different explanation in a speech bubble.
The pictures illustrate students with different types of dress, different skin colors,
names of different ethnic origins, and differing abilities (e.g., non-ambulatory).
In small groups, candidates discussed which student in each picture they agreed
with and why. Next, a class discussion explored the benefits of using these types of
IRUPDWLYHDVVHVVPHQWSUREHVWREHJLQDQHZXQLWRUVFLHQFHWRSLF&DQGLGDWHVTXLFNO\
recognized the probes could function as diagnostic assessments to reveal individual
students’ thinking, background knowledge, and possible misconceptions. Further,
the scaffolding offered by the speech bubbles and the possibility of identifying with
one or more of the portrayed students could ease learners’ emotional risk and help
them find their own voices. Most significantly, candidates were reminded of their
professional responsibility to differentiate instruction in response to each child’s
XQLTXHQHVV
After establishing that the purpose of the class session was to enhance candidates’
readiness to differentiate science instruction and assessments, candidates viewed a
series of video clips (Bureau of Education and Research, 2008) showing students
engaging in science and social studies content while their teachers commented
on methods to differentiate instruction based on learners’ preferences and needs.
Candidates were then offered the opportunity to react to the video clips and asked to
reflect on possible connections to their field placements.
Next, we introduced several examples of science-related choice boards and
learning menus that provide a variety of learning activities from which students
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choose according to parameters set up by the teacher. For example, tic-tac-toe

choice boards (Heacox, 2009) provide a different learning activity (e.g., create a
flipbook, perform a puppet show, make a Venn diagram) in each of nine boxes but
all learning activities focus on the same content standard; students individually
select learning activities from any three boxes that form a straight line. Tic-tac-
toe boards are carefully designed to intentionally constrain options according to
variables such as Bloom’s Taxonomy, multiple intelligences, or learning profile
preferences. Drawing primarily on Westphal (2012) and Heacox (2009), we
examined an abundance of learning activity products suitable to include as options
on a wide variety of choice board and learning menu formats. Further, we discussed
how choice boards and learning menus can address student readiness, interests, and
OHDUQLQJSUHIHUHQFHV7RPOLQVRQDQGZHKLJKOLJKWHGWKHYDOXHRIFDSLWDOL]LQJ
on individual student strengths and interests rather than focusing on remediation of
deficits.
In the lesson segment that followed, candidates were tasked with an application
activity involving scenarios that paired descriptive student profiles centered on
different types of learning needs (e.g., disability, culture, language) with various state
science content standards. Working in teams, candidates were directed to identify
three assessment products (e.g., developing a PowerPoint, making a mobile, writing
and performing a skit) that would draw upon the possible strengths of the student
in their respective scenario and target their assigned science content standard. Each
team was also asked to identify a product they rejected as a choice menu option for
their student and explain why. Candidates ultimately determined that it is possible
to create multiple avenues for students to access science content and demonstrate
understanding of the same outcome in different ways, thus making it possible for all
students with all types of differences to succeed.
Co-Teaching Roles during the Lesson
We were both fully engaged during all parts of the lesson because we discussed
our roles in advance and intentionally planned to share responsibilities in ways
congruent with the duet/team teaching model (Beninghof & Kunkel, 2012). While
Teresa took the lead during discussion of the formative assessment probes and
Keri took the lead during discussion of the video clips, we both responded to
VWXGHQWTXHVWLRQVDQGIROORZHGXSRQHDFKRWKHU¶VFRPPHQWVGXULQJGLVFXVVLRQ
During the scenario activity, both of us rotated through each of the table groups
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presented, we both took opportunities to comment on the ideas presented and we
each shared personal experiences related to specific scenarios. We believe the time
we spent in the summer co-teaching workshop primed our skills for successful
utilization of this model, despite authors such as Villa et al. (2013) noting that
it often takes co-teachers more time to develop a relationship conducive to
implementing this model.
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CONNECTIONS TO DISABILITY STUDIES IN EDUCATION
Positioning Disability alongside Other Socially Constructed Differences
The lesson’s learning activities and associated learning targets resonated with
important DSE principles. A tenet of DSE stipulates that educators need to expect, not
just accept, difference as part of human nature and learning (Ferguson & Nusbaum,
2012). Ashby (2012) aptly explains, “Disabilities studies is a field of study that asks
us to reconsider disability not as something to be cured or eliminated but as an
inevitable and important part of human diversity” (p. 98). Framing disability as yet
another form of diversity to be expected and embraced in the elementary classroom
contributes to humanizing disability and eschewing a deficit view of difference.
For example, the assessment probes used in the opening activity depicted children
portraying several types of diversity: race, ethnicity, culture, and disability. Similarly,
the scenarios discussed during the lesson drew upon student profiles focusing on
aspects of language, culture, and disability. Such representations position disability
alongside other socially constructed differences that should not be reduced to
simplistic “normal/abnormal” dichotomies. Just as a range of particular skins colors
will be present in any given classroom because everyone has a skin color, a range
of abilities will be present in any given classroom because everyone has an ability
level.
Empowering Students with Choice
A second DSE tenet reinforced by the lesson was that it is possible for all students
with all types of differences to succeed (Ashby, 2012). One of the lesson’s goals
was to foster an understanding of the value of empowering children with multi-
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of tools and resources to design choice boards. While engaging in the scenarios
during the lesson, candidates perused the plethora of learning activities offered as
choice board menu options in the course packet, discussing a variety of possibilities
that suited both the assigned science content standard and the profiled student’s
strengths and needs. During the discussion that followed, we highlighted the notion
that it is possible to create multiple avenues for students to access science content
and demonstrate mastery of science standards. Moreover, the scenarios permitted
candidates “no way out.” In other words, claiming that the science content or
learning activities were too difficult for their profiled student was not an option;
like the teachers depicted in the video clips, candidates were obligated to find ways
to make their assigned science content standard accessible to the students assigned
to them.
Additionally, the use of scenarios demonstrated to candidates that there is no
lock-step recipe for differentiation and stressed the importance of seeking creative
solutions for making science content accessible to all students. Rather than being

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regarded as technicians responsible for implementing prescriptive or “teacher-

proof” protocols common in traditional special education, candidates were
positioned as professional educators actively exploring and evaluating possibilities
congruent with a DSE orientation (Ashby, 2012). The scenarios affirmed the value
of empowering both children and teacher candidates with choice, and resonated
with the emancipatory character of DSE (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Gallagher,
2011).
Placing Disability at the Center of Instructional Planning
An assumption that underpinned the scenarios was that instructional planning

UHTXLUHVWHDFKHUVWRLPPHGLDWHO\DQGFRQVWDQWO\FRQWH[WXDOL]HLQVWUXFWLRQDOGHVLJQ
within the scope of students’ strengths and needs. Candidates were not asked to
select a learning activity appropriate to their assigned science content standard,
then attempt to retrofit it with conventional accommodations such as increasing
time, providing a helper, or providing reading assistance. Rather, responding to
WKHVFHQDULRVUHTXLUHGFDQGLGDWHVWREHJLQWKHSODQQLQJSURFHVVE\FRQVLGHULQJWKH
needs of an individual student, placing “difference at the center” during instructional
planning so that accommodations “happen thoughtfully and not as an afterthought”
(Ashby, 2012, p. 90). Table 1 shows connections between the lesson’s four main
learning activities and related DSE tenets.
Table 1. Relationships between learning activities and DSE tenets
Learning activity Associated learning target Emphasized DSE tenet

Concept Cartoons Recognizing several Positioning disability
different types of alongside other socially
student diversity constructed differences
Video Clips of Thinking like a Designing instruction so
Differentiated practicing teacher about that all students with all
Classroom differentiating instruction types of differences can
Instruction and assessment succeed
Choice Boards and Exploring a plethora Creating multiple
Learning Menus of assessment products avenues
suitable for differentiated for students to access
instruction and assessment science content and
demonstrate mastery of
science standards
Student Profile Identifying assessment Placing disability at the
Scenarios SURGXFWVWRPHHWXQLTXH center of instructional
student needs while planning
addressing state science
standards

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INSIGHTS GAINED
Professional Growth
One particularly valuable outcome of this co-teaching partnership was professional

growth for both teacher educators, made possible by approaching this experience
with an open mind and a willingness to learn from each other. Like Graziano and
Navarrete (2012), we found “the professional development that is gained from
the communication between co-teaching colleagues brings coherence to ideas and
enriches one’s desire to expand his or her knowledge of pedagogy” (p. 120). During
co-planning discussions and joint teaching reflections, Teresa learned much from
Keri in the way of current inclusive K-8 teaching practices, an array of relevant
teacher education instructional resources, as well as professional and academic
literature about inclusiveness. Likewise, Keri gleaned both a greater understanding
of K-8 science education practices and an increased familiarity with a variety of
discipline-specific teaching resources that she can now share with other special
education professionals.
A Missed Opportunity
As push-in models of special education integration (i.e. where services are provided
in general education settings) continue to supplant dated pull-out models, the
QH[W JHQHUDWLRQ RI LQVHUYLFH WHDFKHUV ZLOO UHTXLUH HYHULQFUHDVLQJ FRPSHWHQFH
and sophistication in co-teaching skills (Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, &
Shamberger, 2010). Future graduates of MSUM’s EIE program will invariably
find themselves co-teaching with other educators in elementary classrooms more
IUHTXHQWO\WKDQZDVFRPPRQLQ\HDUVSDVW7KHH[SHULHQFHRIFRWHDFKLQJEHWZHHQ
an Elementary Science Methods Instructor and a Special Education Instructor
offered an outstanding opportunity to model many valuable skills and strategies
for effective co-teaching. Simply observing effective co-teaching, however, is not
sufficient for candidates to gain meaningful insights about co-teaching. To support
professional learning, teacher educators should help teacher candidates reflect on
practice in relationship to classroom contexts (Korthagen, 2001).
Although we planned a debrief discussion to guide candidates’ reflections about
co-teaching practices deployed during the lesson, time constraints repeatedly
prevented us from doing so. We had planned to pause at various junctures throughout
the lesson to highlight particular elements of co-teaching and to reveal some of the
inner workings of our co-teaching relationship. Further, we would have guided
teacher candidates to reflect on the co-teaching practices observed, to consider the
various types of co-teaching partnerships candidates may encounter in elementary
classrooms, and to recognize connections to co-teaching principles explored in
other teacher education courses. As MSUM’s EIE program continues to evolve,
a curricular strand about co-teaching is emerging in a vertically articulated set of
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courses and this opportunity for teacher candidates to observe and reflect on co-
teaching would have made a valuable contribution.
CONCLUSION
In order to plan the learning of science content, candidates first had to appreciate and
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needs, interests, and preferences. While valuing students on an individual basis was
not a new concept for our candidates, the co-taught lesson and corollary course
materials provided concrete, viable, and creative ideas for meeting student learning
needs while addressing science content. We were thus able to help candidates develop
robust examples of content-based differentiated instruction, often a daunting challenge
for beginning teachers. Furthermore, our co-taught lesson avoided a common pitfall
of teacher education programs where the work of connecting content (i.e., science)
and pedagogical concepts (i.e., differentiated instruction) is often left for candidates
to grapple with on their own (Darling-Hammond, Hammerness, Grossman, Rust, &
6KXOPDQ,QGHHGDGHVLUHIRUDVWURQJHUSUD[LVEHWZHHQWKHRU\DQGSUDFWLFH
underpinned not only our co-taught lesson but the EIE program redesign as a whole.
Decanted to its essence, the vision that drove our EIE program reform efforts sought
to move special education from elementary teacher education’s periphery into a central
location germane to daily elementary classroom practice. Our co-taught lesson, built on
an amalgam of special education and science education expertise, became a powerful
expression of our programmatic vision for inclusive elementary education because
learner difference became paramount to content area instruction. Furthermore, we had
successfully navigated across science education and special education disciplinary
boundaries to model synergistic benefits arising from deep collaboration through co-
teaching. The time and efforts channeled into co-teaching between a science educator
and a special educator yielded a genuine operationalization of EIE vision and values,
and is an approach worthy of expansion and replication across other content areas.
REFERENCES
Ashby, C. (2012). Disability studies and inclusive teacher preparation: A socially just path for teacher
education. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 37±
need for a plurality of perspectives on disability. Remedial and Special Education, 32±
Beninghof, A., & Kunkel, S. (2012). National train-the-trainer institute: Co-teaching that works, grades
K-12 [Resource handbook]. Bellevue, VA: Bureau of Education and Research.
Bureau of Education and Research (Producer). (2008). Practical strategies for differentiating instruction,
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practical-strategies-for-differentiating-instruction-grades-3-6.html
Conderman, G., & Johnston-Rodriguez, S. (2009). Beginning teachers’ views of their collaborative roles.
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Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Stecker, P. M. (2010). The “blurring” of special education in a new continuum
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Teresa Shume
School of Education
North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota
Keri DeSutter
School of Teaching and Learning
Minnesota State University Moorhead
Moorhead, Minnesota
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LYN HAYNES AND MARIA TURKENBURG-VAN DIEPEN
28. VOICES AND PRACTICE OF SEND IN SCIENCE

INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we focus on science teachers with disabilities, giving a voice to

those in training as well as those with experience of their own classrooms, through
case studies. We envisage that lessons learnt will support all teachers to become
better and more effective teachers of science. We will share strategies on supporting
science teachers who use wheelchairs and then present physical and neurological
SEND (Special Educational Needs and Disabilities) case studies as the individual’s
voice has the greatest impact.
,Q (QJODQG WKHUH DUH YDULRXV SDWKZD\V LQWR EHFRPLQJ D TXDOLILHG WHDFKHU WKH
most popular still being the Initial Teacher Education (ITE) partnership between
placement schools and the universities’ Faculty of Education. One of the increasing
number of areas that teacher educators need to cover with student teachers is how
to plan for the teaching and learning of pupils, including those with SEND. Indeed,
many student teachers themselves present SEND, either overt and declared or
unseen. According to the UK Office of Disability Rights there are over 11 million
SHRSOHRUZLWKGLVDELOLWLHVRIZKRPDUHRIZRUNLQJDJH
How do teacher educators prepare for and nurture student teachers with SEND to
maximise their efficacy with the least anxiety and energy-expenditure in overcoming
the plethora of barriers they are likely to encounter as science teachers? In this chapter,
university teacher educators are termed tutors while the school teacher educators are
mentors. References to students are those in university teacher training programmes
and pupilsDUHVHFRQGDU\VFKRROFKLOGUHQ±$VZLWKHYHU\SXSLOZLWK6(1'
in school, teachers and their specific needs are individual. Experience has taught
us to implore any student teacher with SEND to divulge this information in order
for the tutors to develop individual support programmes. Research conducted in
Scotland by Macleod and Cebula (2009) with ITE student teachers, including those
with disabilities, underpins our rationale. Thirty-five percent of the respondents
with disabilities felt that, based on their experience of disclosing their disability, the
outcome had been positive. Overall disclosure comprises a series of negotiations and
decisions, not an isolated incident. This approach aligns with the theme in Summy
and Fetters’ contribution (Chapter 12).
As every school where teachers are placed is different in ethos, organisation, pupil
behaviour, socio-economic background and pressures to improve pupil progress
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L. HAYNES & M. TURKENBURG-VAN DIEPEN
etc., so will the mentor’s approach to supporting a teacher differ. Similarly, every
student teacher who joins the programme will have different strengths and needs.
While tutors induct teachers on how to work with and support pupils with SEND,
we can only touch on the wide range of needs and strategies they can deploy with
their pupils. Working with teachers with SEND is no different, save for adopting an
andragogical versus a pedagogical approach, yet dealing with overcoming barriers
is all too often over-looked.
We both began the post-compulsory education SEND journey supporting science
(student) teachers in wheelchairs. We were clueless/naïve and resorted to intuition
and family experience, e.g., when a 6-year-old said “talk to me; don’t try to avoid
seeing and talking about my disability.” This point of departure led us to realise the
essential need for establishing a relationship underpinned by mutual trust. The critical
point that arose in our work with science teachers with disabilities/impairments
was to ask the person to teach tutors/supporters about their needs. This premise is
directly in line with Disability Studies in Education and concurs with Connor, Gabel,
Gallagher, and Morton’s view that “privileging the interests, agendas, and voices of
SHRSOHODEHOOHGDVGLVDELOLW\GLVDEOHG´LVRISDUDPRXQWLPSRUWDQFHS
Action plan development for student teachers became similar to a Kolbian cycle
.ROERIH[SHULHQWLDOSUDFWLFHDQGPXWXDOUHIOHFWLRQZLWKFRQVWDQWUHYLVLWDWLRQ
WRNHHSLPSURYLQJWKHVXSSRUWWRWKHWHDFKHU7KLVDGDSWHG.ROEF\FOHUHTXLUHVWKH
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their needs are portrayed. In order to effect appropriate support the tutors, mentors
and student teachers need to plan together. All parties need to take cognisance of
how the support is working in school and university sessions. This stage leads to a
review and continual development to maximise the support for the student teacher
enabling them to demonstrate just how effective they can be in the classroom.
Since our naïve beginning, we have contacted science teachers who use a
wheelchair to share their stories, bringing to our attention the huge range of barriers
H[SHULHQFHGRQDGDLO\EDVLV+D\QHV 7XUNHQEXUJ$WZRUNVKRSVGHOHJDWHV
SDUWLFLSDQWVUHTXHVWHGWKDWall disabilities across all teachers be included in our work.
Here we specifically focus on the outcomes gleaned pertaining to the teaching of
science with SEND.
TEACHING SCIENCE WITH A WHEELCHAIR
To understand and solution-find in order to begin to support the student teachers,

HVSHFLDOO\6(1'ZLWKQHHGVWKDWUHTXLUHWKHXVHRIDZKHHOFKDLU, beyond the steps
OLVWHGDERYHDQLPPHUVLYHH[SHULHQFHZDVUHTXLUHGE\WKHVXSSRUWLQJWXWRUV7KLV
included using the wheelchair in the university teaching rooms, in the student
teacher’s teaching rooms, and accompanying the student teacher to all physical
locations that they were expected to access in the course of their training, and
classroom practice. This tutor-learning exercise revealed a range of barriers that
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VOICES AND PRACTICE OF SEND IN SCIENCE INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION
The immersive experience occurred as and when the tutor could visit the student
teacher in her teaching room; we were guided by our teacher using the wheelchair.
The most prevalent barriers are:
Access to and egress from the building and/or rooms: can doors be easily opened,
and windows opened and closed?
Availability of and access to toilets with adapted facilities
Photocopying resources: think about the height of the machine and its setting-
buttons
The position of the teacher’s desk, computer and interactive whiteboard
The positioning of the lab benches: can a person manoeuvre a wheelchair round
the room, safely, and still get to talk to every pupil, individually?
Is the fume cupboard (hood) wheelchair friendly as some lab benches are? If
not, how can a science teacher demonstrate a chemistry experiment? Is a lab
technician covered by insurance to undertake the demonstrations for the teacher?
Laboratory sinks: it is unlikely that the wheelchair user will be able to access the
taps, never mind be able to check that the pupils have not plugged the drain hole
with the intention of causing a flood and thus maximum disruption to learning
and teaching.
Where are classroom display boards and who could assist with keeping displays
up-to-date as a means to motivate pupils?
Of note is that the majority of the barriers listed above are actually general well-
being considerations as opposed to issues relating to the teaching of science. In
the training institution the tutor can ensure that some of these issues are addressed
before the student teacher arrives, provided that they have declared the disability
and the tutor has been informed. The tutors also need to visit all placement schools
prior to the student teacher attending, and to ensure that teachers with disabilities
are never compromised, victimised, discriminated against or harassed. All these
strategies can work well if the student teacher has declared the disability! When
student teachers declared their situation, often after a crisis event, reparation had to
be implemented to ameliorate any possible negative impact on themselves or their
pupils and colleagues. For example, Q (see below) could not cope with the crowded
conditions on the London Underground when accompanying a school group to a
public lecture, and therefore had to be removed from the venue and returned to
school. There were then insufficient teachers to oversee the pupils, creating a health-
and-safety challenge, plus insurance issue.
In England the government fund, Access to Work (DfWP, 2016), provides for the
employing school to make necessary adjustments enabling the teacher to function
RQ D PRUH HTXLWDEOH EDVLV FRPSDUDEOH ZLWK FROOHDJXHV 7KH 8. (TXDOLW\ $FW
2010 (Legislation.gov.uk, 2010) introduced nine characteristics that are protected.
Disability is the only characteristic for which positive discrimination (known as
affirmative action in the US) is legal and encouraged, for example: employers “must
make reasonable adjustments to arrangements or practices to alleviate disadvantage
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and must also take reasonable steps to provide any necessary auxiliary aids and
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work to make Reasonable Adjustments so that the employee can carry out their
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An experienced science teacher using a wheelchair, Vanessa, reminds us that “the
main difficulty is that you cannot assess your needs until you know where you are
going to be based.” Tutors will need to work with the student teacher when they
apply for their first teaching post. The employing school should invite the teacher
to their new school so that they can work towards putting reasonable adjustments
(physical or otherwise) in place prior to the start of the teaching term. So, how did
the Access to Work-funded support benefit another science teacher, Cheryl, who
uses a wheelchair:
My greatest asset is my [Personal Assistant], whom I had to fight for because
my school were [sic] convinced that I wouldn’t find anyone to work for
KRXUV,VKRXOGEHHQWLWOHGWRPRUHEXWDOOP\OHJZRUNOLNHSKRWRFRS\LQJ
making sheets and printing as well as mail-outs and postcards home are done
by her. This allows for the increased time I spend doing things like [formative]
book marking [as well as summative grading] because of my disability.
Martyna trained to teach in the classroom, unaccompanied from day 1 of the
academic year, on the arduous Teach First programme (UK’s programme modelled
RQ7HDFKIRU$PHULFD6KHLVDKLJKO\TXDOLILHGFKHPLVWDQGKDVXVHGDZKHHOFKDLU
since early childhood. Her thoughts illuminate the range of situations, their impact
on her self-confidence and some of the solutions:
:KHQ,ILUVWVWDUWHGWHDFKLQJDW>;;KLJKVFKRRO@LWORRNHGTXLWHFKDOOHQJLQJ
The school was only partially accessible and the only advantage of my
classroom was that it was big enough for me to manoeuvre easily.
+RZHYHUUHODWLYHO\TXLFNO\P\FODVVURRPZDVWUDQVIRUPHG7KHVFLHQFH>KLJK@
tables were changed into much lower ones, which helped establishing authority
in the room (at the start I was always the shortest person in the room and
people struggled to see me). The teacher’s desk was also lowered and arranged
so that I could carry out demonstrations more easily. Even though the staff
room and main hall (where staff meetings and assemblies were held) were still
inaccessible, I didn’t have to be there often enough for it to be a big problem.
A lot of the problems were solved by an excellent relationship with technicians
who carried out more complex demonstrations and sometimes were present in
the room during practicals.
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Regarding the attitudes I encountered at work, there were never any problems.
The pupils couldn’t care less and if anything were very curious about my
situation. I used myself as a prop in lessons such as momentum or reflex arch
and that had the kids hooked. The pupils were helpful. My colleagues were
also very helpful and carried me up and down the stairs if I needed to be in the
staff room.
All in all, the only problems I had were technical and they were sorted out
UHODWLYHO\TXLFNO\$Q\GLIILFXOW\ZLWKHVWDEOLVKLQJP\FODVVURRPDXWKRULW\RU
teaching better lessons was caused by lack of experience in [schools] rather
than my disability.
Our recollection of her working and training conditions is less positive than she
presents above: does time heal the difficulties presented by the obstacles, or did
Martyna just become more efficient at solution-finding for herself? For example,
not being able to access the staffroom (unless carried) essentially excluded her from
the wider community of learning, isolating her. Since writing the above Martyna
adds that “disability did not matter at all in my second, lovely school. I used it for
jokes and demonstrations, but in terms of pupils’ attitude to me it was completely
irrelevant.”
Martyna was concerned about the pupils towering over her as they sat on their
lab stools at the high tables. The change in Martyna’s confidence and practice when
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improved and she was able to establish a rapport with her classes. It is therefore
interesting that Vanessa says “your perspectives change rapidly once you are so low
down and cannot push doors open easily or reach for things on the floor, on shelves
and sometimes even on desks.”
NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Teachers with neurological conditions, mostly unseen, are possibly more difficult
to plan appropriate support for, once they have declared. The next step is for the
(student) teacher to decide if they intend to divulge their SEND to their (placement)
schools, and peers in the cohort.
The following contribution is from a post-doctoral biochemist with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) who is keen to share their PGCE (Postgraduate Certificate
LQ (GXFDWLRQ (QJOLVK TXDOLILHG WHDFKHU PDVWHUVOHYHO SURJUDPPH WUDLQLQJ
experience, but wishes to remain anonymous and will be named “Q.”
Having undergone a PGCE in the 2012/2013 academic year I now (August
KDYH WKUHH \HDUV RI WHDFKLQJ LQ WKH 8.¶V ± VHFWRU GHOLYHULQJ
A-levels [final exam before university] with a record of outstanding exam
results for circa 300 students. The tutor’s support on my PGCE was invaluable
in realising this success. Having had no prior teaching experience recognition
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of [tutor support] was essential in my training programme. In the beginning of

a teaching programme advice needs to be precisely mapped out with concrete
solutions that are readily reproducible and modifiable by the student teacher.
Lamentably some advice from some colleagues did not fall into this category.
For instance pupils need to be more active (without a specific roadmap or
comprehensive examples on how to accomplish this). Rather than the
imposition of obtuse action plans lacking in specific on-the-ground solutions,
comprehensive discussions on the types of activities that could be recruited to
pass on the spark of inspiration would be more useful. Regular communication
ZLWKDWXWRULVGHFLGHGO\NH\LQTXHU\LQJRSWLRQVDQGGHWHUPLQLQJDURXWHIRU
success. Reflecting further on the training programme it is clear that teachers
at placement schools responsible for shepherding student teachers expect the
student teachers to progress through simple osmosis, by assimilating good
practice from observing teachers and from reflecting on experiences on the
ground. In order to ameliorate the training experience, particularly for SEND
student teachers, I think that a training programme for host teachers aimed
at enhancing the training experience would be useful in facilitating progress;
teachers need to recognise that not everything happens through a process of
osmosis but carefully crafted guidance and instruction is beneficial. A key
principle in my teaching is that pupils need to be guided; you cannot just throw
work at them without proper explanations and guidance. The same principle
ought to apply to the training of student teachers. Regular liaising with the
tutor on my training programme essentially filled in these gaps for me and
provided a platform for going forward with confidence and realising my
teaching potential.
What we learnt was that Q worked at a different rate, from a different point of
departure, compared to the majority of student teachers; the placement school put
the progress of their pupils ahead of the developmental needs and support of the
teacher. The support plan, compiled by the mentor and tutor, was seen by the tutors
to guide the mentors into providing Q with enhanced, overt guidance and support.
Q was not directly involved in this stage and still regards the process to be unjust.
The weekly mentor meetings were henceforth recorded in detail by the mentor
enabling Q to focus on the conversation and later return to the notes for clarification
in order to action the clearly delineated and agreed targets that had been negotiated.
This strategy consumed more time, time that his peers were dedicating to reflecting
on their practice and its development, but provided essential scaffolding for Q’s
practice to develop at his own rate. Students like Q need to have each step of the
process carefully explained, orally and in writing, and be involved in every decision.
All teacher educators/ tutors need to ensure that every point of instruction
and guidance is presented in a coherent and accessible way, with a rationale that
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autistic spectrum.

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Q’s third set of public examination classes were top in the science faculty, yet
Q struggles to believe this outcome: self-doubt often overshadows self-belief. One
tutor, to whom Q remains grateful for becoming a clearly effective teacher, says:
“All I did was persuade Q to talk about Asperger’s to the rest of the group!” The
PGCE group then began to understand why Q was different and treated differently;
the negative attitude towards Q began to change for the better and Q’s confidence
improved. The peer group gained some real understanding about ASD.
Another interesting case was that of J who declared having been diagnosed with,
and medicated for, ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) in his teens.
His classroom practice was extraordinary: he dealt with the disaffected classes
better than many experienced teachers, his passion for science and learning were
tangible. Yet, in university training sessions, most noticeably when seated, he was
disengaged, lacklustre and even fell asleep (much to his chagrin). An osteopath
(with whom research was being undertaken into hypermobility and its impact on
pupil progress) reported that sitting could induce such symptoms, including sleep.
$V D FRQVHTXHQFH ZH QRZ HQFRXUDJH WHDFKHUV WR VWDQG DQGRU PRYH DV VRRQ DV
they feel uncomfortable during a training session. This strategy also provides them
with a model for supporting pupils with unseen SEND, such as back problems.
J had struggled at school and university; this was attributed to the ADHD. When
J provided oral contributions during training sessions they were arguably as strong as
or better than those of his peers. Yet his written assignments were incomprehensible
resulting in him having to rework and resubmit assignments or fail that masters-
level module and possibly the entire programme. In talking through the work with
him he was lucid, his thinking was clearly that of a masters-level candidate. Special
dispensation was sought and it was agreed to have him tested for dyslexia while
setting in action an assignment-producing strategy. He was diagnosed as being
dyslexic; the ADHD had masked this barrier to learning all his life. Between his
mentor and tutor we would sit with him and discuss the assignments. His responses
were recorded, including academic underpinning that he used. His assignments were
WKHUHDIWHUFRPSUHKHQVLEOHDQGDWPDVWHUVOHYHOVWDQGDUG+LVVLWXDWLRQUHTXLUHGXV
to think outside the box en route to finding a solution to support his specific needs:
we needed to stand back from devising ways of Learning to Teach for Learning. As
tutors, we could not resort to our tried and tested avenues to support student teachers.
Again, plenty of discourse with and observation of J teaching, and searching the
literature, was needed to begin to understand his point of departure before we were
in a position to start to offer support. The osteopath-researcher also worked with him
setting him a regime of exercises for the dyslexia.
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
We believe that the use of student and teacher-voice brings to the forum a selection
of case studies, and examples of SEND needs of science teachers. The central aim
of teacher educators and colleagues is to learn and use the knowledge gleaned from

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these teachers so that we can work alongside student teachers enabling them to
become effective teachers of science.
A thought from Cheryl that we consider apt for all ITE tutors and school mentors
reminds us of, possibly, the greatest covert barrier:
The biggest obstacle has to be attitude. My school is a mixed bag, and the
challenges I face from attitudes are as difficult as the physical. Having said
that, from pupils, I have been treated as “normal” without exception, from
day one. I did not expect this. It wasn’t until about 6 months into my job I was
asked by a student why I was in a wheelchair. Food for thought.
The above revelation is what caused us to take our mission for better supporting
trainee and experienced teachers with SEND, under the headline: “Growing
Professionalism to better support colleagues with a disability.” Student teachers
are learning to be our professional colleagues; teachers with disabilities have an
inordinate amount to give the pupils about science in school. We need to nurture
and better support them on their journey, bearing in mind that (in the UK) positive
discrimination is legal.
And finally, at a workshop for teacher-delegates with disabilities the participants
were asked: With your knowledge and experience, WHAT could the school do to
alleviate/overcome the difficulties that you experience on a daily/weekly/ occasional
basis? The following two responses should help tutors to focus on better supporting
their student teachers and preparing their employing school to maximise the impact
WHDFKHUV RI KLJK TXDOLW\ FDQ KDYH LQ WKHLU VFKRRO LI WKH\ KDSSHQ WR KDYH 6(1'
whilst being a role model to their pupils with SEND.
See me as a capable teacher and not look at me as a deaf teacher as I know I
am skilled.
Talk to me. Listen to what I’m saying then Focus on what I excel at.
Over the past seven years we have listened to our student teachers with significant
SEND, maybe only one in every three or four cohorts, and we tried to learn: it has
been an empowering journey that we intend to take forward to better support each
new cohort of student teachers, including those with SEND, so that they too are
empowered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank:

Teachers Cheryl Alexander and Vanessa Bird who shared their experiences as
wheelchair-using science teachers so that Lyn could try and help Martyna Snopek,
J and Q, who are now all in less stressful schools than their training placement
schools. As your university science tutor, Lyn wishes that she could have done
PRUHWRPDNHWKHSDVVDJHIURPWUDLQHHWRQHZO\TXDOLILHGWHDFKHUOHVVDUGXRXV
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and demanding. Thank you for teaching me to start thinking differently and more
supportively. I am still learning.
Colleagues working on the various ITE programmes who support all the student
teachers;
Delegates/participants at a Disabilities Teachers Workshop for sharing their
experience teaching in schools;
Helen Terentjev, osteopath and co-researcher into hypermobility: Arbury
Osteopathy, Cambridge, UK.
REFERENCES
education: Implications for theory, research and practice. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
12±
'HSDUWPHQWIRU(GXFDWLRQ'I(The equality Act 2010 and schools: Departmental advice for
school leaders, school staff, governing bodies and local authorities. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/
JRYHUQPHQWXSORDGVV\VWHPXSORDGVDWWDFKPHQWBGDWDILOH(TXDOLW\B$FWB$GYLFHB)LQDOSGI
Department for Work and Pensions (DfWP). (2016). Access to work. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/
access-to-work/overview
+D\QHV/ 7XUNHQEXUJ03UREOHPVHQFRXQWHUHGE\VFLHQFHWHDFKHUVLQZKHHOFKDLUVSchool
Science Review, 96±
.ROE ' $ Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
/HJLVODWLRQJRYXNDisability discrimination act 1995. Retrieved from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/
XNSJDFRQWHQWV
Legislation.gov.uk. (2010). Equality act 2010. Retrieved from https://www.legislation.gov.uk/
XNSJDFRQWHQWV
Macleod, G., & Cebula K. R. (2009). Experiences of disabled students in initial teacher education.
Cambridge Journal of Education, 39±
Lyn Haynes
Canterbury Christ Church University
Canterbury, England
Maria Turkenburg-van Diepen

University of York
York, England

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JENNA PORTER AND KATHY GEE
29. A COLLABORATIVE PROCESS FOR PREPARING

PRE-SERVICE GENERAL EDUCATION AND
SPECIAL EDUCATION SCIENCE TEACHERS
New national standards in K-12 education, the Common Core State Standards
(NGA & CCSSO, 2010) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS; NGSS
Lead States, 2013) promise a more accessible education to meet the needs of all
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VRWKDWDOOVWXGHQWVKDYHDFFHVVWRKLJKTXDOLW\VFLHQFHHGXFDWLRQ6HYHUDOUHSRUWV
indicate that students with disabilities have the capability to engage in science
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amount of research showing positive academic and social outcomes for students
with the most complex support needs in inclusive classrooms, this population still
remains the most segregated in our public schools (Parrish, 2012). The current
practice in the majority of school districts across the country is to segregate children
with the most complex support needs in self-contained classrooms or separate
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the alternate assessment versus the state standard assessment, diminishes access to,
and participation in, the core curriculum (Kearns, Towles-Reaves, Kleinert, Kleinert,
7KRPDV6RXNXS:HKPH\HU%DVKLQVNL %RYDLUG
5\QGDNHWDOKDYHLGHQWLILHGNH\SROLF\DUHQDVZKLFKQHHGDGMXVWPHQW
for improvement of placement, involvement, and progress in general education
for students with complex support needs: (1) policies related to Least Restrictive
Environment (LRE); (2) policies related to progress and involvement in general
education curriculum; and (3) policies related to alternate assessment and the
general education curriculum. Others suggest that the continued segregation is due
WRDODFNRIUHVHDUFKWRSUDFWLFHLQLWLDWLYHVDQGODFNRIDQDGHTXDWHNQRZOHGJHEDVH
amongst school leaders and teachers (Sailor, 2009). Still others argue that we need
more definitive work on the practical processes of providing meaningful access to
the core curriculum (Hunt, McDonnell, & Crockett, 2012). In our experience, it is
all of the above.
:KLOHWKHUHDUHUHFHQWHVWLPDWHVWKDWLQGLFDWHRIVWXGHQWVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV
are educated in general education classrooms for at least part of their school day
6Q\GHU 'LOORZWKHUHLVOLWWOHGDWDWRLQGLFDWHZKDWSDUWVRIWKHGD\DQG
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J. PORTER & K. GEE
RUWKHFXUULFXOXPLQZKLFKRIVWXGHQWVDUHDFWXDOO\SDUWLFLSDWLQJDQGZKDW
that actually looks like in terms of using evidence-based practices, organization
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students who are not included. It is important to define the population of students
we refer to as having the most complex support needs and disabilities (Wheeler,
%URZQ 3HUF\ 6KRJUHQ )XQJ 7KHVH VWXGHQWV PDNH XS DERXW ±
of students and they are often on the states’ alternate assessment lists. Students
with the most complex disabilities typically have moderate to the most severe
intellectual disabilities. They also may have additional physical, sensory, or
emotional challenges.
The NGSS (2013) offer effective classroom strategies for inclusion, such as
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) as an approach classroom teachers can use to
provide instructional units which are inclusive of a much larger number of learners
(Rose & Meyer, 2002). The focus of UDL is on 3 principles: providing multiple
means of engagement; providing multiple means of representation; and, providing
multiple means of action and expression (Center for Applied Special Technology,
2016). NGSS stresses collaboration between general and special education teachers,
however, the standards do not provide teachers with the skills to engage all students,
collaborate, or organize their instructional practices. There is also an assumption
that general and special education teachers are prepared to work together, yet many
teaching credential programs train their general and special education teachers
separately (National Institute for Urban School Improvement, 2013). This chapter will
describe our department’s efforts to teach collaboration between general education
and special education pre-service teachers in order to strengthen their preparedness
in two areas: using UDL and Understanding by Design (UbD, Wiggins, & McTighe,
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adaptations for students with disabilities, including those with the most complex
support needs.
BACKGROUND
Three years ago, our college of education went through a restructuring process and
we no longer have separate general education and special education departments.
Our new Teaching Credentials Department offers multiple and single subject
credentials, as well as education specialist credentials for mild/moderate disabilities
and moderate/severe disabilities (these are the California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing designations).
In our multiple and single subject credential programs, planning a science unit
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Assessment Task for teacher licensure (California Commission on Teacher
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to develop a science unit plan that includes NGSS standards, content objectives,

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COLLABORATIVE PROCESS FOR GEN EDU & SPECIAL EDU SCIENCE TEACHERS
assessments, and instructional strategies that include modifications/adaptations

for special needs, advanced, and English language learners. Since our education
specialist pre-service teachers are working toward a credential that extends from
grades Kindergarten to age 21, our moderate/severe specialist credential program
emphasizes collaboration with general education teachers in elementary and
secondary schools. We also prepare our education specialist pre-service teachers to
design units of instruction using UDL across all subject areas so that they will be
an asset to an integrated service delivery model of instruction. In addition, our pre-
service teachers for the moderate/severe credential are assigned to collaborate with
their general education partners in their student teaching school settings in order to
include students with moderate/severe disabilities in core curricular classes. As part
of that collaboration, they design modified goals referenced to the core standards,
and they develop a “participation and support plan” (Gee, 2016) for each student
which is shared with the general education teacher. The procedures and strategies
for designing participation and support plans are explained in much greater detail in
another publication (Gee, 2016).
Prior to our restructuring, our moderate/severe specialist pre-service teachers
were getting their training and experience in these collaborative processes out
in the field with general education teachers, but our multiple and single subject
pre-service teachers were not getting this training or experience. Since the
restructuring, we began to find ways to bring all of our pre-service teachers
together. This involved scheduling our classes at mutually convenient times
and determining learning activities that would engage our pre-service teachers
together to share expertise and problem solve around learners with moderate/
severe disabilities. Since the general education and special education pre-service
teachers are not always in student teaching placements together where they can do
the collaborative work at their schools, we wanted to find other ways to practice
the skills they would need to be able to embrace and engage ALL students in their
science classes. The multiple and single subject credential programs are one year
(two semesters) long and the specialist credential program in moderate/severe
disabilities is two years long. We determined that the second-year candidates in
the moderate/severe program would be our focus group of pre-service students to
engage with our general education pre-service teachers in both the fall and spring
of the academic year. In the fall semester students across programs are brought
together for unit planning with an emphasis on UDL. In the spring semester
students across programs are brought together to engage in specific problem-
solving activities to determine successful ways to support students with more
complex disabilities in their science units. The rest of the chapter will focus on
four things: (1) our science unit planning structure using principles of UDL and
Understanding by Design (UbD); (2) our process for designing participation and
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results of our work.

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J. PORTER & K. GEE
SCIENCE UNIT PLANNING
Our science unit planning for the general education pre-service teachers is grounded
in both UDL principles and Understanding by Design (UbD). These foundational
theories for unit planning provide rich opportunities for our pre-service teachers to
learn specific strategies for developing instructional science units that are inclusive
of students with disabilities, including those with the most complex support needs.
The three steps in UbD include Stage 1: Identifying desired results; Stage 2:
Determining acceptable evidence; and Stage 3: Planning learning experiences
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teachers to consider what knowledge, skills, and understandings they want their
VWXGHQWVWRDFTXLUHDVDUHVXOWRIWKHXQLW7KH\DOVRGHWHUPLQHHVVHQWLDOTXHVWLRQV
that will anchor and guide the unit. Because NGSS are organized as performance
expectations, we push our pre-service teachers toward designing science units that
go beyond basic student understanding. Rather, we encourage them to identify the
6FLHQFHDQG(QJLQHHULQJ3UDFWLFHVVNLOOVUHTXLUHGWRDSSO\WKHLUNQRZOHGJHIRUD
deeper understanding of the Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI). Stage 1 also includes
identifying particular performance expectations that correlate to the desired results.
Once pre-service teachers have identified their desired results in Stage 1, they work
toward determining acceptable evidence in Stage 2. We ask them to consider what tasks
students must do in order to demonstrate achievement and a deep understanding of
the desired results. The NGSS performance expectations themselves outline the skills/
tasks that students must be able to do. The evidence must be aligned to the desired
results- that is, the assessments must measure the learning objectives. Our pre-service
teachers also must determine to what extent students meet the desired outcomes. We
offer strategies for providing multiple means of expression/output,DQGUHTXLUHWKDWWKH
pre-service teachers design assessments that access multiple productive modalities of
output (speaking, writing, drawing, pointing, using pictures, using an augmentative and
alternative communication device with voice output, etc.). This explicitly connects UbD
to UDL and models effective pedagogical practices for inclusive science unit planning.
6WDJH RI 8E' UHTXLUHV WHDFKHUV WR WKLQN DERXW WKH OHDUQLQJ H[SHULHQFHV DQG
instruction that will enable their students to meet the desired results, gain a deep
understanding of the DCI, and to demonstrate their learning. They do this by planning
for multiple means of engagement to provide structured opportunities for all students
to access the curriculum. In determining lesson topics, pre-service teachers chunk or
group desired skills and DCI together, then align the evidence (assessments). Then
WKH\FDQVHTXHQFHWKHOHVVRQWRSLFVLQPHDQLQJIXOZD\VVXFKWKDWHDFKOHVVRQWRSLF
is not confined to a single period of time. One lesson topic could last two or more
science periods or days of instruction. In designing each of the learning experiences,
pre-service teachers must meet the needs of all students, considering their prior
knowledge and experiential backgrounds. In order to do this, they explicitly plan for
multiple means of representation/input across materials and instructional methods.
7DEOHRXWOLQHVDWKJUDGHVFLHQFHXQLWSODQ

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Table 1. Fifth grade science unit plan: cycles of matter & energy transfer in ecosystems
Lesson Topics Stage 1: Desired Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Learning Experiences

Results Desired Results Determining Multiple Means of Engagement
NGSS Learning Objectives Acceptable Multiple Means of Representation/Input
Performance Evidence
Expectations Multiple Means of
Expression/ Output
Photo- NGSS: 5 PS3–1 Students will write Recipe of Record observations in science journal about various
synthesis & Use models a photosynthesis photosynthesis; plants
Producers to describe recipe, draw a Diagram; KWL chart (What role does the sun, CO2, O2, and H2O
that energy in diagram, and Written or verbal play in the process photosynthesis?)
animals’ food explain the process explanation Input- vocab. (producer, CO2) video; ball and stick model
(used for body of photosynthesis of CO2, H2O, and O2.
repair, growth, and its connection Collaborative photosynthesis recipe activity (write a recipe
motion, and to with producers. of photosynthesis and draw a diagram.)
maintain body Whole class discussion (e.g., Why did you put your
warmth) was ingredients in the order that you did? What role does
once energy from photosynthesis play in the food web?)
the sun.
Consumers & NGSS: 5LS2–1 Students will Trophic pyramid Discussion & graphic organizer for vocabulary (producer,
the Trophic Develop a model identify 6 with labels consumer, primary, secondary, tertiary).
Pyramid to describe the consumers in an Ecosystem activity (small groups)- sort pictures on trophic
movement of ecosystem and pyramid.
matter among create and label Whole class discussion (e.g., Where do consumers get
plants, animals, a trophic level their energy from? What is the difference between a
decomposers, and pyramid. consumer and a producer? How does matter move between
the environment. them?)
(Continued)

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Lesson Topics Stage 1: Desired Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Learning Experiences
Results Desired Results Determining Multiple Means of Engagement
NGSS Learning Objectives Acceptable Multiple Means of Representation/Input
Performance Evidence
Expectations Multiple Means of
J. PORTER & K. GEE
Expression/ Output
De-composer NGSS: 5LS2–1 Students will Observation notes; Brainstorm definitions for decomposer.
Develop a model observe and Journal response Observe, discuss, take notes on multiple samples of
to describe the describe the role of decomposers (worms, mushrooms, bacteria growing on
movement of decomposers in the bread).
matter among environment. Discussion (e.g., What do decomposers need to survive?
plants, animals, What would happen in an ecosystem if there weren’t
decomposers, and decomposers? How do decomposers help our environment?)
the environment. Journal- write/draw a description of decomposers’ role.
Food Chain & NGSS: 5LS2–1 Students will Food chain; Label and classify pictures of producers, consumers, and
Food Web Develop a model individually create Food web; Oral decomposers and place on trophic level pyramid.
to describe the a food chain and description of Brainstorm definitions for chain and web (show visual
movement of collaboratively movement of examples of chains and webs).
matter among create a food web. matter Individually create paper food chain from bank of examples.
plants, animals, They will describe Small groups- create food web with related food chains in
decomposers, and the movement ecosystem (yarn activity to simulate connectedness)
the environment. of matter among Group oral report- students act as environmental engineers
producers, to determine what will happen to one organisms in the
consumers, and food chain when another organism goes extinct. (What
decomposers. happens when there’s a change to the number of producers,
consumers, or decomposers in an ecosystem? How
does energy/matter move among plants, animals, and
decomposers?)
Note: General education credential candidates wrote unit plans aligned to NGSS integrating principles from Understanding by Design (Stages 1, 2,
and 3) and Universal Design for Learning (multiple means for engagement, representation/input, and expression/output).
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The assumption is that if principles of UbD and UDL have been utilized in the
unit design, the majority of students will not need additional supports, modifications,
and adaptations. However, there are some students who may have additional
challenges related to their physical, sensory, and/or intellectual disabilities. Some
students may need modified outcomes/IEP goals which are referenced to the general
education standards. This means that the student is not working toward grade level
work, but has individualized science goals which are related to the standards but at
the student’s intellectual level to make access meaningful. Some students may need
additional adaptations to input/representation and output/expression. Depending on
their symbolic ability, whether they are literate, and whether they have additional
sensory or physical disabilities, additional adaptations to input and output may
be necessary. Thus, some students may need other types of support in order to be
successful.
DEVELOPING A PARTICIPATION AND SUPPORT PLAN
There are three main phases involved in designing participation and support plans
(Gee, 2016). The focus is not each lesson individually, but the full unit that the
general education teacher is planning to implement. The first phase is preparation
for the meeting. The general education teacher should come to the meeting with
their unit developed using principles of UbD and UDL. The special education
teacher should come to the meeting with a profile to share of the students with
disabilities for whom the plans are being developed. The profile includes: a short
description of the student’s best ways of communicating (especially if the student
is nonverbal or minimally verbal and using alternative means of communication),
a strengths-based description of things that work well for the student, the modified
IEP goals for the student which are referenced to the NGSS standards, other IEP
goals that the student is working on, and any other types of behavioal and/or
physical supports and adaptations that the student uses. An example of a profile
IRUDWKJUDGHIRFXVVWXGHQW6DUDKLVGHSLFWHGLQ7DEOH,WLVFDOOHGDQIEP at
a Glance.
During the problem-solving phase, the special education teacher uses a set of
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instruction. By first focusing on the unit and the key learning activities that the
students will be engaging in, the emphasis is on the science content and teaching
practices versus the student with disabilities. The special education teacher fills in
the first column of the participation plan based on the general education teacher’s
unit description (see Table 3). The first column is a list of the primary teaching
activities and routines that the students will be involved in. Now the problem
solving can begin. For each of the primary activities, the teachers determine
whether any additional adaptations to input will be needed and write these down
in column two. Adaptations to input are designed to ensure that the focus student
with disabilities is an informed participant. This could include adaptations such

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J. PORTER & K. GEE
as vocabulary inputs on their augmentative and alternative communication device

(AAC), braille, audio text, software supplements, peer coaching, pictures, objects,
etc. Students should be involved in determining which types of adaptations work
best for them. Providing choices and allowing students to try things in a variety
of ways helps them gain self-determination in the process of their own learning.
For students who do not yet have a symbolic communication system, teachers
will need to use observation and data collection to determine which supports are
preferred and most successful.
In the third column of the participation plan the team brainstorms any additional
modifications in the way the student with disabilities will express herself and
Table 2. IEP at a glance for Sarah
Student’s name: Sarah.

*HQHUDO(GXFDWLRQWHDFKHU¶VQDPH0UV+DUULV*UDGH
Special education support teacher’s name: Mr. Wang.
Other staff who provide support: Cheryl (paraprofessional)
Names of any therapists who might be supporting in the classroom:
Teresa (O.T.), David (P.T.)
A little bit about me Best ways to communicate with me
and how I will communicate with you
ͻ I get around using a KidWalk and sometimes ͻ I love to communicate and use
I am pushed in a wheelchair my voice a lot; but since I am
ͻ I use the same chairs as everyone else in class TXLWH GLIILFXOW WR XQGHUVWDQG
and the lunchroom I use the speech generating
ͻ I like my new glasses frames because my VRIWZDUH LQ P\ $$& GHYLFH ±
favorite color is pink there are symbols paired with
ͻ My strengths are the following: I am very words and when I touch them,
eager to learn; I really want to participate with the device speaks for me
my friends in class in all of the activities; I am
an emergent reader and with my AAC device
I am learning to use some printed words alone
without pictures
ͻ Some of my challenges are related to the
spasticity in my limbs and face muscles;
other challenges I have are with my long-term
memory skills and visual-motor skills
ͻ Using visual supports is very helpful; and,
providing me with routine reminders, and
memory books works well
ͻ Be sure you always ask what my preferences
DUH±,OLNHKDYLQJFKRLFHV
ͻ It’s up to me to ask my peers or an adult for
assistance when I need it, but sometimes I
might forget that

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Academic/curricular goals I will work on this Other IEP goals I am working on

year across the day
ELA. (1). Sarah will demonstrate her ͻ Expressive communication: use
knowledge of letter sounds and beginning letter of symbols paired with words to
combinations; she will recognize at least 10 site UHTXHVW WRFRPPHQWVKDUHDQG
ZRUGV5HI(/$5HDGLQJ±)RXQGDWLRQDOVNLOOV yes/no in her AAC system.
VWDQGDUGV*UDGH6DUDKZLOOUHVSRQGWR ͻ Expressive communication: use
FRPSUHKHQVLRQTXHVWLRQVUHODWHGWRVWRULHVXVLQJ of smaller Wrist-talker to make
pictures. She will use her AAC device to answer prepared social interactions
ZKRDQGZKDWTXHVWLRQVUHODWHGWRERWKILFWLRQ when on the playground or in
and nonfiction literature (Ref. ELA Reading other social situations while
fiction and nonfiction- Literature standards, using the KidWalk
OLVWHQLQJ±*UDGH6DUDKZLOOXVHKHU$$& ͻ Increasing receptive vocabulary
device to share information, both personal and ͻ Use the KidWalk to play at recess
RQFRQWHQWWRSLFV*UDGHZULWLQJ and to get around successfully at
school
Math. (1). Sarah will “count out” and answer
ͻ Increasing independence with
TXHVWLRQVRI³KRZPDQ\ÍRUQXPEHUV±DQG
self-care activities
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will follow a visual model to use cubes to
represent volume in solving real world problems
related to volume (Ref.CCSS.Math.content.
0'&
Science.)RUHDFKVFLHQFHXQLWLQWKJUDGH
Sarah will demonstrate the ability to categorize
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FRQWHQWZLWKDFFXUDF\NGSS36±
/6±(66±6DUDKZLOOIROORZSLFWXUH
VHTXHQFHVWRFDUU\RXWSRUWLRQVRIPRGLILHG
experiments in order to demonstrate science
concepts (NGSS(76±
Social studies.6DUDKZLOOOHDUQQHZYRFDEXODU\
words for each social studies unit and will
develop her project and reports using symbols
IRUKHURXWSXW&&66(/$OLWHUDF\5,
Note: Special education credential candidates develop profiles for students called IEP at a
Glance. Key to abbreviations: AAC: Augmentative and Alternative Communication; ELA:
English/Language Arts; CCSS: Common Core State Standards; NGSS: Next Generation
Science Standards.
demonstrate what she knows, in other words adaptations to output. This might include
alternatives to written expression, depending on the literacy level of the student. It also
PLJKWLQFOXGHSRLQWLQJWRDSLFWXUHVHTXHQFHXVLQJDQ$$&V\VWHPXVLQJH\HJD]HWR

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J. PORTER & K. GEE
indicate a choice of 3 different answers, drawing, using a micro-switch to select, etc.

Very often, there are other students in the class who will benefit from the additional
adaptations and supports that are developed for the students with disabilities.
Finally, in the fourth column of the participation and support plan, the team
brainstorms any additional supports the student may need for engagement,
instruction, and/or social interaction. The team considers all possibilities: peer-
mediated supports, grouping changes, pre-teaching, individualized positive
behavioral supports, special education and general education teachers’ roles,
and whether any additional personnel will provide either direct instruction or
personal support during this academic period and what that support will look
like. The teaching team then agrees on who will do what in terms of materials
development.
The third phase of the process is the products. The special education teacher
finalizes the participation and support plan and makes sure that everyone involved
has a copy and can understand and follow the plan. The materials and supports are
developed ahead of time as much as possible. The participation and support plan
helps the team stay focused on making sure the students with disabilities are active
participants who are getting science content and concepts and not just socially
SDUWLFLSDWLQJ7KHUHVXOWLQJSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGVXSSRUWSODQIRU6DUDKLQWKHWKJUDGH
unit, Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems is depicted in Table 3.
Table 3. Participation and support plan for Sarah in the 5th grade unit
8QLW*UDGHOHYHOWK*UDGH3KRWRV\QWKHVLVSURGXFHUVFRQVXPHUV WKHWURSKLF
pyramid, de-composers, food chain
Student’s name: Sarah
Standards: NGSS36±/6±
Science IEP Goals the student is working on within this unit: (1) Sarah will demonstrate
WKHDELOLW\WRFDWHJRUL]HQHZYRFDEXODU\FRQFHSWVUHODWHGWRWKHXQLWFRQWHQW6DUDK
ZLOOIROORZSLFWXUHVHTXHQFHVWRFDUU\RXWSRUWLRQVRIPRGLILHGSURMHFWVUHODWHGWRODEHOLQJ
the food chain, tropic pyramid, etc. in order to demonstrate science concepts and match her
results to a model.
*Additional IEP goals: using AAC device within the science activities
List the primary Adaptations to Modified outcomes Support strategies
routines and input/how the and adaptations to
activities of the unit student will get output
below information.
Record Sarah will have Sarah will Program a page
observations in an electronic observe a peer for journaling
science journal journal within recording and do into her AAC
about various her AAC system the same in her device
plants AAC device

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List the primary Adaptations to Modified outcomes Support strategies

routines and input/how the and adaptations to
activities of the unit student will get output
below information.
KWL charts, Sarah will listen Sarah will have Make sure to pre-
brainstorms, and watch. Call at least one program answers
discussions on her towards pre-prepared W WRTXHVWLRQVDQG
the beginning of or L in her AAC or things Sarah
the activity device to share can offer in her
AAC device
Vocabulary: Reduced Sarah will Provide multiple
producer, CO2, vocabulary words demonstrate picture examples,
producer, and simplified recognition of practice
decomposer, etc. (e.g., producer plant versus
maker, etc.) animal
Collaborative Laminated Sarah will Provide materials
photosynthesis pictures with engage in the with Velcro
recipe activity Velcro for ease in recipe building backing for ease
placement same as her of placement
peers, using
pictures
Graphic Same as above Demonstrate Make graphic
organizer for on raised tactile organizer with
vocabulary organizer raised edges and
larger, so that
Sarah can utilize
with pictures
Labeling and Same as above Sarah will place 7DNHPLQXWHV
classifying pictures on food to give peers
pyramid grid suggestions on
with matching to how to include
model Sarah in the
activity
Ecosystem Anchor yarn Sarah points to Provide physical
activity Small to Sarah’s peers for her support for
JURXSV±IRRG wheelchair ideas; output for Sarah in the yarn
web with yarn & oral report using activity
Group oral report AAC device Pre-program her
part of the oral
report into her
device
Note: General education and special education credential candidates use the science unit
plan and IEP at a Glance to develop the Participation and Support Plan collaboratively.

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J. PORTER & K. GEE
PRE-SERVICE TEACHER COLLABORATION EXPERIENCES
As mentioned earlier, our second-year students in the moderate/severe specialist

credential program are partnered with our multiple and single subject pre-service
teachers in order to provide problem solving experiences together. In the fall
semester of their two-semester program, multiple and single subject candidates
are learning the unit development process and the moderate/severe specialist
candidates are also focusing on unit development. The pre-service teachers meet
together in the 6th week of the semester to discuss what they are seeing and
experiencing at their school site in terms of collaboration between general and
special education teachers. They review the principles of UDL for individuals who
UHTXLUHDGGLWLRQDOVXSSRUWV7KHJHQHUDOHGXFDWLRQSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUVEULQJWKHLU
outline for a unit of instruction. Together they brainstorm additional ways that they
might extend their means of engagement, representation, and expression. During
this same semester, the special education pre-service teachers are developing
participation and support plans for students with moderate/severe disabilities in
general education classrooms, so they come to this class session with experience
from the field. The general education pre-service teachers may or may not have
students with moderate/severe disabilities in their student teaching settings, but
they always have students with IEPs in their classes. This rich opportunity for
discussion around collaboration is extremely important. Talking together and
working together around instructional content assists in making the pre-service
teachers feel comfortable with each other.
In the spring semester, the collaborative process is completed in more detail
during the 10th week of the semester. When the classes meet to collaborate again, the
multiple and single subject candidates bring fully developed units of instruction in
science that they are implementing in their student teaching settings. In addition, they
bring at least one profile of a student with an IEP in their student teaching setting.
The moderate/severe specialist pre-service teachers bring profiles of two students
with disabilities. After a period of training on how to complete the participation
and support plan, teams of pre-service teachers engage in the process of designing
participation and support plans related to the science units they have created. The
special education pre-service teachers complete the participation and support plans
and copies are made so that the general education pre-service teachers can leave
their preparation program having engaged in the process and can take the example
to use in their first teaching position.
SOME INITIAL RESULTS OF OUR WORK TOGETHER
We have now implemented this process for 3 consecutive years with both multiple
and single subject pre-service teachers in conjunction with the moderate/severe
specialist pre-service teachers. Survey evaluations from the general education pre-
service teachers indicate their desire to have even more opportunities to problem

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solve in this way. Feedback from the moderate/severe specialist pre-service teachers
shows that they are excited to see science units which are designed with UbD
and UDL; and, that they found it easier to come up with ways for students with
significant disabilities to participate in the science unit instruction because they are
more inclusive compared to traditional instruction.
REFERENCES
%URZGHU'0 6SRRQHU)More language arts, math and science for students with significant
cognitive disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
&DOLIRUQLD&RPPLVVLRQRQ7HDFKHU&UHGHQWLDOLQJCalifornia teaching performance assessment
design standards. Retrieved from http://www.ctc.ca.gov/educator-prep/TPA-files/TPA-Assessment-
Design-Standards.pdf
Center for Applied Special Technology. (2016). Universal design for learning. Retrieved from
http://www.cast.org
Gee, K. (2016). Designing and adapting curriculum. In F. Orelove, D. Sobsey, & D. Gilles (Eds.),
Educating children with multiple disabilitiesWKHG%DOWLPRUH0'3DXO+%URRNHV
Hunt, P., McDonnell, J., & Crockett, M. (2012). Reconciling an ecological curricular framework focusing
RQTXDOLW\RIOLIHRXWFRPHVZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGLQVWUXFWLRQRIVWDQGDUGVEDVHGDFDGHPLFJRDOV
Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 37±
Kearns, J. F., Towles-Reeves, E., Kleinert, H. L., Kleinert, J. O., & Thomas, M. K. (2011). Characteristics
of and implications for students participating in alternate assessments based on alternate achievement
standards. Journal of Special Education, 45±
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placements for students with low-incidence disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with
Severe Disabilities, 39±
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers.
(2010). Common core state standards for English language arts & literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Author.
National Institute for Urban School Improvement. (2013). Improving education: The promise of inclusive
schooling. Retrieved from http://www.edc.org/urban/publicat.htm
concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLOTaking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades
K-8. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Parrish, T. (2012). Special education expenditures, revenues, and provision in California. Sacramento,
CA: American Institutes for Research (AIR) & California Comprehensive Center at WestEd.
Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Ryndak, D. L., Taub, D., Jorgensen, J., Gonsier-Gerdin, J., Arndt, K., Sauer, J., Ruppar, A., Morningstar, M.,
$OOFRFN + 3ROLF\ DQG WKH LPSDFW RQ SODFHPHQW LQYROYHPHQW DQG SURJUHVV LQ JHQHUDO
HGXFDWLRQ&ULWLFDOLVVXHVWKDWUHTXLUHUHFWLILFDWLRQResearch and Practice for Persons with Severe
Disabilities, 39±
Sailor, W. (2009). Making RTI work: How smart schools are reforming education through schoolwide
response-to-intervention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
6Q\GHU7' 'LOORZ6$Digest of education statistics 2013 (NCES 2015–011). Washington,
DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, and U.S. Department
of Education.
6RXNXS-+:HKPH\HU0/%DVKLQVNL60 %RYDLUG-$&ODVVURRPYDULDEOHVDQG
access to the general curriculum for students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 75±

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86'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQTwenty-seventh annual report to congress on the implementation

of the individuals with disabilities education act, 2005 (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Author.
:HKPH\HU0/%URZQ/3HUF\06KRJUHQ.$ )XQJ:/$(GVA comprehensive
guide to intellectual and developmental disabilities (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
:LJJLQV * 3 0F7LJKH - Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Jenna Porter
California State University
Sacramento, California
Kathy Gee
California State University
Sacramento, California

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CATHERINE M. KOEHLER
30. NO STUDENT TEACHER LEFT BEHIND

Lessons Learned from a Science Student Teacher
with a Physical Disability
OVERVIEW
This is the story of a young man, Aaron, whom I was privileged to instruct during his
last year of a secondary science certification program at a Northeastern university
in the U.S. This amazing story of resilience and perseverance is untold in science
education. Aaron’s venture through teacher certification will open the reader’s eyes
to the opportunities we take for granted in teaching science. It will prompt the reader
WR TXHVWLRQ WKH GDLO\ URXWLQHV WKDW ZH HGXFDWRUV WDNH IRU JUDQWHG DQG KRZ WKHVH
routines are fundamental to good teaching practices.
Teachers, particularly novices, encounter many challenges in the classroom.
Student teachers find these challenges to be overwhelming at times, but negotiable,
as they proceed through their student teaching experience. However, teacher
candidates, with the appropriate support network from cooperating teachers and
university supervisors, can work through these hurdles to be successful in their
student teaching experiences. As difficult as student teaching may be, these barriers
can appear to be insurmountable for a student teacher with physical disabilities as
sometimes the easiest tasks take a tremendous amount to time to complete. What
seems like hurdles to non-disabled student teachers are huge obstacles for the student
with a physical disability.
Teachers with any type of disability feel that they are perceived to be limited because
too much attention is focused on their disability and not their overall capabilities
(Valas, 2001). Valas contends that for teacher candidates with physical disabilities,
RWKHULVVXHVVXFKDVIUHTXHQWDEVHQFHIURPWKHLUVWXGHQWWHDFKLQJSODFHPHQWVEHFDXVH
of issues with transportation, illness, and other issues beyond their control present
other challenges. Because Aaron had a lifelong dream of becoming an Earth Science
teacher, he knew that there would be challenges along the way. The job as a teacher
is challenging at all levels, but imagine working through these challenges coupled
with a physical disability. The Individual Disabilities Education Improvement Act
(IDEIAHQVXUHVDIUHHDQGDSSURSULDWHHGXFDWLRQWRSHUVRQVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV
A person who has a physical or emotional impairment is protected under Section
RIWKH5HKDELOLWDWLRQ$FWRI86'(%RWKRIWKHVHIHGHUDO
PDQGDWHVHQVXUHWKDWDOOSHUVRQVKDYHHTXDODFFHVVWRHGXFDWLRQDQGSRWHQWLDOMRE
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C. M. KOEHLER
training at the end of their educational experience. Guidelines for instructing student
teachers with impairments are narrow in scope, and focus particularly on teachers
with learning disabilities, not physical disabilities.
Aaron’s story will shed some light upon the challenges that a student teacher,
who must overcome more than the typical stresses related to student teaching, faces.
Aaron’s challenges during secondary science methods and student teaching were
daunting, yet his desire to fulfill his lifetime dream was the grit that pulled him
through this experience. Aaron wanted his story to be told. This aligns with the DSE
framework according to Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, Morton (2008).
MEET TEACHER CANDIDATE AARON
$DURQ LV D \HDUROG XQGHUJUDGXDWH ZKRVH OLIHWLPH GUHDP ZDV WR EHFRPH D KLJK
school Earth Science teacher. I saw Aaron in his motorized wheelchair in the department
several times over the past few semesters, but I did not know that he would someday
be one of my students. My colleague introduced us and told me that Aaron would be
taking my secondary science methods class during the fall semester. I immediately
stopped in my tracks; I had never taught a student with such a severe disability, and to
be honest, I was a little nervous and apprehensive. I admit that this feeling was atypical
for me, but understandable because I did not know much about teaching students with
physical disabilities. My naivety and nervousness were the sparks that I needed to help
this young man become an Earth Science teacher. I did not know where to begin and
what accommodations I would need in order to provide Aaron with the educational
support that all students deserve. My first step was to find out about Aaron’s disability
and how I might be able to accommodate him in my class.
Aaron had a genetic disorder called Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). It
is one of nine different types of muscular dystrophy (MD), a genetic, degenerative
disorder that affects the nervous and muscular system leaving the individual with
uncontrollable muscle spasms and loss of muscle control (Sussman, 2002). DMD is
a recessive X-linked form of MD that affects one in 3,600 males. Females carry the
affected gene and incidents in females are extremely rare. DMD is caused from a
mutation that occurs in the dystrophin gene that codes for the dystrophin protein. This
protein is responsible for keeping muscle cells intact. Symptoms of the disease usually
appear before the age of six years old and the initial symptoms are muscle weakness
of the hips and pelvis area. Often, a child will appear to be clumsy and fall a lot, an
indication of muscle weakness. Climbing stairs and getting up or running are difficult
for those with DMD. The use of a wheelchair to assist the individual with mobility
XVXDOO\EHJLQVEHWZHHQWKHDJHVRI±$DURQZDVGLDJQRVHGZLWK'0'DWDJH
“AN ACTIVE MIND IS A LEARNING MIND”
Aaron was in the final year of his undergraduate Earth Science/science certification
program when he took my secondary science methods course. Aaron was a very

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NO STUDENT TEACHER LEFT BEHIND
sharp, pleasant young man with a corny sense of humor. His wit was remarkable,
and he often had the class laughing at his jokes. His speech was often clear but could
become slurred at times when he experienced muscle spasms. Many times, he would
make involuntary facial expressions, but I was not certain that anyone else in the class
noticed these expressions, as the students would often face me and not each other.
Aaron was confined to a motorized wheelchair and the only movement he freely
possessed was with his hands, neck and face. To keep his body from becoming stiff,
he would rock his chair back and forth every few minutes with the stick throttle he
had in his left hand (he was right handed). Aaron had an aid, Stanley, who would
drive him to and from school and assist in the necessary essentials such as eating
and lavatory needs.
Prior to the start of the semester, I asked Aaron how I could accommodate his
needs as a student and as an individual. Graciously he said, “Please, treat me the
same as you would any other student in the class.” I figured that was the least I could
do for him, yet I knew that my nervousness about teaching him science methods
PLJKWVKRZWKURXJK,KDGDQXPEHURITXHVWLRQVWKDW,QHHGHGWRQHJRWLDWHZLWK
myself to be true to his needs and they included:
Am I prepared to teach Aaron?
How will other students in the class respond to Aaron’s disability and will they
treat him with respect and dignity as if he were a “normal” classmate?
How can I help him negotiate through the field of teacher education and the
teaching profession?
What school district will afford him this opportunity? Is there even a school
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:KDWFDQZHOHDUQIURPWKLVXQLTXHRSSRUWXQLW\"
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about me.
My secondary science methods class met during the fall semester. As part of
the clinical component of the class, we worked with a local, inner city, middle
school, Barlow Academy Magnet School (pseudonym), where my methods students
instructed science concepts in an afterschool program for the middle school students.
Knowing the challenges that I had encountered on previous occasions at Barlow, I
had two concerns for Aaron: (1) How will the middle school students treat him? and
(2) How will he teach the Barlow students given his limited mobility?
For this particular methods class, I had only four students, including Aaron. Each
week, the students would take their turn to teach the Barlow students. Aaron was fourth
in the rotation giving him time to negotiate the classroom culture. I was somewhat
protective of Aaron and stood close so that I could intervene if necessary, but his corny
humor won over the students. Aaron was just like any other student teacher at Barlow;
the students treated him with the same respect that they treated all of us.
Aaron taught everyone at Barlow lessons about perseverance and tenacity in the
light of humor and caring. In fact, our humor paled to his and he used this to make

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C. M. KOEHLER
us all laugh much of the time while maintaining a serious nature about teaching
science. There was no need to worry about Aaron in the student teaching experience
next semester.
“FOR EVERY PROBLEM, MONSIEUR, THERE IS A SOLUTION”
Because of Aaron’s limited mobility, his pedagogy was restricted to Power Point
presentations. He was extremely well prepared to present his content material. He
chose to teach the Barlow students about geological puzzles in science. One such
puzzle involved geological intrusions into bedrock. Aaron began his discussion with
several puzzle pieces and asked the students how to fit each puzzle piece together.
They understood the concept and were engaged in his discussion. Then he referred to
his handouts where there were multiple layers of rocks with different intrusions into
these rocks. He described how the task of a geologist was to unravel the puzzle in the
rocks. He described the Principle of Superposition where older rocks appear on the
lower level and the younger rocks appear on the upper levels of the drawing. Then he
explained that an intrusion is a different type of rock that flows after the layers are set.
He asked the students to take out crayons and color the different rock layers indicating
which rocks were older and which were younger. Then he asked them to change the
color indicating the intrusions. The students were engaged in his activity and as a
result, were focused and not disruptive. He maneuvered throughout the classroom as
if he were not restricted to a wheelchair, and the students were receptive to his help
and advice. His classmates and I were impressed by his excitement and enthusiasm.
Aaron was a very bright student and he devoted much of his time to his studies,
and as such, was an over-achiever. This was particularly true with lesson planning.
A typical student would write a three to four-page lesson plan. Not Aaron, his lesson
SODQVZHUH±SDJHVLQOHQJWK$OWKRXJKPHWKRGVFODVVLVZKHUHVWXGHQWVOHDUQ
to write lesson plans, I warned Aaron that he would not have time to write such
extensive lessons plans when he was student teaching. He told me that he had time
now to plan and that he was going to be ready to student teach in the spring.
The other students in the methods course learned much from Aaron, including
how to differentiate their lessons to accommodate Aaron’s disability. In addition to
teaching the Barlow students, the methods students also taught each other. During
one teaching episode, a biology student, Kim, taught a lesson about modeling a cell
using various candy pieces to represent the organelles. Kim carefully planned her
lesson to accommodate Aaron’s lack of arm movement. She was concerned about
excluding Aaron so to differentiate the lesson she created a tray that separated the
different candies used in the activity for him. This helped him choose the candy
pieces that allowed him more options for creating his cell. In her reflection paper,
Kim commented:
When I prepared for my teaching episode, I had to consider what Aaron’s
physical abilities were and how it would change my lesson. I didn’t think

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it was my business to know Aaron’s disability, but when I needed to make

accommodations for him in my classroom, then it became my business.
I decided to develop my lesson around Aaron’s abilities, to accommodate his
needs. I never thought about this before.
Toward the last week of the semester, it was time to discuss Aaron’s student
teaching placement. Aaron would need accommodations in place, not only
from the school district, but also from the university. It was a delicate balance
between finding a school district that would accommodate Aaron’s physical needs
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important was to ensure that all stakeholders in the student teaching experience
(e.g., students, cooperating teacher, university supervisor, the school district and
the university) are partners in accommodating Aaron. Research has suggested that
VRPH VWDNHKROGHUV SLW\ WKHLU VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV ZLWK GLVDELOLWLHV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\
overlook critical performance weaknesses that may affect their pedagogical
practice as it would be perceived discriminatory and stereotypical by nature
(Bargerhuff, Cole, & Teeters, 2009). I was Aaron’s professor and advocate, and
I felt a responsibility to assist him so he could fulfill his dream of being an Earth
Science teacher.
The first step was to organize a meeting with university stakeholders: the Clinical
Supervision Director who places student teachers, personnel from the Disabilities
Resource Center (DRC), the Associate Dean from the School of Education, Aaron’s
Social Worker, Aaron’s Case Manager, his university supervisor for student
teaching, Aaron and me. Our discussions centered on Aaron’s accommodations in
any school where he would be placed. He had applied and had already been rejected
at one school district that stated that they could not accommodate his disability. As
disappointing as this was for Aaron, we needed to find a school district that could
accommodate his needs.
Each stakeholder had a concern about Aaron’s placement. For example, the
Clinical Placement Director was concerned about the potential lack of schools that
might be able to accommodate his needs; the University Supervisor was concerned
that Aaron would not be able to provide a safe science environment for the students;
the personnel from DRC were concerned that he might fail student teaching; and my
biggest concern was his physical stamina- how could he endure the long days and
nights it takes to be a student teacher?
It often takes several attempts to place some student teachers, including Aaron.
We were thrilled when we secured Riverside High School [RHS] (pseudonym) for
Aaron. RHS was the perfect placement as the high school had ramps instead of stairs,
so Aaron was able to easily maneuver his wheelchair in the hallways and move to
GLIIHUHQWIORRUVRIWKHVFKRRO(TXDOO\H[FLWLQJZDVWKHUHDOL]DWLRQWKDW5+6VFLHQFH
department personnel were eager to meet Aaron and welcomed him to student teach
at their school. However, there were still some accommodations that needed to occur
prior to the start of his student teaching experience.

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C. M. KOEHLER
“ANYTHING IN LIFE IS A CHALLENGE: EXPECT NOTHING

AND ANTICIPATE EVERYTHING”
The classroom to which Aaron was assigned was small with rows of desks and lab
benches that did not allow much room to maneuver a wheelchair. The desks needed
to be rearranged in a configuration that was conducive to Aaron’s mobility. With
this reconfiguration, it was not possible for Aaron to reach each student during
instruction because the rows were too narrow to negotiate. As a result, some students
could “hide” from view and not pay attention to Aaron’s instruction. This was an
issue that Aaron needed to address during his lesson activities.
The second accommodation included the use of instructional technology. Aaron’s
voice was rather soft and in order to be loud enough for students to hear, he would
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ZRUNHGRQO\VSRUDGLFDOO\6LQFHWKLVZDVWKHRQO\HTXLSPHQWDYDLODEOH$DURQRSWHG
not to try it out.
7KHFODVVURRPZDVDOVRHTXLSSHGZLWKD6PDUW%RDUGVRPHWKLQJQHZWR$DURQ
but essential for his instruction focused heavily on PowerPoint slides and videos. He
easily adapted to it and was happy to have such luxury at RHS. Another real benefit
for Aaron was the cooperating teacher’s flipped classroom approach. In this flipped
classroom, the cooperating teacher would post content videos of the class material
online for students to view at home. When students’ entered class, they could actively
participate in the lesson with little instruction as each lesson aligned to the content
they viewed as homework. This instruction methodology was perfect for Aaron as he
could post his elaborate Power Point presentations and videos online for students to
review prior to his instruction. His activities directly related to the online homework.
After several meetings with both the university personnel and the school district
personnel, it was time for Aaron to begin his student teaching experience. My role
in this experience was two-fold: I was a researcher/observer who visited Aaron’s
classroom once a week, and I was an advocate who helped him negotiate the student
teaching experience. I was not his evaluator/university supervisor, but instead, my
role of advocate provided him someone he could talk to about his challenges and
strategize with him to overcome these challenges as the semester unfolded.
“NEVER ASSUME THAT AN EXPERIENCE WILL GO SMOOTHLY”
Aaron began student teaching during the spring semester where his first days went
well. He confided in me that he had never held a real job before, and he began
teaching his assigned classes and participating as any student teacher is expected. He
was able to get into the groove of student teaching and expressed his joy about it. His
students responded well to his teaching style and were very well behaved for him.
He expected high standards and they met the challenge with vigor and excitement.
All was going well.

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It was very soon after the start of student teaching that Aaron began to experience
technical issues that held him back physically and emotionally. First, his new dress
pants did not work as well as he would have liked. Because he needed to rock his chair
IUHTXHQWO\WRDFFRPPRGDWHKLVODFNRIPXVFXODUPRYHPHQWKLVSDQWVEHJDQWRULGHXS
KLVEDFNGXHWRWKHURFNLQJFRQVHTXHQWO\KHEHJDQWRVOLGHGRZQWKHVHDWRIWKHZKHHO
chair. After a week of being terribly uncomfortable, he asked both his cooperating
teacher and me if he could go back to wearing his sweatpants with a nice shirt and tie.
We both agreed that it would be best if he wore sweatpants to school for his comfort.
Next, Aaron had a wheelchair malfunction. The lever to rock the chair broke
during the third week of student teaching. Unable to rock his chair, Aaron was so
uncomfortable that Stanley had to come to class and readjust his position regularly
so he that was comfortable enough to teach. It took four weeks for the wheelchair
to be fixed, and unfortunately, Aaron’s replacement wheelchair lacked rocking
capabilities. Stanley became a semi-permanent addition to the classroom. This was
an emotional drain on Aaron because he wanted so much to be independent, but the
situation did not permit this for him.
In addition to the chair’s malfunction, Aaron’s home laptop also broke. Although
this was an easier fix than the wheelchair, it caused undue emotional stress on Aaron.
He was unable to prepare his lessons at home and had to rely on his time afterschool
to work on his next day’s lessons and on grading papers. This change in schedule,
however, affected his stamina. Through all these challenges, Aaron stayed positive
and his sense of humor prevailed.
“STRESS CONTRIBUTES TO A LOSS OF IDEALISM

WHICH SENT ME INTO SURVIVAL MODE”
Aaron’s days were longer than he anticipated. On a typical day, Aaron would get up
DWDPZRXOGDUULYHDWVFKRRODWDPDQGWHDFKILYHFODVVHVWKURXJKRXWWKHGD\
After school, he would stay until 3 pm, then go home and nap for two hours before
he would eat, bathe and do his planning and grading. He would be in bed by 9 pm
EHFDXVHKHUHTXLUHGDWOHDVWHLJKWKRXUVRIVOHHSWREHUHVWHGIRUWKHQH[WGD\0RVW
student teachers can stay up longer at night, but Aaron could not. Even eight hours of
sleep was not enough for him and he began to drag during the day. Coupled with his
loss of a computer and now his shortened time to nap, these changes played a toll on
his emotions and stamina. He relayed his disappointment and frustration to me and I
became his sounding board for this frustration. I provided him strategies to help, but
,FRXOGWHOOWKDWKHZDVVLQNLQJTXLFNO\LQWRDQHPRWLRQDOVWDWHZKHUH,ZDVZRUULHG
for his health and wellbeing.
As I noticed this change, I spoke to his cooperating teacher about it. Our concern
was not only for Aaron’s wellbeing, but also for the students in his classes. The first
indicator of this stress related to classroom management issues; Aaron’s students
took advantage of the situation. Although Aaron never told them about his situation,
the students could sense that things were not going well, and as many students do,

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C. M. KOEHLER
they took advantage of it. Aaron was losing control of the class as he was becoming
more depressed. Their classroom disruptions only fed into Aaron’s emotional state
and he felt out of control with the loss of his chair, his computer and now his students.
It was a downward spiral and it was difficult to watch and not be able to help except
to listen and advise him regularly.
“IT IS NOT TERRIBLE TO RELY ON OTHERS TO HELP”
Aaron’s cooperating teacher, Mark (pseudonym) was the second set of hands that
Aaron needed during this time of stress. Mark would make copies for Aaron and help
him with various labs and activities. Normally, a cooperating teacher would not be
present in the classroom, but Mark was always available to lend a helping hand for
Aaron when he perceived it to be necessary. Although Aaron wanted to succeed in
student teaching on his own, he knew that he must rely on other to help.
After 10 weeks of many heartaches and victories, Aaron’s student teaching
experience came to an end. He was successful in many aspects of teaching and
learned many lessons as a result. He satisfactorily completed the student teaching
experience and earned his bachelor’s degree in Earth Science with a secondary
science certification in Earth Science. Aaron experienced more challenges than
most student teachers ever will in their careers, but his will to succeed overcame his
hardship. Most importantly, he was gracious and cheerful throughout the experience,
HYHQ ZKHQ WLPHV JRW WRXJK$DURQ ZDV QHYHU DW D ORVV RI ZRUGV DV KH ZDV TXLWH
expressive in his written discourse of his student teaching experience:
Student teaching has been my most important experience thus far in my life.
I came into my experience with excitement and optimism. When I began I
expected that there would be challenges and I was confident that I would be
able to overcome those challenges. My student teaching experience was a
rough one because I entered “survival mode” once the stress began to build
following my wheelchair’s breakdown. My rationality, ideals, and teaching
strategies began to fade away as I sunk deeper and deeper into survival mode.
With that said, I still want to be a high school teacher. I find that a difficult
student teaching experience is more valuable than a smooth one because it
exposes one to the hardships of teaching. My experience was difficult, but
I owe it to the students to continue. As I reflect upon my student teaching
experience, my commitment to teaching has blossomed.
LESSONS LEARNED FOR SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION
Aaron’s advice for future science teachers reinforces the notion that planning is key
to a teacher’s success in the classroom. Although this concept is stressed during
science methods, it is not until student teaching that it plays out in the classroom, and
Aaron so succinctly states it.
360
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/RQJWHUPSODQQLQJLVYLWDOIRUDVXFFHVVIXOWHDFKHU+DYHDFRXSOHRIKLJKTXDOLW\
OHVVRQVLQVWHDGRIPDQ\ORZTXDOLW\OHVVRQV'RQ¶WVDFULILFHHOHPHQWVRIDOHVVRQ
to save time.
Thirty minutes becomes five hours if tasks are allowed to build up (e.g., grading
papers).
Teaching content is boring for students, but personalization of the material adds
to the educative experience.
The lessons learned and the strategies to overcome the many obstacles that Aaron
faced can provide some guidelines for teacher educators who have the wonderful
opportunity to work with individuals with disabilities. The following are lessons
learned from Aaron’s experience:
All student teachers need an opportunity to succeed with their passion for teaching.
It may take more time and effort from the teacher education community, but this
should be an asset, not a burden.
It takes an army to train every student teacher! All stakeholders need to be
part of the process in training students with disabilities. We owe it to the
students to be successful and we need to put in place the mechanisms for their
success.
Continual and regular communication between the university and the school
district must be established early in the process. For Aaron, this communication
was essential to keep the flow of the experience ongoing.
Early intervention helps curb later disasters. Having the opportunity to work
closely with the cooperating teacher and Aaron was a key to the synergy that
developed amongst us. This synergy assisted Aaron as he maneuvered through
the educational system.
Never give up on a student teacher. Even through his toughest times, Aaron always
had a smile. He smiled because this was his dream, to be an Earth Science teacher.
WHERE IS AARON NOW?
I wish I could write that he is a successful Earth Science teacher. After Aaron
graduated from the university, his father and he moved to Florida. I have tried to
track him down through social media, but I have been unsuccessful. I hope someday
Aaron will track me down. I was blessed to meet and work with him and I hope that
Aaron is living his dream. His last insight into this experience can be summed up in
five words:
“It’s all about the students!”
REFERENCES
Bargerhuff, M. E., Cole, D. J., & Teeters, L. E. (2009). Preparing teacher candidates with disabilities:
A growing experience. Eastern Education Journal, 38±
361
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C. M. KOEHLER
education-implications for theory, research and practice. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
12±±
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Evaluating teacher effectiveness: How teacher performance assessments
can measure and improve teaching. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.
Knight, D. (1996). Preparing preservice teachers with disabilities for student teaching experience. The
Teacher Educator, 31±
Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA). (2016). Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). Retrieved
from https://www.mda.org/disease/duchenne-muscular-dystrophy
2IILFH RI &LYLO 5LJKWV 2&5 Protecting students with disabilities. Retrieved from
KWWSVZZZHGJRYDERXWRIILFHVOLVWRFUIDTKWPO
Sussman, M. (2002). Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopedic
Surgeons, 10±
U.S. Department of Education (USDE). (2016). Protecting students with disabilities. Retrieved from
KWWSVZZZHGJRYDERXWRIILFHVOLVWRFUIDTKWPO
Valas, H. (2001). Learned helplessness and psychological adjustment IIL effects of learning disabilities
and low achievement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 45±
Wilson, V., Hall, S., Davidson, J., Kirk, S., Edward, S., & Mirza, H. (2003). Teachers’ careers: The impact
of age, disability, ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation. London: Department for Education and
Skills.
Catherine M. Koehler
Two Rivers Magnet Middle School
and
Eastern Connecticut State University
Windham, Connecticut
362
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MICHELE KOOMEN, SAMI KAHN,
CHRISTOPHER L. ATCHISON AND TIFFANY WILD
CONCLUSION
Bringing the Book Together
This book set out to mediate the gap in the research and published literature in
inclusive science teacher education by creating a bold vision for supporting all
OHDUQHUVLQVFLHQFH7KHERRNXQL¿HVWKHZRUNRIPXOWLFXOWXUDODQGVSHFLDOHGXFDWLRQ
with a focus on ability and strengths of allVWXGHQWV7KLV¿QDOFKDSWHUEULQJVWRJHWKHU
the contributions of our authors. We begin by connecting the voices of students with
disabilities (Section 1) and the work of experts in the area of science education for
LQGLYLGXDOVZLWKGLVDELOLWLHV6HFWLRQV±WRWKHUHVHDUFKOLWHUDWXUHHQGLQJZLWKD
call for further research.
We, as science teachers, practitioners, teacher educators and researchers have
much to learn by simply listening to the voices of the experts: our students. The
true expert on inclusion is the learner, the student with disabilities, who tells us in
their own words what practices really work best for them in an inclusive classroom.
Lisa Johnson, Kourtney Bakalyar, Lisa Dembouski pointed out the importance of
teachers listening to the needs of their students in the classroom in order to enhance
student learning. Bakalyar’s Michelle asked that teachers meet with students at the
beginning of the year so that they could learn about their needs and understand
what works best for him/her. Later, Bakalyar’s Julie pointed out that even though
WKHUHPD\EHVLPLODUVWXGHQWVLQ\RXUFODVVURRPHYHU\VWXGHQWLVXQLTXHDQGLWLV
important to recognize those differences. Listening to the experts on inclusion, the
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Keefe, Moore, & Duff, 2006; Koomen, 2016), but one that is often overlooked
despite the valuable insights that may be gleaned. Keefe et al. (2006) documented
the empowerment felt by students with disabilities when their teachers listened to
what they had to say about what works best for them by soliciting their opinions
RQ LQVWUXFWLRQDO SUDFWLFHV .ODVVHQ DQG /\QFK UHSRUWHG WKDW ZKHQ WHDFKHUV
learned more about the individual with a disability and heard from said students
about their specific needs, the students’ self-efficacy increased. Thus, listening to
the experts matters.
6HFRQG ZH DVFULEH WR WKH UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ HORTXHQWO\ H[SUHVVHG E\ /LVD
Dembouski and colleagues:
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M. KOOMEN ET AL.
(GXFDWH \RXUVHOI ± DQG DOO \RXU VWXGHQWV ± DERXW \RXU XQLTXH OHDUQHUV
respond to them as individuals, include them in your decision-making and class
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collect and use a variety of inclusive tools in your teaching like increasing your
use of visuals and allowing for longer wait times.
As noted in the introduction of the book, we as professional teacher educators, are
aware that few teachers, whether in-service or pre-service feel prepared to teach all
VWXGHQWVLQWKHLUFODVVURRPV.DKQ /HZLV1RUPDQ&DVHDX 6WHIDQLFK
1998; Parsad, Lewis, & Farris, 2002). We assert that we, as science teacher educators,
need to own this lack of preparation, and take action to “educate” ourselves. To
that end, many of our authors helped us to understand what we can do including
.HYLQ)LQVRQ%LOO/LQGTXLVWDQG5HEHFFD1HDO6KHU\O%XUJVWDKOHU/DFH\+XIIOLQJ
and her team, Kevin Fleming and Dina Secchiaroli, Terri Hebert and collaborators,
Chris Atchison and group, and Sarah Summy and Marcia Fetters. But the call to
educate ourselves as teacher educators is not enough. Like Dembouski, we affirm
the importance of responding to our students as individuals by consulting with them
to understand their learning preferences.
Accessing and using student strengths was another resounding theme from
many authors in both sections of the book. Kourtney Bakalyar’s chapter helped us
understand the missed opportunities for Michelle in feeling connected to academics
and her struggle with social skills because her elementary teachers did not access
her strengths and use those strengths in their teaching. In contrast Sarah’s sixth
grade teacher capitalized on her ability to work independently which allowed Sarah
to show off her advanced skills in science content. Similarly, Calabrese-Barton
UHSRUWHGRQWKHJURZLQJLQWHUHVWLQVFLHQFHE\&ODXGLDWKDWLQYROYHGDVSHFWV
of writing, one of her strengths. Merrie Koester’s Readers’ Theatre performance
ethnography of Billy Bob (a fifth-grade student with dyslexia) resonated with
the empowerment he felt because his teachers knew and leveraged his strengths
in their teaching. Jackson (2011) described the growth in learning of undeveloped
skills when a teacher initiated strengths based pedagogies that instill confidence and
competence in students, suggesting that Koester’s outcomes are non-trivial. Finally,
Sami Kahn’s illustration of two individuals’ experiences help us to imagine how
a strengths-based framework analyzed in light of A Framework for K-12 Science
Education (NRC, 2012) and NGSS (2013) might unfold in a science classroom.
These outcomes align with the transformative goals of DSE to create opportunities
for students with disabilities to achieve dignity in the classroom (Baglieri, Bejoian,
Broderick, Connor, & Valle, 2011).
Another key insight gained through our synthesis of chapters is that inclusion is
not defined by geography; in other words, where a student is educated is less of an
LQGLFDWRURIHTXLWDEOHHGXFDWLRQWKDQhow a student is educated. As Kathleen Farrand
pointed out, it is all too easy to assume that inclusion is addressed by simply placing
a student in a general education class. Students labelled with disabilities need to

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CONCLUSION
have appropriate supports that overcome barriers, including physical, instructional,

DQGDWWLWXGLQDO0F*LQQLV .DKQ8QGRXEWHGO\DQHVVHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWRID
genuinely inclusive classroom involves assessments that provide valid measurement
of all students’ abilities. Authors Judith Lederman and Selina Bartel, as well as
author Jonte’ Taylor and colleagues, reminded us that this is often easier said than
done, particularly in an era of high-stakes standardized testing. Care must be taken
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multiple means of expression for students, as well as greater emphasis on the diverse
range of talents that can be valued in science (Sumida, 2010).
Of course, there are other aspects of teaching that should not be changed when
seeking inclusivity. Maintaining high expectations for all students, including those
labeled with disabilities is imperative. As several authors pointed out, teachers’
tendencies to lower the bar for students labeled with disabilities not only cheats those
students out of the opportunity to reach their potentials but also sends a message to
all students that some are less able than others. We find it a worthwhile exercise to
imagine the trajectories of our own lives if our teachers had made assumptions of
inability about us, much the same way that Andrea, the “Artist Who Aimed for the
Stars” in Sami Kahn’s chapter was discouraged from taking a class in astronomy.
We would have had neither the opportunity nor the impetus to strive for our goals
and our own self-worths would have suffered. A useful paradigm for understanding
the import of high expectations can be found in Anne Donnellan’s “Least Dangerous
$VVXPSWLRQ´'RQQHOODQ,QKHUZRUN'RQQHOODQDVVHUWVWKDWHGXFDWRUVPXVW
assume competence and ability in their students labeled with disabilities because the
alternative results in inferior educational opportunities and options. She therefore
concludes that an assumption of competence does less harm as teachers can make
appropriate adjustments on an individualized basis starting from highest expectations
rather than relegating students to low expectations that will likely not be raised. Our
research and experience supports this idea; aiming high is an essential practice for
inclusive science teaching.
It is also clear that teachers must become advocates for their students with
disabilities. Heather Pacheco-Guffrey’s chapter emphasized the importance
of mentors and role models, both of which are strongly supported by research
.RRPHQ %ODLU <RXQJ,VHEUDQG 2EHUKDXVHU 6WXPER HW DO
Teachers can educate themselves about scientists with disabilities, historical and
current, by connecting with organizations such as the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and the National Science Teachers Association, both
of which have projects and webpages dedicated to science and disability. Teachers
can also reach out to local companies and universities to identify role models and/
or mentors. Ultimately, students labeled with disabilities must become advocates
for themselves. Author Philip Boda’s chapter exemplifies the ways in which a
teacher can empower their students to take initiative in their own learning, design
and lead their investigations, and eventually become the experts and leaders in their
classrooms, schools, and communities. Both Pacheco-Guffrey and Boda’s works

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M. KOOMEN ET AL.
are supported by research on self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986), which recognizes the

importance of autonomy and self-determination in ones learning and life. Teachers
play an essential role in ensuring that all students have a vested interest in their
learning, and that a community of supporters have a vested interest in their learning
as well.
NEXT STEPS
This collection of research and practitioner experiences provides a look into the
necessity of inclusive pedagogy and providing opportunities for all students to
participate in and contribute to the science community of learning. We should realize
that much more is needed. Future research must have a strong connection to practical
application, and curricular development must have a deliberate tie to theoretical and
research findings.
This book only scratches the surface of access and inclusion, and full participation
in STEM classrooms. Moving forward, curricular development, research, and
practical dissemination that are intended to advance science for all students must
include the voices of all students. Accommodation strategies must be collaboratively
designed, including the personal perspectives, strengths, and abilities of the diverse
student population our practicing teachers serve each and every day. Assessment and
VFLHQFHPHWKRGVFRXUVHVLQWHDFKHUSUHSDUDWLRQSURJUDPVRXJKWWRLQFOXGHHTXLYDOHQW
parts of theory and practice, including opportunities for pre-service teachers to
engage directly with students with disabilities in placement settings. Professional
development opportunities for in-service K-12 teachers need to be made readily
available and must focus on the use of best practices for supporting students with
diverse physical, sensory, intellectual, and social abilities in every science discipline.
The role of professional education societies in supporting these endeavors cannot be
overemphasized.
Our intention has always been to give voice to students with disabilities and to
learn from them. Our hope is that this collective work will inspire more science
educators to envision the possibilities and opportunities for students with disabilities
in their science education classrooms. As a community of science and special teacher
educators, science education practitioners and researchers, let us continue to learn
from those whose stories are often overlooked with particular attention focused on
abilities and strengths so that we can come closer to a rigorous foundation in science
education that supports learning for all students.
REFERENCES
Baglieri, S., Bejoian, L. M., Broderick, A. A., Connor, D. J., & Valle, J. (2011). Inviting interdisciplinary
alliances around inclusive educational reform: Introduction to the special issue on disability studies in
education. Teachers College Record, 113±
Barton, A. C. (2003). Teaching science for social justice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
366
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CONCLUSION
Jackson, Y. (2011). The pedagogy of confidence: Inspiring high intellectual performance in urban
schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
preparedness and attitudes. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25±GRLV
]
Keefe, E. B., Moore, V. M., & Duff, F. R. (2006). Listening to the experts: Students with disabilities
speak out. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Company.
.RRPHQ 0 + %ODLU 5 <RXQJ,VHEUDQG ( 2EHUKDXVHU . 6 6FLHQFH SURIHVVLRQDO
development with teachers: Nurturing the scientist within. Electronic Journal of Science Education,
18±
Koomen, M. J. (2016). Inclusive science education: Learning from wizard. Cultural Studies in Science
Education, 43±
0F*LQQLV-5 .DKQ66SHFLDOQHHGVDQGWDOHQWVLQVFLHQFHOHDUQLQJ,Q1*/HGHUPDQ
S. K. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (Vol. II). Mahwah, NJ: Routledge and
Taylor & Francis.
Norman, K., Caseau, D., & Stefanich, G. (1998). Teaching students with disabilities in inclusive science
classrooms: Survey results. Science Education, 82±
Parsad, B., Lewis, L., & Farris, E. (2001). Teacher preparation and professional development: 2000.
Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.
6WXPER1-0DUWLQ-.1RUGVWURP'5ROIH7%XUJVWDKOHU6:KLWQH\-0LVTXH](
Evidence-based practices in mentoring students with disabilities: Four case studies. Journal of
Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 14±GRLMVHVG
Michele Koomen
Sami Kahn
Patton College of Education
Ohio University
Athens, Ohio
Christopher L. Atchison
School of Education and Department of Geology
Cincinnati, Ohio
Tiffany Wild
Department of Teaching and Learning
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
EDITORS
Michele Koomen is the Lind Professor of Education at Gustavus Adolphus College

in St. Peter, Minnesota where she serves as a teacher educator in both science and
mathematics education. Dr. Koomen earned a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction
with a major emphasis in science and mathematics education with a focus on inclusion
from the University of Minnesota. Dr. Koomen’s scholarly endeavors center on the
intersection of citizen science and the practices of science and engineering in science
education, disciplinary literacy in science and mathematics and, as demonstrated
in this edited book, the inclusion and support of all learners in science and math
classrooms. She currently serves as President of the Minnesota Science Teachers
Association and was a leader of the Inclusive Science Forum for the ASTE for many
years.
Sami Kahn is an Assistant Professor of Science Education, Department of Teacher

Education, at the Patton College of Education, Ohio University, where she uses her
background in science education and law to inform her research on inclusive science
practices, socioscientific issues (SSI), argumentation, and social justice. Dr. Kahn
holds an M.S. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology from Rutgers University, a
J.D. in Law from Rutgers School of Law, and a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction
with a specialization in Science Education from the University of South Florida
where she served as a Presidential Doctoral Fellow. She currently serves as Co-
Editor of the Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities and Chair
of the Inclusive Science Education Forum for the Association for Science Teacher
Education.
Christopher L. Atchison is an Associate Professor of Geoscience Education in the

School of Education and Department of Geology at the University of Cincinnati.
A geologist by training and a former middle school science teacher, Dr. Atchison’s
research is concentrated on enhancing access and inclusion in the Earth Sciences for
students and geoscience practitioners with cognitive, orthopedic, sensory, and social-
emotional disabilities through experiential learning and non-traditional workforce
development. He focuses heavily on Inclusive and Universal Design for Learning in
his courses and has taught professional development workshops and accessible field
trips using these principles, which promote the use of best pedagogical practices to
accommodate and fully include students and faculty with apparent and non-apparent
disabilities in diverse learning environments.
369
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Tiffany Wild is a certified teacher of students with visual impairments and an

Assistant Professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at The Ohio
State University. She began her education career as a middle school science
and math teacher. As more and more students with visual impairments were
included in her classroom without any support, Dr. Wild was inspired to become
a Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments (TVI). She was a National
Center for Leadership in Visual Impairment doctoral fellow and her dissertation
was awarded Dissertation of the Year by CEC DVI. Her research focuses on
accessibility of science education for students with visual impairments. She
also examines scientific conceptual understanding and inclusive educational
practices.
AUTHORS
Kourtney Bakalyar is the Director of the Autism Services Center at Western

Michigan University (WMU). She oversees services for WMU students with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) and multiple programs for high school students with ASD.
Kourtney graduated with her Ed.D. from WMU. and is a Board-Certified Behavior
Analyst (BCBA). Her research is centered on helping students have a smooth
transition from high school to college and from college to the workforce.
Selina L. Bartels is an Assistant Professor of Science Education at Concordia

University Chicago, in River Forest IL. She has a B.S. in Elementary Education
from Northern Illinois University and a Masters and a Ph.D. in Science Education
from the Illinois Institute of Technology. Her research interests lie in pre-K through
WKJUDGHXQGHUVWDQGLQJVDQGWHDFKLQJRI1DWXUHRI6FLHQFHDQG6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\
Dr. Bartels has served on the Board of Directors for NARST.
Aerin W. Benavides, Ph.D., is a Post-Doctoral Researcher at the University of

North Carolina at Greensboro with a specialization in science and environmental
education. More specifically her current work examines science identity development
in marginalized populations as they engineer green energy solutions for a sustainable
future and engage in fieldwork in local natural areas. Her pedagogical interests
include facilitating teacher learning, professional development curriculum, and pre-
service teacher education.
Phillip Andrew Boda is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Stanford University

working with Dr. Bryan Brown and his Science in the City research group. He holds
a Ph.D. in Science Education and an Ed.M. in Teacher Education from Columbia
University with a B.S. in Adolescent and Youth Adult Education from Bowling
Green State University. Phillip’s work investigates the overlapping intersections of
disability studies, urban teacher education, and STEM education.

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0XVWDIDùDKLQ%OEO received his Ph.D. from Middle East Technical University

focusing on inclusive classes in Physics courses. He works with learners who
are visually impaired in science and shares via his homepage (fizikli.com). He is
currently Assistant Professor at Kafkas University in Turkey.
Sheryl Burgstahler, Ph.D., has a master’s degree in Mathematics Education and

a Ph.D. in Policy, Governance and Administration of Higher Education. She is
the founder and director of two Centers hosted by the University of Washington
LQ 6HDWWOH ± 7KH $FFHVV 7HFKQRORJ\ &HQWHU DQG WKH 'LVDELOLWLHV 2SSRUWXQLWLHV
Internetworking and Technology (DO-IT) Center. Both Centers promote the success
of students with disabilities in education and careers, the use of technology as an
empowering tool, and the inclusive design of both online and on-site courses.
Heidi Carlone, Ph.D., is the Hooks Distinguished Professor of STEM Education

at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. She is a teacher educator and
educational researcher who works to make science and engineering pathways
PRUH DFFHVVLEOH DQG HTXLWDEOH IRU KLVWRULFDOO\ XQGHUVHUYHG DQG XQGHUUHSUHVHQWHG
populations. She studies the potential of innovative science and engineering (STEM)
learning settings in promoting STEM identities for K-12 youth who have wide-
ranging life experiences, ethnicities, socioeconomic backgrounds, and interests.
Christina R. Carnahan, Ed.D., is an Associate Professor of Special Education

within the School of Education in the College of Education, Criminal Justice, and
Human Services at the University of Cincinnati, where she teaches undergraduate
and graduate courses in the field of moderate to intense disabilities. She is also the
Director of Advancement and Transition Services within the School of Education.
Dr. Carnahan’s research interests include building communication and literacy for
individuals with autism spectrum disorders and developmental disabilities, and
creating efficient and effective instruction and support practices across the lifespan.
Mary V. Compton, Ed.D., is an Associate Professor Emerita in Deaf Education at

the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG). She currently serves as the
Director of the Master’s degree program in Speech Language Pathology at UNCG.
Her recent research focuses on the aural rehabilitation of late deafened adults.
Mary Decker is a Doctoral student in the Department of Special Education at the

University of Missouri, Columbia. Her research is focused on the effective use of
technology for students with learning disabilities.
Lisa M. Dembouski3K'8QLYHUVLW\RI0LQQHVRWD±7ZLQ&LWLHVLVDQ$VVLVWDQW
Professor of Education at Gustavus Adolphus College in Saint Peter, MN. Her
scholarly interests include writing and presenting on topics of teacher preparation

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DQGLQGXFWLRQHTXLW\DQGLQFOXVLRQIHPLQLVWSHUVSHFWLYHVDQGGLVDELOLW\VWXGLHVLQ
education. Her work is typically an amalgamation of all of the above, and is always
done with an eye toward more socially-just change.
Keri DeSutter earned her Ph.D. in Teaching and Learning from the University of
North Dakota and a MS degree in Special Education from Kansas State University.
She spent her K-12 teaching career as a special education teacher and now serves
as Director of Teacher Education at Minnesota State University Moorhead. Her
research interests include effective teacher preparation for inclusive education and
issues affecting rural special education teachers.
Kathleen M. Farrand graduated with her Ph.D. in Language, Education, and

Society from The Ohio State University. Kathleen is an Assistant Professor in the
Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University. Her research focuses
on the use of inclusive practices with the use of multiple modes through dramatic
LQTXLU\WRVXSSRUWWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJLQLQFOXVLYHVHWWLQJV.DWKOHHQLVHGLWRURI
the Visual Impairment and DeafBlind Education Quarterly and her recent work can
be found in the British Journal of Special Education.
Marcia Fetters, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor and has a dual appointment in

the Department of Teaching, Learning and Educational Studies and the Mallinson
Institute for Science Education at Western Michigan University. She is an Associate
Dean in the College of Education and Human Development. Her research interests
focus on the needs of individuals marginalized from the science education community,
with a special focus on individuals with learning disabilities, and science in informal
settings.
Kevin D. Finson HDUQHG KLV 3K' DW .DQVDV 6WDWH 8QLYHUVLW\ LQ LQ VFLHQFH
education. He is currently a Professor in the Department of Teacher Education at
Bradley University in Peoria, IL. His focus areas of research have included visual
data in science instruction, and science for students having special needs. He has
edited several books about visual data, written chapters about visual data in science
instruction, and co-authored a book on differentiating science instruction for learners
having special needs (Corwin Press).
Kevin Fleming is a Professional Learning Specialist with a focus on K-12 science,

social studies, and career and technical education (CTE) at ACES Professional
Development and School Improvement. Prior to joining ACES, Kevin was a science
teacher and interim building level specialist at Old Saybrook High School. He
has a bachelor’s degree in adolescent education (science and social studies) and
environmental studies from Elmira College, a master’s degree in science education
from Vanderbilt University and his certification in intermediate administration and
supervision from Sacred Heart University.

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Melissa Friedman is a junior in the Career and Community Studies Program at

The College of New Jersey. She is active in unified sports at TCNJ and serves as the
program’s athlete coordinator. Upon graduation, she hopes to work in the education
sector.
Kathy Gee is a Professor in the Teaching Credentials Department at California

State University Sacramento (CSUS), where she coordinates the Moderate/Severe
Credential Specialist program and teaches in the Graduate program. As part of
her Ph.D. preparation from the University of California, Berkeley, she directed
several research projects related to successful inclusive schooling practices for
children & youth with the most intensive support needs. She continues to pursue
research in teacher preparation, access to the core curriculum, and augmentative
and alternative communication for individuals with complex and multiple
disabilities.
Deborah Hanuscin is an Assistant Professor of Elementary Education/Science,

Math, & Technology Education at Western Washington University. Her research,
which focuses on pre-service and in-service elementary teacher learning in
practicum-based science experiences, has been supported by the National Science
Foundation. She currently serves on the Boards of Directors of the Association for
Science Teacher Education and NARST: A Worldwide Organization for Improving
Science Teaching and Learning Through Research.
Lyn Haynes spent three decades teaching science on four continents in schools, a
museum, and to hospitalised children before moving into initial teacher education
(ITE). Higher education provided her with some opportunity to continue her interests
into Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND)-focused research which
includes working with an osteopath to address the impact that hypermobility can
have on handwriting, SFL: STEM as a Foreign Language ~ how we in STEM might
borrow teaching and learning strategies from Modern Foreign Language colleagues;
and a passion for desert ecology.
Terri Hebert is an Assistant Professor of Science Education at Indiana University

South Bend (IUSB). Currently, Dr. Hebert serves as Chair of the Professional
Education Services Department including the Master’s Program for Educational
Leadership. She has taught science, reading, and social studies to students in grades
± ,Q DGGLWLRQ 'U +HEHUW KDV DOVR VHUYHG LQ OHDGHUVKLS UROHV DV 'LVWULFW .
Coordinator of Science, Social Studies, and Health and Director of District K-12
Learning Resources and Libraries. Dr. Hebert has an Ed.D. from Stephen F. Austin
State University in Educational Leadership/Secondary Education.
Lacey D. Huffling, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction

at Georgia Southern University with an emphasis in Secondary Science Education.

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+HU UHVHDUFK LQWHUHVWV LQFOXGH DJHQF\ HTXLW\ DQG LGHQWLW\ ZLWKLQ VFLHQFH DQG
environmental education formal and informal settings for underserved and
underrepresented populations.
Jiwon Hwang, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Special Education in the Department

of Advanced Educational Studies at California State University, Bakersfield.
Dr. Hwang received her doctorate in Special Education at The Pennsylvania State
University. Her research interests include mathematics, science, STEAM education,
and assessment for students with disabilities. Her research focuses on enhancing
students’ mathematical and science literacy, teachers’ ability to provide evidenced-
based instructional practices, and ultimately bridge the gap between research and
practice.
Maya Israel, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Special Education at the University

of Illinois-Urbana Champaign (UIUC). Her research and outreach efforts focus on
increasing access and engagement for academically diverse learners in K-8 science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). She also consults with school
districts on the development and implementation of STEM instruction that meets the
needs of all learners, including those with disabilities.
Lisa Johnson earned her BS and Masters of Education from the University of
Wisconsin-Eau Claire and Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from the University
of Minnesota. She currently serves as the Director of TRiO Student Support Services
and instructor in Social Sciences at Nebraska Methodist College in Omaha, NE.
Her research interests focus on improving the educational experiences of individuals
with disabilities, particularly those with visual impairments. She lives in Omaha
with her husband and seven children.
Catherine M. Koehler received her Ph.D. from the University of Connecticut in

Curriculum and Instruction-Science education. Currently, she is a middle school
teacher at a STEM/Environmental Magnet School in central Connecticut and an
adjunct professor at Eastern Connecticut State University. Her research interests
are focused on how the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) are being
implemented in Connecticut as well as how mainstream films portray the nature of
science.
Danielle Koehler is a junior in the Career and Community Studies Program at The
College of New Jersey. She is active in unified sports and the best buddies club at
TCNJ. Upon graduation, she hopes to work in the education sector.
Karen E. Koehler, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor and Project Director of the Visual
Impairment Program at Shawnee State University. Dr. Koehler is a certified science
HGXFDWRUDQGWHDFKHURIWKHYLVXDOO\LPSDLUHGZLWKPRUHWKDQ\HDUVRIH[SHULHQFH

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teaching science to students with visual impairments and multiple disabilities.

Her research focuses on providing access to STEM instruction and the use of 3-D
printing as an instructional tool for students with disabilities. She is the recipient of
WKH7HDFKHURIWKH<HDUDZDUGIURPWKH'LYLVLRQRQ9LVXDO,PSDLUPHQWVDQG
Deafblindess of the Council for Exceptional Children.
Merrie Koester is the author of the nationally implemented Agnes Pflumm science
education novels, a science literacy and arts integration specialist, and a member
of the advisory council of the Innovation Collaborative. She holds a BS in biology
from Furman University, an MEd in curriculum and instruction from the University
of Hawaii, Manoa, and a Ph.D. in teaching and learning from the University of South
Carolina. Her most recent book, Science Teachers Who Draw: The Red Is Always
There, emerged from her ongoing Project Draw for Science collaborative action
research initiative at the USC Center for Science Education.
Stephanie Kurtts, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in Special Education at the

University of North Carolina Greensboro. Her research interests include examining
implementation of Universal Design for Learning in meeting diverse learner needs
and collaborative teaching practices of general education and special education
teachers.
Judith S. Lederman is Associate Professor and Director of Teacher Education of

Mathematics and Science Education, Illinois Institute of Technology. She has a
Masters of Natural Sciences and a Ph.D. in Science Education. She is internationally
NQRZQ IRU KHU ZRUN LQ WHDFKLQJ OHDUQLQJ DQG DVVHVVPHQW RI 6FLHQWLILF ,QTXLU\
and Nature of Science, in formal and informal settings. As a Fulbright Fellow, she
worked with South African science educators at the Cradle of Humankind. She
served on the Board of Directors of NSTA, NARST, and as President of the Council
for Elementary Science International.
William Lindquist is an Associate Professor and Chair of the School of Education

DW+DPOLQH8QLYHUVLW\+HVSHQW\HDUVLQDQHOHPHQWDU\VHWWLQJLQFOXGLQJQLQHDV
VFLHQFHFXUULFXOXPFRRUGLQDWRUDWDVFLHQFHPDJQHWVFKRRO+HKDVKDGWKHXQLTXH
opportunities to participate in both NASA’s Reduced Gravity Flight and NOAA’s
Teacher at Sea programs. His research interests include the use of science notebooks,
WKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIVFLHQFHDQGOLWHUDF\DQGLQTXLU\EDVHGSHGDJRJLHV
Lauren Madden is an Associate Professor of Elementary Science Education at The

College of New Jersey. She holds a Ph.D. in Science Education, M.S. in Marine
Science, and B.A. in Earth Sciences-Oceanography. She coordinates a five-course
minor in Environmental Sustainability Education and her research and teaching
interests are focused on advocating for scientific literacy and the health of our planet
through teaching and learning.

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Elaine M. Silva Mangiante, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor at Salve Regina University

specializing in elementary science, engineering design, and mathematics education.
Before earning her doctorate in Education from the University of Rhode Island/Rhode
Island College, Dr. Silva Mangiante served as a science education specialist and math
curriculum coordinator receiving the state level Presidential Award for Excellence
in Elementary Science Teaching. Her research focuses on elementary science and
engineering design education in schools serving high-poverty communities.
Catherine E. Matthews, Ph.D., is a Professor Emerita at the University of North

Carolina Greensboro where she served as a K-12 Science Educator for 23 years
prior to retiring. She has worked with students of all ages, all abilities and all
SHUVXDVLRQV +HU UHVHDUFK LQFOXGHV IRFL RQ QDWXUDO KLVWRU\ OLWHUDF\ DQG HTXLWDEOH
science education. She was Principal Investigator on the National Science
Foundation-funded Herpetology Education in Rural Places and Spaces Project
when the work described in this chapter was conducted.
Adam Moore, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor and Coordinator of the Special

Education Master of Arts Program at the University of Rhode Island. A former
National Board Certified Exceptional Needs Specialist in the Boston Public Schools,
he earned his Ph.D. in Education from the joint doctoral program at the University
of Rhode Island and Rhode Island College in 2013. Dr. Moore’s research in special
education teacher preparation focuses on family-centered and inclusive practices,
advocating for individuals with disabilities, and teaching for social justice.
Rebecca A. Neal is an Assistant Professor of Educational Foundations at Hamline

University in the School of Education and director of the Center for Excellence in
Urban Teaching. Her research focuses on increasing academic and social-emotional
learning opportunities for students, particularly youth who have been traditionally
marginalized. She maintains her teaching license and has over a decade of experience
as a special education practitioner.
Heather Pacheco-Guffrey is an Assistant Professor in Education at Bridgewater State

University. She trains teachers in science, engineering and technology methods and
supports local districts as they transition to the new standards. Heather holds a Ph.D.
in Curriculum and Instruction for Science Education, a Masters of Education and a
Bachelor’s degree in Geology and Geological Oceanography. She researches pathways
that best support participation in STEM by underrepresented minorities, which reflects
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Shanaya Panday is a senior in the junior in the Career and Community Studies
Program at The College of New Jersey. She is active in many organizations on our
campus and currently working as an intern at our local hospital, Capital Health.

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Jenna Porter is an Assistant Professor in the Teaching Credentials Department

at California State University Sacramento (CSUS). Before joining the faculty, she
was a public-school teacher and earned her Ph.D. in Learning and Mind Sciences.
She currently teaches general education science and pedagogy courses in the single
and multiple subject credential programs. Her research, scholarly activities, and
FROODERUDWLRQV IRFXV RQ SROLFLHV IRU HGXFDWLRQDO HTXLW\ DQG SURPRWLQJ LQFOXVLYH
practices in science classrooms.
Karen Rizzo is an Assistant Professor of Special Education within the

(OHPHQWDU\DQG(DUO\&KLOGKRRG'HSDUWPHQWDW3HQQV\OYDQLD6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\±
The Behrend College. She earned her master’s and bachelor’s degree in
special education at Mercyhurst University and Edinboro University of
Pennsylvania respectively. Karen’s research interests are in teacher preparation,
STEM education, and applied behavior analysis. Her research has focused on
effective practices for teachers working with students with emotional/behavioral
disorders.
Kate M. Sadler is a Doctoral Candidate at the University of Missouri, Columbia

with an anticipated graduation date of May 2018. Her work focuses on addressing
primary barriers to learning for students severely impacted by Autism Spectrum
Disorder and Neurodevelopmental disabilities.
Amy Schuler is the Assistant Director of the Career and Community Studies
Program at The College of New Jersey. She holds an M.A.T. in Special Education
and BS in Communication. She coordinates program’s daily operations, student
coordination and the advancement of core goals and partnerships. She also serves
as an instructor for the CCS program and as an adjunct professor for The College of
New Jersey’s First Seminar Program and the School of Education’s Department of
Special Education, Language and Literacy.
Dina Secchiaroli is a Professional Learning Specialist who specializes in literacy,

curriculum design, project-based learning, and instructional coaching at ACES
Professional Development and School Improvement (PDSI). Prior to her tenure at
PDSI, Dina was a literacy coach at The Sound School and a District Curriculum
Facilitator for New Haven Public Schools. Dina is currently enrolled at Quinnipiac
University’s Educational Leadership Program and attended Southern Connecticut
State University for her degree in Secondary Education and English and for her
master’s degree in Literature.
Jannike Jakobsen Seward is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Indiana

University South Bend (IUSB). Prior to coming to IUSB, Jannike served as lecturer
and researcher at the Callan Studies National Institute in Papua, New Guinea.

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Saadeddine Shehab is a doctoral student in the department of curriculum and

instruction at the University of illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research focuses
on the role of the teacher in orchestrating collaborative problem solving science and
engineering classrooms.
Teresa Shume is an Assistant Professor in the School of Education at North Dakota

State University in Fargo. Previously, she was a faculty member at Minnesota State
University Moorhead where she held appointments in both the School of Teaching
and Learning and the Biosciences Department. She began her career in science
education as a high school science teacher. She earned her Ph.D. in Teaching and
Learning from the University of North Dakota and her MEd from the University of
Utah. Her research interests reside at the intersections of science teacher education,
environmental education, and social foundations of education.
R. Lee Smith is an Associate Professor of Special Education at Indiana University

South Bend (IUSB). Lee has served as associate dean and as program coordinator
for special education and secondary education at IUSB. He also has worked in the
public schools in Florida and Illinois as a teacher of special education students with
cognitive impairments, learning disabilities, autism, behavior disorders, and in
adult basic education. His area of research is teacher education and dispositions in
education. Lee has a Ph.D. from the University of South Florida in Curriculum and
Instruction in Special Education.
Sarah Summy, Ed.D., is a Professor of Special Education at Western Michigan

University. She teaches pre-service special education teachers, supervises school
practicums and her research focuses on teacher preparation for students with
emotional/behavioral disorders and autism. She was named the WMU 2013
Distinguished Teacher; this is the highest university award given to a faculty member
in this area. She co-directs a yearly study abroad experience to Senegal, West Africa
VWXG\LQJWKHFDXVHVDQGFRQVHTXHQFHVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQRQHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPV
Jonte’ C. Taylor (JT), Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at

Pennsylvania State University. He earned his Ph.D. and Master’s degrees in Special
Education and Collaborative Teaching from Auburn University and his B.A. in Special
Education from Tuskegee University. His research focuses on STEAM education for
students with disabilities and classroom/behavior management strategies. He serves
on the Special Needs Advisory Board of National Science Teachers Association and
on the executive committees for the Council for Children with Behavior Disorders
and Science Education for Students with Disabilities.
Cathy Newman Thomas received her Ph.D. from The University of Texas at
Austin. She is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Texas State University.
Her research focuses on special education teacher preparation and technology. She is

via free access
co-investigator on an NSF project exploring early coding literacy, Associate Editor

for Intervention in School and Clinic, and Chair of the Professional Development
Committee of the Teacher Education Division of CEC.
Maria Turkenburg-van Diepen was a post-doctoral researcher in chemistry

±$IWHU WKDW VKH SUHSDUHG IRU VFLHQFH WHDFKHU WUDLQLQJ E\ EHFRPLQJ WKH
personal assistant to Cheryl, a science teacher who utilized a wheelchair. Her school
teaching career was very brief but opened new avenues into educational research
in 2009. She is involved in projects studying career education and attitudes toward
STEM at all levels of education, and she met Lyn Haynes at the annual Association
IRU6FLHQFH(GXFDWLRQFRQIHUHQFHLQZKHUHWKH\TXLFNO\GLVFRYHUHGDFRPPRQ
interest in science teachers with disabilities.
Delinda van Garderen received her Ph.D. at the University of Miami, FL. She is a
Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Special Education at
the University of Missouri, Columbia. Her research interests focus on students with
learning disabilities, struggling learners, and teachers’ practice and development
in the content areas of mathematics and science. Recent research projects include
teacher professional development and the use of Universal Design for Learning to
plan instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners in science.
Quentin M. Wherfel is a doctoral candidate in the department of special education

at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His scholarship focuses on high-
incidence disabilities, assessment and decision-making, effective teaching practices
and student learning in collaborative classrooms.
ARTIST
Mindi Rhoades is an artist and an Assistant Professor of Arts-based Research,

Teaching, Learning, and Activism in the College of Education and Human Ecology
at The Ohio State University. In addition to traditional teaching and research,
she enjoys the challenge of translating abstract academic concepts and practices
into multimedia visual representations, often incorporating elements of the texts
themselves into the resulting artworks. Her previous cover art includes textbooks on
GLVFRXUVHDQDO\VLVGUDPDWLFLQTXLU\DQGOLWHUDF\SUDFWLFHV

via free access
INDEX
2e Model. See Talent Centered Model $VVLVWLYH7HFKQRORJ\

for Twice Exceptional Students ±
3D printers, 12 L3DGV
(/HDUQLQJ&\FOH Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
'LVRUGHU$'+'
Augmentative and Alternative
A Communication Device
$FDGHPLFODQJXDJH $$&±
± Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),
Accessibility, 83 ±
DVVHVVHPHQW pervasive developmental disorder,
deaf/hard of hearing, 20, 21 110
LQVWUXFWLRQDO
B
ODERUDWRU\ %OLQG±
RQOLQH± ±±
SK\VLFDO ±
ADHD. See Attention Deficit %UDLOOH
Hyperactivity Disorder
$GYDQFHRUJDQL]HUV
Alternate assessment. See Assessment C
$PHULFDQ6LJQ/DQJXDJH$6/ &DVHVWXG\
±± Center on Applied Special Education
$UJXPHQWDWLRQ± Technologies (CAST), 126,
±
$VSHUJHU¶V6\QGURPH ±
Aspies. See Asperger’s Syndrome &HUHEUDO3DOV\&3
$VVHVVPHQW±± &RFKOHDULPSODQWV
DOWHUQDWLYH Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts-Technical
± Subjects, 92, 109, 339
± &RPPXQLW\EDVHGLQVWUXFWLRQ
Computer-based assessment. See
FRPSXWHUEDVHG Assessment
FXUULFXOXPEDVHG± &RQFHSWFDUWRRQV
standardized, 33, 108, 126, Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction
±± &25,
strength-based measures, 269 Cooperative learning, 109, 191
381
via free access
INDEX
&RWHDFKLQJ± G
duet model, 321 *UDSKLFRUJDQL]HUV
&URVVFXWWLQJ&RQFHSWV[LL
±
Curriculum-Based Assessments (CBA),
268. See Assessment H
Curriculum-Based Measurement Herpetological research experiences
(CBM), 268, 269 +5(V
D I
Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing (D/HH), ,PSDLUPHQW[LY
±±
± speech and language, 86, 110
'LIIHUHQWLDWHGFXUULFXOXPPDWHULDOV YLVXDO±±
'LUHFWLQVWUXFWLRQ ,QFOXVLRQ[L[LLL[LY
Disability Studies in Education (DSE), ±
[LL±[Y±

'LVFLSOLQDU\OLWHUDF\± Individualized Education Program
'UDPDWLFLQTXLU\± ,(3
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), Individuals with Disabilities
(GXFDWLRQ$FW,'($
Duet model. See Co-teaching
'\VOH[LD±± Individuals with Disabilities Education
,PSURYHPHQW$FW,'(,$
E
Earth Science, 9, 10, 13, 130, 132, 189, ,QIRUPDWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\,7
,QWHOOHFWXDOGLVDELOLWLHV
Education for All Handicapped
Children Act (EHA), 80, 166, iPads. See Assistive Technology
291
(QJLQHHULQJGHVLJQ± J
(QJOLVKODQJXDJHOHDUQHUV[LL -REV$FFHVVZLWK6SHHFK-$:6

(YLGHQFHEDVHGDUJXPHQWV L
([HFXWLYHIXQFWLRQLQJ Least Restrictive Environment (LRE),
Experiential learning, 188
/LWHUDF\±
F
)LUVWSHUVRQODQJXDJH GLVFLSOLQDU\±
Four Corners Debate, 229, 233 VFLHQFH
Frayer Model, 96, 209, 216 VFLHQWLILF±
382
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INDEX
M Q
0HWDFRJQLWLYH Quality Matters (QM) Rubric, 118
± 4XHVWLRQWKH$XWKRU47$
Multiple Draft Reading (MDR), 229,
230 R
5DFHDQGGLVDELOLW\
N
1DUUDWLYHLQTXLU\ 5HDGDORXG
National Assessment of Educational Readers’ Theatre, 30
Progress (NAEP), 91 5HIOHFWLYHSUDFWLFH
National Science Teachers Association, 5KL]RWRP\
5ROHPRGHOV±
1DWXUHRI6FLHQFH126
± S
Next Generation Science Standards 6FDIIROGLQJ
(NGSS), xii, 83, 92, 100, 106, ±

6FLHQFHQRWHERRNV

6FLHQWLILF,QTXLU\6,
O
2QOLQHOHDUQLQJ±
Opening Response Modes, 218, 220, 6FLHQWLILF/LWHUDF\
223 6FUHHQUHDGHU±
Orton Gillingham, 30, 33
6HOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ
P 6HOIHIILFDF\
3DUDSURIHVVLRQDO 6HOIPRQLWRULQJ
3HHUWXWRULQJ Socioscientific Issues (SSI), 109
People first language, xiv, xv Special Educational Needs and
Pervasive Developmental Disorder. See 'LVDELOLWLHV6(1'±
Autism Spectrum Disorder Standardized assessment. See
Photovoice (PV), 192, 193 Assessment
Physical Accessibility. See Accessibility Strength-based approach, 269
3K\VLFV± Strength-Based Instruction, 106
Strength-Based Measures. See
3LFWRULDOJUDSKLFHQKDQFHUV Assessment
3ODFH%DVHG(GXFDWLRQ3%( 6XPPDUL]LQJ

3RVLWLYHFODVVURRPHQYLURQPHQW T
3URPSWLQJ Talent Centered Model for Twice
Pupil-Teacher Classroom Observation Exceptional Students, 106
6FDOH37&26 7HDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJDLGV
383
via free access
INDEX
Text comprehension, 93 V
7H[WWRVSHHFKVRIWZDUH 9HUPHLM*HHUDW-
Tic-tac-toe choice boards, 323 9LVXDOLPSDLUPHQWV±±
7RXUHWWH¶V6\QGURPH
Vocabulary knowledge, 93
U
Understanding by Design (UbD), W
± :KHHOFKDLU
Universal Design for Learning (UDL), ±
± ±
± :RUGVRUWV
±±
±± Y
± Young Children’s Views about Science
± <&96±

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Towards Inclusion of All Learners through Science Teacher Education

Roger Slee (University of South Australia, Australia)

Mel Ainscow (University of Manchester, UK)

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/stie

Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn,

All chapters in this book have undergone peer review.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Koomen, Michele, editor.

Copyright 2018 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

Section 1: Listening to the Inclusive Voices of Students with Disabilities

1. Inclusion “Insight”: Voices of Students with Visual Impairments in the

3. Tanglde in Tetx: :KDW,:DQW<RXWR.QRZDERXW0\'\VOH[LF6HOI 

 A Good Teacher Makes Science Light-Hearted: Experiences in Learning

6. Looking through the Window to Help Teach Others: Science Stories of

 Synthesis of Voices from the Field: Implications for Practice 69

Section 2: Visions of Inclusion and Access: UDL, Strengths-Based

9. Applying a Universal Design for Learning Framework to Mediate the

10. From Access to Assets: Strength-Based Visions for Inclusive Science

11. Inclusive Online Science Education: :KDW7HDFKHUV1HHGWR.QRZ 

12. Universal Design for Learning in Science: A Framework That Supports

Section 3: Developing Disciplinary Core Ideas and Science Content

Introduction to Section 3 139

 Crosscutting through Science Education: Opportunities for Inclusion

16. “Engineering Is for Everyone”: A Case Study of Elementary Engineering

 Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers through First-Hand Perspectives

Section 4: Science Practice and Developing Explanations

18. Increasing Science Learning and Engagement for Academically Diverse

19. 6FLHQWL¿F,QTXLU\DQG'HYHORSLQJ([SODQDWLRQVIRU$OO 

20. Learning Science by Doing Science: Developing Scientific Explanations

Section 5: Promoting Literacy in Science

Section 6: Assessment in Science

 Assessing the Ultimate Goal of Science Education: Scientific Literacy

26. Exclusion from Participation in Science: Confessions from an Ally on

Section 8: Science Teacher Education

 Co-teaching for Inclusiveness: How Two Teacher Educators Collaborated

29. A Collaborative Process for Preparing Pre-Service General Education

31. Conclusion: Bringing the Book Together 363

About the Contributors 369

Tahnee Andrew Rachel Jackson

Michele Koomen, Sami Kahn, Christopher Atchison, and Tiffany Wild

in science. We use disability studies in education (DSE) as the conceptual framework

NGSS AND THE FRAMEWORK FOR K-12 SCIENCE EDUCATION

importantly, because socially-constructed terms, like disability, are ultimately just

DISABILITY STUDIES IN EDUCATION

DSE centers on the following tenets in research, policy, and action:

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI 10.1163/9789004368422_001

Microscopes, chemical reactions, rock identification. Lessons in the science

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI 10.1163/9789004368422_002

HONORING HUMAN DIGNITY

Historically, individuals with disabilities were seen as a burden and forever

COLLABORATION TO IMPROVE INDEPENDENCE

SIMPLE MODIFICATIONS, BIG IMPACT

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI 10.1163/9789004368422_003

SHRSOHGR2OLYD  DFNQRZOHGJHGWKLVSKHQRPHQRQREVHUYLQJWKDWWKHJHQHUDO

SELF-ADVOCACY: A CONSTANT NECESSITY

We all have memories of the ways we endeavour (ed) to prove ourselves.

ACCESS AND COMMUNICATION: ALWAYS A FOCUS

Because we live in a hearing-centric society where sound is valued as “theoretically

When I transferred from the deaf school to my neighborhood school, I was

Sign Language Interpreters

Captioning: Real-Time and Subtitles

Hearing Assistive Technologies (HATs)

3. Tanglde in Tetx: :KDW,:DQW<RXWR.QRZDERXW0\'\VOH[LF6HOI

A Good Teacher Makes Science Light-Hearted: Experiences in Learning

Synthesis of Voices from the Field: Implications for Practice 69

11. Inclusive Online Science Education: :KDW7HDFKHUV1HHGWR.QRZ

Crosscutting through Science Education: Opportunities for Inclusion

Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers through First-Hand Perspectives

19. 6FLHQWL¿F,QTXLU\DQG'HYHORSLQJ([SODQDWLRQVIRU$OO

Assessing the Ultimate Goal of Science Education: Scientific Literacy

Co-teaching for Inclusiveness: How Two Teacher Educators Collaborated

SHRSOHGR2OLYDDFNQRZOHGJHGWKLVSKHQRPHQRQREVHUYLQJWKDWWKHJHQHUDO

SODQQLQJ DVN TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKHLU DFFRPPRGDWLRQV DQG OHDUQLQJ SUHIHUHQFHV