Course: Ancient Cultures and Civilization of India

Code : 5672

Semester: Autumn, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q. 1 Analyse the political, social and administrative system of Vedic period.

The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age.

This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Samveda

Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as well as Brahmanas and the

Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the

Mahabharata.

All these later Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in 1000—600 B.C.

During the period represented by Later Samhitas the Aryans covered the whole of Northern

India, from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.

The Aryans of Vedic age had reached the highest stage of civilization. This age had excelled

in every walks of life. All the valuable things in man’s life—philosophy, religion, science and

code of conduct were all developed in the Vedic age.

The spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new

kingdoms in the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas.

Gradually the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement

began during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C. and went on steadily till

they reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before fourth

century B.C.

The great grammarian Katya Yana who flourished in the fourth century B.C had knowledge

about the countries of south such as Pandya, Chola and Kerala. But the Aryan colonization in

1
the South was not as complete as in the north. With the progress of the Aryans in Northern

India, their centre of civilization was shifted towards east. The territory between Saraswati

and Ganga was the seat of Aryan civilization.

Political Organisation:

Rise of Big States:

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern part of India, the small

tribal states of Rig Vedic period replaced by powerful states. Many famous tribes of Rig

Vedic period like Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed into oblivion and new tribes

like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the

east which became the new home of the Aryans rose into prominence.

Growth of Imperialism:

With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age the struggle for supremacy

among different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of Sarbabhauma or universal

empire loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India. The sacrifices like Rajasuya and

Asvamedha were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These

rituals impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig

Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by the impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja

etc. These titles marked the growth of imperialism and feudal ideas.

Origin of Kingship:

There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained

the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship. Side by side the

Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra, “though

occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

2
Growth of Royal Power:

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized taxes like

“bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and

immune from all punishment. The sabha of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the

aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are

references to the Samiti sometimes electing or re-electing a king.

The authority of the government in the later Vedic period was perhaps more democratic in

the sense that the authority of the leaders of Aryan tribes was recognized by the king.

However in spite of the existence of the popular assemblies the powers of the king went on

increasing due to the growth of large territorial states and the evolution of an official

hierarchy.

Administrative Machinery:

The growth of the royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage of the king. In

the work of administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as

Ratnins (Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer),

the Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana

(king’s companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the

Rathakara (Chariot marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the

Purohita (chaplain) the senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

In the Later Vedic Period Gramani was both a civil and military officer Gramani was the

medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village. According to Frasna

Upanishada Adhikrita was the village officer and was lowest in the rank. The king

administered justice. Occasionally he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the

villages, Gramyavadin (Village judge) and Sabha (court) decided the cases. Punishments for

crimes were severe.

3
The father was the head of the property of the family. In case of inheritance of property the

law of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest son would inherit the property of the

deceased father. Neither the women nor the sudras had any right to property.

Social Condition:

Changes of far greater significance were gradually taking place in their society.

Caste Society:

Most important change was the evolution of caste system. Various sub castes evolved in

addition to the traditional four-castes. The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas emerged as the two

leading castes out of the general mass of population, known as vaisyas. The vaisyas were

superior to the sudras but their position was steadily deteriorating. The Aitaraya Brahmana

clearly indicates the absolute dependence of vaisyas on the two higher classes. The Sudras

were held in great contempt.

The Brahmanas of the later Vedic age were the intellectual and priestly class. The Brahmanas

retained a high standard of excellence and knew the details of the rituals. The kshatriyas were

the fighting class in the society. War, conquest, administration of the kingdom was the

principal duties of this class. By their superior learning some kshatriyas raised themselves to

the status of a Brahmana. They composed hymns and performed sacrifices and also

challenged the supremacy of Brahmanas.

Two Kshatriya kings Janak and Viswamitra attained the status of Rishi. For a long time the

kshatriyas resisted the supremacy of the Brahmanas and claimed that the priest was only a

follower of the king. Vaisyas were engaged in trade, industry and agriculture, and animal

husbandry. They are debarred from the privileges which were enjoyed by the Brahmanas and

kshatriyas. However the richer people among the vaisyas known as Sresthin were highly

honored in the royal court.

4
The condition of the Sudras was very miserable. They had to serve the other three castes.

They were untouchables. They had no right to approach the sacred fire, i.e., perform sacrifice,

or to read the sacred texts. They were further denied the rite of burning the dead body. The

structure of the caste system became hereditary.

Education:

A vast mass of vedic literature as well as a highly developed intellectual life speaks

abundantly about a well planned system of education in the later Vedic Period. The students

had to learn Vedas, Upanishad, grammar prosody, law, arithmetic and language.

After the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony and initiation to studies the students were

sent to the Gurukula for their education. They had to live in the house of the teacher (guru)

and lead the chaste life of a Brahmacharin whose principal duties were study and service to

the teacher. The students received free boarding and lodging at the house of the Guru. At the

completion of their study they paid fees (guru-dakshina) to the teachers.

Position of women:

The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age. They were

deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their sacraments, excluding

marriage, were performed without recitation of Vedic mantras. Polygamy prevailed in the

society. Many of the religious ceremonies, formerly practiced by the wife, were now

performed by the priests. She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies. Birth of a

daughter became undesirable—for she was regarded as a source of misery. The custom of

child marriage and dowry crept in. The women lost their honored position in the society.

Food and Dress:

In the later Vedic age rice became staple food of the people. Gradually the practice of eating

meat was declined. Killing of cow was looked with disfavor. Wool was used in addition to

cotton.

5
Economic Condition:

Like political and social conditions, the economic condition of the Aryans of the later Vedic

period also underwent significant changes. Due to the emergence of caste system various

occupations also appeared.

Agriculture:

The Aryans of the later Vedic period lived in the villages. In the villages small peasant

owners of land were replaced by big landlords who secured possession of entire villages.

Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. Improved method of tilling the land

by deep ploughing, manuring and sowing with better seeds were known to the Aryans. More

lands were brought under cultivation.

The cultivator yielded two harvests a year. Varieties of crops like rice, barley, wheat, maize

and oil seeds were raised. But the cultivator was not free from trouble. Dangers of insects and

damage of crops through hail-storm very badly affected the land of kurus and compelled

many people to migrate.

Trade and Commerce:

With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had increased by leaps

and bounds. Both inland and overseas trades were developed. Inland trade was carried on

with the Kiratas inhabiting the mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes, nattresses

and skins. The people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. Regular coinage was

not started.

The coins which were in circulation were “Nishka”, “Satamana” and “Krishnala”. The unit

value of goods was a gold bar called “nishka” weighing three hundred and twenty ratis,

which was also the weight of a satamana. A ‘Krishnala’ weighed one rati, i.e. 1.8 grams.

There was a class of merchants called ‘Pani’ who controlled the trade. References to “ganas”

or corporations and the “sreshthins” clearly speak of the formation of guilds or corporations

6
for facilitating trade and commerce. Usuary and money lending was also practiced in this

period.

Occupation:

The emergence of caste system brought varieties of means of livelihood. There are references

about money lenders, chariot makers, dyers, weavers, barbers, goldsmiths, iron smiths,

washer men, bow makers, carpenters, musicians etc. The art of writing probably developed in

this period. The use of silver was increased and ornaments were made out of it.

House Building and Transport:

The house had many rooms with a special place for ‘Grahapatha’ fire which was kept

continuously burning. Houses were made of wood. The Taittiriya Aranyakas refer about a

special type of house known as ‘Dhandhani’ (treasure house). The Atharvaveda mentions

about ‘Patninam Sadan’ (women’s apartment).

The means of transport and communication developed with the growth of trade and

commerce. Regarding means of transport mention may be made of wagons drawn by oxen,

chariots for war and sport and rough vehicle known as ‘bipatha’ for transport of goods.

Elephants and horses were also used. Ships and boats were also used as means of transport.

Religious Condition:

During the later Vedic period the religious spirit underwent a great change. Religion was

overshadowed with rites and rituals. New gods and goddesses emerged during this period.

New Gods:

The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra, Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm. The people

worshipped them with less zeal. New gods like Siva, Rupa, Vishnu, Brahma etc. appeared in

the religious firmament of the Later Vedic Period. The grandeur of the Rigvedic gods passed

into oblivion, though we find in Atharvaveda the omniscience of Varuna or the beneficence

of the Earth goddess.

7
Certain less important duties of the Rigvedic Period now became popular with the Common

People. One of them was Rudra who already bore the epithet of Siva. Very soon Rudra came

to be worshipped as ‘Mahadeva’ (great god) and the lord of animate beings (Pasupati).

Vishnu, the preserver rose into Prominence during this period. He occupied the place of

Varuna, as the most sublime among the celestials. To attain his “Paramapada” (highest step)

became the goal of the rishis. The worship of vasudeva was also started. He was regarded as

Krishna Vasudev, the incarnation of Vishnu. Semi divinities like Apsara, Nagas, Gandharbas,

Vidyadharas etc. also came into being. This age also witnessed the beginning of the worship

of Durga and Ganesh.

Rituals and Sacrifices:

During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were elaborated and became

complex. In the Rig Vedic age Yanjas were a simple affair which every householder could

do. But in the later Vedic age sacrifice became an important thing in worship. Now the

priestly class devoted their energy to find out the hidden and mystic meaning of the rites and

ceremonies.

People had a firm belief that gods must submit to the sacrifice if properly performed. Vedic

hymns were regarded as charms to be used in sacrifice. The belief that gods were satisfied by

Yanjas led to a rise in the number, variety of sacrifices which were prescribed for every

householder. In fact every Aryan performed a number of sacrifices under the supervision of

the Brahmana priest.

Morality and Duty:

The Later Vedic Period prescribed a code of righteous conduct. The Brahmins had spread the

belief that, “man is born with certain rinas or debts” which he must repay in his life. He has

to repay the debts to his gods, to the rishis, to the munis, to men, to the ancestors and to the

lower creatures. And he redeem himself from these debts, if he worships the gods and

8
performs Yajnas study Vedas, performs funeral ceremonies and Sraddha, etc. One should

perform all these duties with selflessness. The first requisite of a good life were prayers and

good works. One should restrain himself from the sins like theft, adultery, and murder.

Religious Philosophy:

The Later Vedic age witnessed the emergence of a new intellectual thought. The people

thought deeply about the problems of creation, life and death and arrived at the conclusion

that there is one ‘Brahma’ (one Unchanging Principle) beyond the universe—the creator and

controller of the whole order.

It is the universal soul or the Absolute “that dwelleth in everything that guideth all beings

within, the Inward guide, Immortal.” After the death of a person his soul passes into another

body and again into another and this process continues till it can be liberated from all its

imperfections and merged in the Universal Soul. This is the doctrine of transmigration of

souls.

The Aryans had also faith in the doctrine of Karma. It lays down that all actions, good or bad,

reap their proper fruits. Souls have to be born again and again and bear the fruits of the

actions (Karma) of their previous lives. There is also doctrine of ‘Moksha’. It is a state of

birth-lessness and deathlessness at a point when a soul is liberated from the cycle of births

and deaths and mingled into the universal soul.” It was essential for a man to attain moksha.

All these are embodied in the Upanishad which were composed in the Later Vedic Period.

Ascetic Life:

The later Vedic Aryans developed the concept of ascetic ideal of life as the rites and

ceremonies were not the only means of attaining success in this world or bliss in heaven. So

there developed the ideas of Tapas and Brahmacharya (celibacy) leading to the same or even

more important results. Tapa means meditation, accompanying by physical tortures.

9
An ascetic person renounced the worldly life and retired to the solitude and exercised all the

ascetic practices with the belief that they would not only obtain heaven, but also develop,

“mystic, extra-ordinary and superhuman faculties.” This asceticism was widely practiced in

the Epic age.

The Aryans of Vedic age had reached the highest stage of civilization. This age had excelled

in every walks of life. All the valuable things in man’s life—philosophy, religion, science and

code of conduct were all developed in the Vedic age. In fact Aryans served as the torch-

bearers of Indian civilization throughout the ages.

Q. 2 Write a comprehensive note on the administrative system of Vedic period.

The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age. This age witnessed

the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Samveda Samhita, the Yajurveda

Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as well as Brahmanas and the Upanishads of all the four

Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. All these later

Vedic texts were compiled in the Upper Gangetic basin in 1000—600 B.C. During the period

represented by Later Samhitas the Aryans covered the whole of Northern India, from the

Himalayas to the Vindhyas. The Aryans of Vedic age had reached the highest stage of

civilization. This age had excelled in every walks of life. All the valuable things in man’s life

—philosophy, religion, science and code of conduct were all developed in the Vedic age. The

spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new kingdoms in

the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas. Gradually

the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement began

during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C. and went on steadily till they

reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before fourth century

B.C. The great grammarian Katya Yana who flourished in the fourth century B.C had

knowledge about the countries of south such as Pandya, Chola and Kerala. But the Aryan

10
colonization in the South was not as complete as in the north. With the progress of the Aryans

in Northern India, their centre of civilization was shifted towards east. The territory between

Saraswati and Ganga was the seat of Aryan civilization. With the progress of Aryan

settlements in the eastern and southern part of India, the small tribal states of Rig Vedic

period replaced by powerful states. Many famous tribes of Rig Vedic period like Bharatas,

Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas

rose into prominence. The land of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east which became the new

home of the Aryans rose into prominence. With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later

Vedic Age the struggle for supremacy among different states was of frequent occurrence. The

ideal of Sarbabhauma or universal empire loomed large in the political horizon of ancient

India. The sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha were performed to signify the imperial

sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals impressed the people with the increasing

power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was replaced by the

impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja etc. These titles marked the growth of

imperialism and feudal ideas. There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The

Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of

kingship. Side by side the Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It

explained how Indra, “though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king

by Prajapati.” The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized

taxes like “bali”, “sulka” and “bhaga”. The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be

infallible and immune from all punishment. The sabha of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king

sought the aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There

are references to the Samiti sometimes electing or re-electing a king. The authority of the

government in the later Vedic period was perhaps more democratic in the sense that the

authority of the leaders of Aryan tribes was recognized by the king. However in spite of the

11
existence of the popular assemblies the powers of the king went on increasing due to the

growth of large territorial states and the evolution of an official hierarchy. The growth of the

royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage of the king. In the work of

administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins

(Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the

Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana (king’s

companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the Rathakara

(Chariot marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita

(chaplain) the senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village). In the Later

Vedic Period Gramani was both a civil and military officer Gramani was the medium through

which the royal power was exercised in the village. According to Frasna Upanishada

Adhikrita was the village officer and was lowest in the rank. The king administered justice.

Occasionally he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the villages, Gramyavadin

(Village judge) and Sabha (court) decided the cases. Punishments for crimes were severe.

The Brahmanas of the later Vedic age were the intellectual and priestly class. The Brahmanas

retained a high standard of excellence and knew the details of the rituals. The kshatriyas were

the fighting class in the society. War, conquest, administration of the kingdom was the

principal duties of this class. By their superior learning some kshatriyas raised themselves to

the status of a Brahmana. They composed hymns and performed sacrifices and also

challenged the supremacy of Brahmanas. Two Kshatriya kings Janak and Viswamitra

attained the status of Rishi. For a long time the kshatriyas resisted the supremacy of the

Brahmanas and claimed that the priest was only a follower of the king. Vaisyas were engaged

in trade, industry and agriculture, and animal husbandry. They are debarred from the

privileges which were enjoyed by the Brahmanas and kshatriyas. However the richer people

among the vaisyas known as Sresthin were highly honored in the royal court. The condition

12
of the Sudras was very miserable. They had to serve the other three castes. They were

untouchables. They had no right to approach the sacred fire, i.e., perform sacrifice, or to read

the sacred texts. They were further denied the rite of burning the dead body. The structure of

the caste system became hereditary. A vast mass of vedic literature as well as a highly

developed intellectual life speaks abundantly about a well planned system of education in the

later Vedic Period. The students had to learn Vedas, Upanishad, grammar prosody, law,

arithmetic and language. After the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony and initiation to

studies the students were sent to the Gurukula for their education. They had to live in the

house of the teacher (guru) and lead the chaste life of a Brahmacharin whose principal duties

were study and service to the teacher. The students received free boarding and lodging at the

house of the Guru. At the completion of their study they paid fees (guru-dakshina) to the

teachers. The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age. They

were deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their sacraments, excluding

marriage, were performed without recitation of Vedic mantras. Polygamy prevailed in the

society. Many of the religious ceremonies, formerly practiced by the wife, were now

performed by the priests. She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies. Birth of a

daughter became undesirable—for she was regarded as a source of misery. The custom of

child marriage and dowry crept in. The women lost their honored position in the society. In

the later Vedic age rice became staple food of the people. Gradually the practice of eating

meat was declined. Killing of cow was looked with disfavor. Wool was used in addition to

cotton. Like political and social conditions, the economic condition of the Aryans of the later

Vedic period also underwent significant changes. Due to the emergence of caste system

various occupations also appeared. The Aryans of the later Vedic period lived in the villages.

In the villages small peasant owners of land were replaced by big landlords who secured

possession of entire villages. Agriculture was the principal occupation of the people.

13
Improved method of tilling the land by deep ploughing, manuring and sowing with better

seeds were known to the Aryans. More lands were brought under cultivation. The cultivator

yielded two harvests a year. Varieties of crops like rice, barley, wheat, maize and oil seeds

were raised. But the cultivator was not free from trouble. Dangers of insects and damage of

crops through hail-storm very badly affected the land of kurus and compelled many people to

migrate. With the growth of civilization, the volume of trade and commerce had increased by

leaps and bounds. Both inland and overseas trades were developed. Inland trade was carried

on with the Kiratas inhabiting the mountains. They exchanged the herbs for clothes,

nattresses and skins. The people became familiar with the navigation of the seas. Regular

coinage was not started. The coins which were in circulation were “Nishka”, “Satamana” and

“Krishnala”. The unit value of goods was a gold bar called “nishka” weighing three hundred

and twenty ratis, which was also the weight of a satamana. A ‘Krishnala’ weighed one rati,

i.e. 1.8 grams. There was a class of merchants called ‘Pani’ who controlled the trade.

References to “ganas” or corporations and the “sreshthins” clearly speak of the formation of

guilds or corporations for facilitating trade and commerce. Usuary and money lending was

also practiced in this period. The emergence of caste system brought varieties of means of

livelihood. There are references about money lenders, chariot makers, dyers, weavers,

barbers, goldsmiths, iron smiths, washer men, bow makers, carpenters, musicians etc. The art

of writing probably developed in this period. The use of silver was increased and ornaments

were made out of it. The house had many rooms with a special place for ‘Grahapatha’ fire

which was kept continuously burning. Houses were made of wood. The Taittiriya Aranyakas

refer about a special type of house known as ‘Dhandhani’ (treasure house). The Atharvaveda

mentions about ‘Patninam Sadan’ (women’s apartment). The means of transport and

communication developed with the growth of trade and commerce. Regarding means of

transport mention may be made of wagons drawn by oxen, chariots for war and sport and

14
rough vehicle known as ‘bipatha’ for transport of goods. Elephants and horses were also

used. Ships and boats were also used as means of transport. During the later Vedic period the

religious spirit underwent a great change. Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals.

New gods and goddesses emerged during this period. The Rig Vedic gods, Varun, Indra,

Agni, Surya, Usha etc. lost their charm. The people worshipped them with less zeal. New

gods like Siva, Rupa, Vishnu, Brahma etc. appeared in the religious firmament of the Later

Vedic Period. The grandeur of the Rigvedic gods passed into oblivion, though we find in

Atharvaveda the omniscience of Varuna or the beneficence of the Earth goddess. Certain less

important duties of the Rigvedic Period now became popular with the Common People. One

of them was Rudra who already bore the epithet of Siva. Very soon Rudra came to be

worshipped as ‘Mahadeva’ (great god) and the lord of animate beings (Pasupati).

Vishnu, the preserver rose into Prominence during this period. He occupied the place of

Varuna, as the most sublime among the celestials. To attain his “Paramapada” (highest step)

became the goal of the rishis. The worship of vasudeva was also started. He was regarded as

Krishna Vasudev, the incarnation of Vishnu. Semi divinities like Apsara, Nagas, Gandharbas,

Vidyadharas etc. also came into being. This age also witnessed the beginning of the worship

of Durga and Ganesh. During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were

elaborated and became complex. In the Rig Vedic age Yanjas were a simple affair which

every householder could do. But in the later Vedic age sacrifice became an important thing in

worship. Now the priestly class devoted their energy to find out the hidden and mystic

meaning of the rites and ceremonies. People had a firm belief that gods must submit to the

sacrifice if properly performed. Vedic hymns were regarded as charms to be used in sacrifice.

The belief that gods were satisfied by Yanjas led to a rise in the number, variety of sacrifices

which were prescribed for every householder. In fact every Aryan performed a number of

sacrifices under the supervision of the Brahmana priest. The Later Vedic Period prescribed a

15
code of righteous conduct. The Brahmins had spread the belief that, “man is born with certain

rinas or debts” which he must repay in his life. He has to repay the debts to his gods, to the

rishis, to the munis, to men, to the ancestors and to the lower creatures. And he redeem

himself from these debts, if he worships the gods and performs Yajnas study Vedas, performs

funeral ceremonies and Sraddha, etc. One should perform all these duties with selflessness.

The first requisite of a good life were prayers and good works. One should restrain himself

from the sins like theft, adultery, and murder. The Later Vedic age witnessed the emergence

of a new intellectual thought. The people thought deeply about the problems of creation, life

and death and arrived at the conclusion that there is one ‘Brahma’ (one Unchanging

Principle) beyond the universe—the creator and controller of the whole order. It is the

universal soul or the Absolute “that dwelleth in everything that guideth all beings within, the

Inward guide, Immortal.” After the death of a person his soul passes into another body and

again into another and this process continues till it can be liberated from all its imperfections

and merged in the Universal Soul. This is the doctrine of transmigration of souls. The Aryans

had also faith in the doctrine of Karma. It lays down that all actions, good or bad, reap their

proper fruits. Souls have to be born again and again and bear the fruits of the actions (Karma)

of their previous lives. There is also doctrine of ‘Moksha’. It is a state of birth-lessness and

deathlessness at a point when a soul is liberated from the cycle of births and deaths and

mingled into the universal soul.” It was essential for a man to attain moksha. All these are

embodied in the Upanishad which were composed in the Later Vedic Period.

Q. 3 Discuss the nature of government and cultural achievements of Gupta Dynasty.

The Gupta Empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, was an ancient Indian realm that covered

much of the Indian Subcontinent from approximately 320-550 CE. Gupta rule, while

solidified by territorial expansion through war, began a period of peace and prosperity

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marked by advancements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectics, literature, logic,

mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.

Gupta Empire Origins

The Gupta Empire was believed to be a dynasty of the Vaishya caste, the third of the four

Hindu castes representing merchants and farmers. Founded by Sri Gupta c. 240-280 CE, there

are contradictory theories regarding the original homeland of the Guptas. Historians believe

Sri Gupta and his son may have been Kushan vassals, or rulers who swore allegiance to the

Kushan Empire. Sri Gupta’s son and successor, Ghatotkacha, ruled from c. 280-319 CE,

while his son, Chandragupta, ascended the throne around 319 and ruled until 335 CE.

Chandragupta married princess Kumaradevi from the Kingdom of Magadha, which was one

of the Mahajanapadas (or great countries) of ancient India during the 4th century CE. With a

dowry and political alliance from the marriage, Chandragupta conquered or assimilated the

kingdoms of Magadha, Prayaga, and Saketa. By 321 CE, he established a realm stretching

along the Ganges River to Prayag, the modern-day city of Allahabad, in the Indian state of

Uttar Pradesh. Hindus believe the god Brahma offered his first sacrifice after creating the

world at Prayag.

Gupta Empire Expansion

Samudragupta succeeded his father, Chandragupta I, in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years.

He conquered the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign, then attacked

neighboring tribes, including the Malwas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Maduras, and Abhiras.

By his death in 380 CE, Samudragupta had incorporated over 20 kingdoms into his realm,

and extended the Gupta Empire from the Himalayas to the Narmada River in central India,

and from the Brahmaputra River that cuts through four modern Asian nations to the Yamuna

— the longest tributary of the Ganges River in northern India.

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To celebrate his conquest, Samudragupta performed the royal Vedic ritual of Ashwamedha,

or horse sacrifice. Special coins were minted to commemorate the Ashvamedha, and the king

took the title of Maharajadhiraja (or “King of Kings”) even higher than the traditional ruler’s

title of Maharaja.

According to the Gupta records, Samudragupta nominated his son, Prince Chandragupta II,

born of Queen Dattadevi, as his successor. However, his eldest son, Ramagupta, may have

been his immediate successor until he was dethroned by Chandragupta II in 380 CE.

Gupta Empire Of Chandragupta II

After gaining power, Chandragupta II expanded the Gupta Empire through conquest and

political marriages until the end of his reign in 413 CE. By 395 CE, his control over India

extended coast to-coast. At the high point of his rule, Chandragupta II established a second

capital at Ujjain, the largest city in the modern state of Madhya Pradesh in central India.

Ujjain, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River, remained an important political,

commercial, and cultural hub through the early 19th century.

Vikramaditya is the name of an emperor of ancient Indian legend, characterized as the ideal

king known for generosity, courage, and as a patron of scholars. A number of historians

believe that some of these legends are based on Chandragupta II, who is thought to have

adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

In the legends, Vikramaditya is said to have thwarted an invasion by the Saka, a group of

eastern Iranian nomadic tribes, also known as Scythians, and gained the title of Sakari, or

Enemy of the Saka. Chandragupta II conquered the western Indian region of Malwa after

defeating the Western Kshatrapas, a branch of the Sakas, as well as expelling the Kushana

Empire from the northern Indian city state Mathura. These victories were likely transposed

onto the legendary character of Vikramaditya.

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Chandragupta II issued gold coin types introduced by his father, Samudragupta, but also

introduced several new types of coins, differentiated by the designs on the face of each coin

line, such as the Archer or the Tiger-Slayer. He was also the first Gupta king to issue silver

coins.

One of the most curious structures in Delhi, India (an iron pillar dating back to the 4th

century CE) bears an inscription stating that it was erected as a flagstaff in honor of the

Hindu god Vishnu, and in memory of Chandragupta II. The pillar, made of 98% wrought

iron, is considered a highlight of ancient Indian achievements in metallurgy; it has stood

more than 1,600 years without rusting or decomposing.

Despite the expansion of the Gupta Empire through war, there were numerous examples of

cultural sophistication during the Gupta era, with architecture, sculptures and paintings

surviving as reminders of the creativity of the time. Under Gupta rule, a number of notable

scholars thrived, including Kalidasa, considered the greatest poet and dramatist of the

Sanskrit language; Aryabhata, the first of the Indian mathematician-astronomers who worked

on the approximation for Pi; Vishnu Sharma, thought to be the author of

the Panchatantra fables, one of the most widely-translated, non-religious books in history;

and the Hindu philosopher Vatsyayana, author of the Kama Sutra.

Q. 4 Write a detailed note on the contributions of the Kushanas for the patronage of

Art and Literature.

Kanishka was a king of the Kushana Empire in South Asia. Kanishka is considered to be one

of the most significant and important rulers of the Kushan Kingdom, an area that included the

northern part of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan, and possibly regions north of Kashmir

in central Asia.  He was famous for his military, political and spiritual achievements, and

along with Ashoka and Harshavardhana is considered to be the greatest king by Buddhists.

He had a vast empire, it extended from Oxus in the East to Varanasi in the West, and from

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Kashmir in the North to the coast of Gujarat including Malwa in the South. The date of his

accession to the throne is not certain, but is believed to be 78 AD. This year marks the

beginning of an era, which is known as the Shaka era. Under Kanishka, the Kushan reached a

new zenith in wealth and culture that highlighted art, architecture, literature, and science. The

tolerance of the kingdom’s ruler toward different cultures and religions placed allowed

Kushan to benefit from the knowledge and wealth of some of the greatest civilizations of the

time. As a result of such cross-cultural connections, the Buddhist religion owes much of its

development and spread throughout Asia to Kanishka and the Kushan.

It is not known when Kanishka was born. The dates of his reign are also subject of debate,

but the most reliable dates seem to be from A.D. 78 to 103. Just how Kanishka came to

power is also not known, but he succeeded Wema Kadphises II and was the fourth king of the

Kushan. The Kushan Empire came into existence under Kajula Kadipheses in the north of

India in Bactria.

Kanishka was tolerant towards all the religions.He issued many coins during his rule. His

coins depict Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, Persian and Sumerian-Elemite images of gods, showing

his secular religious policy. He is remembered for his association with Buddhism. He himself

was a Buddhist convert, and convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir. This council

in Kashmir marked the beginning of Mahayana cult of Buddhism. He patronized both the

Gandhara School of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura School of Hindu Art. He sent

Buddhist missionaries to various parts of the world to spread Buddhism. Kanishka is

remembered in Buddhist architecture mainly for the multi storey relic tower, enshrining the

relics of the Buddha, constructed by him at Peshawar.

Under Kanishka, the Kushan spread their boundaries to include the area of present-day

Afghanistan, northern India, and parts of middle Asia. The capital city of this kingdom was

Puruhapura, or modern Peshawar, Pakistan. The empire flourished economically, as the

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Kushan were in contact with many of the world’s most important civilizations, including

Rome, China, and Parthia (a part of what today is Iran). Trade and commerce were

encouraged and cities and urbanization followed. The ruins of a city established by Kanishka

have been discovered under present-day Taxila, India. The Kushan also had a great deal of

control over a major trade route known as the Silk Road.

Kanishka's reputation in Buddhist tradition regarded with utmost importance as he not only

believed in Buddhism but also encouraged its teachings as well. As a proof of it, he

administered the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir as the head of the council. It was presided

by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha. Images of the Buddha based on 32 physical signs were

made during his time.

He encouraged both Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist Art and the Mathura school

of Hindu art (an inescapable religious syncretism pervades Kushana rule). Kanishka

personally seems to have embraced both Buddhism and the Persian attributes but he favored

Buddhism more as it can be proven by his devotion to the Buddhist teachings and prayer

styles depicted in various books related to kushan empire.

His greatest contribution to Buddhist architecture was the Kanishka stupa at Peshawar,

Pakistan. Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of it in 1908–1909 ascertained that this

stupa had a diameter of 286 feet (87 metres). Reports of Chinese pilgrims such

as Xuanzang indicate that its height was 600 to 700 (Chinese) "feet" (= roughly 180–210

metres or 591–689 ft.) and was covered with jewels.[16] Certainly this immense multi-storied

building ranks among the wonders of the ancient world.

Kanishka is said to have been particularly close to the Buddhist scholar Ashvaghosha, who

became his religious advisor in his later years.

Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known in gold (the sixth one is the centerpiece of

an ancient piece of jewellery, consisting of a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of

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heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, and are in

two different denominations: a dinar of about 8 gm, roughly similar to a Roman aureus, and a

quarter dinar of about 2 gm. (about the size of an obol).

The Buddha is represented wearing the monastic robe, the antaravasaka, the uttarasanga, and

the overcoat sanghati.

The ears are extremely large and long, a symbolic exaggeration possibly rendered necessary

by the small size of the coins, but otherwise visible in some later Gandharan statues of the

Buddha typically dated to the 3rd–4th century CE (illustration, left). He has an abundant

topknot covering the usnisha, often highly stylised in a curly or often globular manner, also

visible on later Buddha statues of Gandhara.

In general, the representation of the Buddha on these coins is already highly symbolic, and

quite distinct from the more naturalistic and Hellenistic images seen in early Gandhara

sculptures. On several designs a mustache is apparent. The palm of his right hand bears

the Chakra mark, and his brow bear the urna. An aureola, formed by one, two or three lines,

surrounds him.

The full gown worn by the Buddha on the coins, covering both shoulders, suggests a

Gandharan model rather than a Mathuran one.

The Shakyamuni Buddha (with the legend "Sakamano Boudo", i.e. Shakamuni Buddha,

another name for the historic Buddha Siddharta Gautama), standing to front, with left hand on

hip and forming the abhaya mudra with the right hand. All these coins are in copper only, and

usually rather worn.

The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is quite light compared to that on the coins in the name

of Buddha, clearly showing the outline of the body, in a nearly transparent way. These are

probably the first two layers of monastic clothing the antaravasaka and the uttarasanga. Also,

his gown is folded over the left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as above), a

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feature only otherwise known in the Bimaran casket and suggestive of a scarf-like uttariya.

He has an abundant topknot covering the ushnisha, and a simple or double halo, sometimes

radiating, surrounds his head.

The Bodhisattva Maitreya (with the legend "Metrago Boudo") cross-legged on a throne,

holding a water pot, and also forming the Abhaya mudra. These coins are only known in

copper and are quite worn out . On the clearest coins, Maitreya seems to be wearing the

armbands of an Indian prince, a feature often seen on the statuary of Maitreya. The throne is

decorated with small columns, suggesting that the coin representation of Maitreya was

directly copied from pre-existing statuary with such well-known features.

The qualification of "Buddha" for Maitreya is inaccurate, as he is instead a Bodhisattva (he is

the Buddha of the future).

The iconography of these three types is very different from that of the other deities depicted

in Kanishka's coinage. Whether Kanishka's deities are all shown from the side, the Buddhas

only are shown frontally, indicating that they were copied from contemporary frontal

representations of the standing and seated Buddhas in statuary.[18] Both representations of the

Buddha and Shakyamuni have both shoulders covered by their monastic gown, indicating

that the statues used as models were from the Gandhara school of art, rather than Mathura.

Q. 5 Write notes on the following topics.

a) Origin of Aryans

Indo-Aryan migration theory, a controversy for the ages, is fueling discussions once more in

India after an article published in The Hindu newspaper highlighted the genetic evidence

that the Indo-Aryan peoples came from Central Asia and Europe to South Asia.

Indo-Aryan peoples are an ethonolinguistic group of people that speak diverse Indo-Aryan

languages and currently live predominantly in the South Asian region. The population of the

modern descendants of this group is more than 1 billion, or a seventh of world’s population.

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There has been a long tug-of-war between those who are for and against the theory that Indo-

Aryans arrived to India from outside. Among opponents of the theory in India are Hindu

nationalists — who sometimes cast it as a product of colonialism designed to denigrate

India — as well as some researchers.

The alternative theory proposed by opponents based on Rigveda, one of the oldest religious

sculptures of Hinduism, suggests that the Aryans were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.

The idea of a pure Aryan race and the social division that many Hindu scriptures recommend

based on one’s race has pushed the conflict even further.

Mainstream researchers tend to reject this theory on the basis of linguistic and genetic

studies. Instead, they say evidence points to Indo-Aryans and Iranians originating from

the Proto-Indo-Iranians. After this split during the period 1800-1600 BCE, the latter group

was settled around Iran while the former migrated to Anatolia (most of modern-day Turkey),

Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal. The classic Indo-Aryan models attempt to explain how

migrations would have happened around 1500 BCE from Central Asia and Eastern Europe to

South Asia and Anatolia, which possibly brought the ancestors of the Indo-Aryan peoples and

their language Sanskrit to India.

A detailed article published on June 16 in The Hindu, titled “How Genetics Is Settling the

Aryan Migration Debate”, touches upon many other societal aspects linked to the hypothesis,

such as the patriarchal social structure in India and how the Sanskrit language came to the

Indian subcontinent along with the Aryans.

The article cites multiple instances of research carried out in different countries, both

approving and disavowing the theory. One citation is of a recent piece of research done by 16

scientists that led to the publication of a peer-reviewed journal paper titled “A Genetic

Chronology for the Indian Subcontinent Points to Heavily Sex-Biased Dispersals” published

in the journal “BMC Evolutionary Biology”:

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In particular, genetic influx from Central Asia in the Bronze Age was strongly male-driven,

consistent with the patriarchal, patrilocal and patrilineal social structure attributed to the

inferred pastoralist early Indo-European society. This was part of a much wider process of

Indo-European expansion, with an ultimate source in the Pontic-Caspian region, which

carried closely related Y-chromosome lineages, a smaller fraction of autosomalgenome-wide

variation and an even smaller fraction of mitogenomes across a vast swathe of Eurasia

between 5and 3.5 ka.

Harvard Professor David Reich, who has been working for a long time on this subject

favoring the Indo-Aryan migration theories, is also mentioned. In 2009, he published the

paper “Reconstructing Indian Population History“, and later in 2016 in

an interview highlighted the mixed races of the Indian subcontinent:

In the beginning of 2007, we started studying at the whole genome level, the whole organism

level, the DNA from initially twenty-five diverse Indian populations. It’s now more than 200

that we’ve studied. We picked these populations to be as diverse as possible, capturing the

linguistic diversity of India.

b) Hindu Shahi

Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled over Kabul and the old province of Gandhara from the decline of

the Kushan empire, in the 3rd to the 9th century. This kingdom was also known as the Kabul

Shahi dynasty when they ruled over Kabul and latter when they moved their capital to the

Hund, they were called Hindu Shahi dynasty. They were divided into two eras the buddist-

Shahi and the Hindu Shahi in 870 AD. The term Hindu Shahi was a royal title of this dynasty

and not its actual clan or ethnological name. Al Beruni used the title ‘shah” for many other

contemporary royal houses in his descriptions as well.

Rise of Hindu Shahis

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Before the Saffarid conquest of 870 the Buddhist “Turk Shahi” dynasty of Kabul which

boasted descent from the Kushana king Kanishka was supplanted by a dynasty of Hindu

kings. To this Al Beruni refers as Hindu Shahya and they are called ‘Shahi’ in Kalhana’s

Rajataranini, and ‘Sahi’ in inscriptions. Al Beruni says that Kabul was the earliest capital of

the Hindu Shahiyas after they expelled the Turk Shahi dynasty. In the beginning their

authority extended from Kabul to Chenab River. The last Turk Shahi ruler, Lagaturman, is

said to have been imprisoned by his Brahman vazir, Kallar, and it was the latter who became

the founder of the dynasty of the Hindu Shahis, Kaller, according to Al Beruni,, was

succeeded by  ‘ the Brahman kings’ Samand, Kamala, Bhim, Jaypal and their descendants.

But all other sources, including Kalhana, say that the Hindu Shahis were Kshtriyas. The

Hindu Shahi dynasty succeeded from about the third quarter of the ninth century to the first

quarter of the eleventh century-when they were finally reduced by the Ghaznavids, the Zubils

and the Kabul Shahis as the occupants of the frontier of al-Hind. There was a struggle

between Hindu Shahi and Ghznivids in which Hindu Shahi were expelled from Kabul in 870-

71 and re established their capital at Udabhandapura ( modern Und; the town named Waihind

by Al Beruni )in the area which was called the North West Frontier Privince by the British.

Here, while being hard pressed by the Ghaznavids they became “the Rais of Hindustan “,

“the SAmanids of Khurasan and Transoxiana, succeeding the Saffarids, could not consolidate

their power in the Kabul Valley. In 933, the virtually independent Samanid wali of Zabulistan

was driven out of his headquarters at Ghazna by Alaptagin, the slave general who became the

founder of the dynasty of the ghaznavids and gave a new impetus to the Islamic

expansionism. The Shahis were now driven toward thePunjab, where they ruled for some

times as for as the Rama- ganga river. In the Kabul/ gandhara area only Lamghan remained in

their hands.

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The initial Hindu Shahi dynasty was the house of Kallar, but in 964 A D. the ruler was

assumed from Bhima upon his death by the Janjua empire Maharaja Jaypal, who celebrated

as a hero of his struggle in defeating his kingdom from the Turkic rulers of Ghazni. Jaypal

was challenged by the armies of Sultan Subagtagin and latter by his son Sultan Mahmood

Ghazna. In the wake of the Muslim invasions of Kabul in the second half of the 7th century

the Kabul ruler made an appeal to the Ksatriyas of the Hind who had gathered there in large

numbers for assistance and drove out the Muslim invaders as far as Bost.

In subsequent years, the Muslin armies returned with large reinforcements and Kabul swept

when the Shahi rulers agreed to pay the tribute to the conquerors. For strategically reasons,

the Shahis, who continued to offer stubborn resistance to Muslims onslaughts, finally moved

their capital from Kapisa to Kabul in about AD 794. Kabul Shahi remained in Kabul until

897 AD when Ya’qub Laith Saffari, the founder of the Saffarid dynasty, conquered the city.

Kaabul Shahis had built a defensive wall all round the Kabul city to protect it against the

army of Muslim Saffarid. The remains of this wall are still visible over the mountains which

are located inside the Kabul city.

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