ISSN 1069-3513, Izvestiya, Physics of the Solid Earth, 2020, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 470–480.

© Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2020.

Russian Text © The Author(s), 2020, published in Fizika Zemli, 2020, No. 4, pp. 39–50.

The Influence of Fracturing of the Rocks and Model Materials

on P-Wave Propagation Velocity: Experimental Studies
V. S. Zhukova and Yu. O. Kuzminb, *
a
OOO Gazprom-VNIIGAZ, Moscow, 142717 Russia
bSchmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 123242 Russia
*e-mail: kuzmin@ifz.ru
Received October 7, 2019; revised January 10, 2020; accepted January 27, 2020

It is shown that rigidity of the medium is a more strain-sensitive parameter than rock density for the elastic
wave velocity with the increase in the depth. For assessing the effect of intergrain and fracture porosity, the
ratio (in percent) of the measured P-wave velocity in the rock to the velocity in the solid matrix—the “nor-
malized velocity”—is used. The results of the experimental studies have shown that the effect of fractures
(faults, rock joints) and intergrain porosity on the propagation velocity of the elastic P-waves is different. The
increase in fracture porosity more strongly reduces the P-wave velocity than the increase in intergrain poros-
ity of identical magnitude. It is shown that the propagation velocity of the elastic P-waves in the rocks and
model materials depends on the presence and number of cracks (fractures). The possibility of selective assess-
ment of intergrain and fracture porosity in reservoir rocks of the oil and gas fields during their development
is demonstrated.

Keywords: elastic wave velocity, rock, porosity, fractures, reservoir conditions, effective pressure
DOI: 10.1134/S1069351320040102

INTRODUCTION sometimes act as antipodes. It happens when the phe-

Wide distribution of various kinds of fracturing
(from microcracks to regional tectonic faults) makes a
significant impact on physical properties of rocks and
largely defines tectonophysical conditions of forma-
tion of regional geodynamic regimes. Hydrocarbon
deposits often coincide or are compounded with fault
tectonics, which creates a fractured structure of reser-
voirs. Moreover, fault zones of petroliferous sedimen-
tary basins are characterized with intense temporal
variations of the local stress-strain state (Kuzmin,
1999; 2015; 2016; 2018; 2019; Kuzmin and Zhukov,
2004). However, despite the wide use of seismological
and seismic prospecting data for investigating geolog-
ical composition of media various aspects of the
impact of fracturing on the velocities of elastic P-wave
propagation have been studied insufficiently even on
the laboratory level.
It is important to note that many researchers use
the term “less dense” to describe the increase in the
degree of fracturing in a medium. It is understandable,
as in geological and geophysical literature this term—
“less dense” often means “softening” and vice versa.
Indeed, in many cases denser rocks have higher rigid-
ity (strength). However, it would be a mistake to dis-
miss the fact that the density of granite is almost four
times less than that of mercury. Thus, the terms “den-
sity” and “rigidity” are not identical in meaning and
nomenon of increased velocities of seismic waves with
depth is studied. For example, in the onedimensional
case of the P-wave velocity equation the rigidity of
medium (Е) is in the numerator and density (ρ) is in
the denominator (V = √Е/ρ). An increase in rigidity
results in an increase in velocity of seismic waves and
an increase in density leads, respectively, to its
decrease. This is in full accordance with the estab-
lished phenomenological model in physics, in which a
medium is represented by a set of balls with density ρ
and elastic springs with rigidity E. Naturally, more
rigid springs transmit oscillations faster and heavier
balls obstruct this transmission. It may seem that this
situation contradicts experimental data as it has been
determined that seismic wave velocity and the density
of a medium increase with depth. However, it is cor-
rect if rock rigidity is presumed not to change with
depth. In reality, rock rigidity and density increase
with depth, but an increase in rigidity (elastic modu-
lus) with depth appears to be significantly higher than
in density. Thus, rock rigidity is a more strain-sensitive
parameter than density for the value of seismic wave
velocity. This is the why using the term softening is
more appropriate to describe processes of fracturing
(Kuzmin, 1999; 2013; 2015). Unfortunately, in seismic
prospecting correlational dependence of velocity on
density is often considered, which limits the capacity
for interpreting seismic exploration data.

470
 THE INFLUENCE OF FRACTURING OF THE ROCKS AND MODEL MATERIALS
The dependence of elastic P-wave velocity on
porosity (Riznichenko, 1949) or the Wyllie interval
mean time equation (Wyllie, 1956) is widely used in
geophysics. It is based on representing a rock medium
as a set of grains between which a fluid circulates. It is
well known that the volume of pore space in a rock
medium consists of the volume of intergrain space and
the volume of fractures. Thus, when conducting
experiments to investigate the impact of porosity on
elastic P-wave propagation velocity, researchers assess
the integral manifestation of this parameter. At the
same time, the assessment of the impact of fractures
on elastic P-wave velocities is insufficiently studied.
There are papers that discuss the impact of frac-
tures on P-wave velocity, which determine that exis-
tence of cracks or ruptures reduces the velocity of the
P-wave and the amplitude of oscillations recorded by
piezoelectric and other sensors (Anderson, 1974;
Young et al., 1985; Sassa and Watanabe, 1995; Kahra-
man, 2001; Kurtulus et al., 2011; Azhari et al., 2013;
Altindag and Guney, 2005; et al.).
Additionally, a series of theoretical and experimen-
tal studies (Nur, 1971; Nur and Simmons, 1969; Sassa
and Watanabe, 1995; Walsh, 1965; Walsh and Brace,
1966; Wyllie et al., 1962; Wyllie and Gregory, 1956;
Young et al., 1985; Bayuk and Ryzhkov, 2010; Zobak,
2007; Tiab and Donaldson, 2004; Inkov et al., 2005;
Zhukov et al., 2018) show that inhomogeneity in com-
position and disturbance of rock structure, e.g. frac-
tures, have a strong influence on P-wave velocity.
Tourenq et al. (1994) considered the effects of frac-
tures on P-wave and S-wave velocities. The highest
plausibility of data was achieved in experiments with
P-waves as they can be measured rather simply with a
high accuracy. Tourenq et al., (1994) suggested to
employ a percentage Q-factor for assessment of rock
inhomogeneities. The authors introduce the term
“normalized velocity” Ṽр as a ratio between a mea-
sured value of P-wave velocity Vp and the velocity in a
solid matrix of a rock medium Vpm (1), in which
absence of intergrain porosity and fractures in
assumed. The resulting value characterizes the general
impact of all boundaries on measured P-wave velocity:
Vp
Vp = 100 . (1)
Vpm
It is known that intergrain pores and cracks
together form general or total porosity m (2):
m = mig + m fr , (2)
where: m—total porosity; mig—intergrain or intergran-
ular porosity; mfr—fracture porosity.
In (Tourenq et al., 1994) it is shown that for rocks
with intergrain porosity the dependence of normalized
velocity on porosity is (3):
Vp = 100 − 1.6mig , (3)
and for fractured rocks it is (4):
IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56
471
Vp = 100 − 22.0m fr . (4)
At simultaneous presence of intergrain pores and
fractures the equation for normalized velocity will be (5):
Vp = 100 − 1.6mig − 22.0m fr . (5)
Dependences (3) and (4) are given in Fig. 1 as
slanting lines (dotted lines for intergrain porosity and
dashed lines for fracture porosity).
To form chaotically oriented fractures, Tourenq
et al. (1994) heated to 450–600°С samples of Louvigne-
du-Desert granite (marked with crosses) and Carrara
marble (marked with tilted crosses) with no intergrain
porosity. Chaotic cracking was also induced through
heating samples of Fontainebleau sandstone with
intergrain porosity 6.6% (marked with unfilled circles)
and limestone with intergrain porosity 20% (marked
with filled circles). Obtained values of porosity and
velocity of the elastic P-wave were used to calculate
normalized velocity in these samples (Fig. 1) depend-
ing on porosity.
Thus, based on analysis of experimental results
Tourenq et al. (1994) showed that intergrain and frac-
ture porosity differ in their impact on the P-wave
velocity.
We substantiate the assumption that there is a pos-
sibility of separate determination of the value of two
components of porosity (intergrain mig and fracture mfr)
by measuring total porosity m and the velocity of prop-
agation of the P-wave in rocks Vp using its known value
in a solid matrix Vpm.
Given that total porosity consists of these two com-
ponents (2), equation (5) yielded expression (6) (Zhu-
kov, 2012) for calculating, for example, the value of
fracture porosity using the dependence of normalized
velocity on total porosity:
 Vp 
m fr = 100 − 1.6m − 100 × 20.4 . (6)
 Vpm 
To provide evidence for this approach, we general-
ize empirically results of a large volume of laboratory
experiments on rock samples and model materials
investigating patterns of elastic P-wave propagation
velocities in fracture-porous rocks. The main goals
were to experimentally check empirical correlations
obtained in (Tourenq et al., 1994), to determine the
dependence of the P-wave propagation velocity on
fractures by studying a range of model materials and
compound rock samples, and to develop a technique
for selective assessment of values of intergrain and
fracture porosity for rocks that act as collectors of oil
and gas deposits. For this, we conducted a study of
fracture models made of steel and titanium discs,
models of intergrain porosity made of a mixture of
lead balls with varied diameters, and materials of stud-
ies of rock sample and core extracted from a number of
oil and gas deposits.
No. 4 2020
472
mig = 0%
100
mig = 10%
80
Normalized velocity Vp, %
~
60
40
20
mfr = 4%
0 10
Fig. 1. Normalized P-wave velocity depending on porosity for various rocks.
Our approach to determining fracture porosity
allowed to make an assessment of the contribution of
changes in porosity structure as a factor in formation
of the medium’s response to changes in a current stress
state, in particular, during exploration of oil and gas
fields (Zhukov et al., 2002; 2017; 2018).
METHOD OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Determination of P-wave propagation velocities
was performed by sounding using a PUMA-650 auto-
mated device for modeling rock media conditions and
the technique provided in (Zhukov and Lugay, 2016).
The technique allows direct determination of changes
in the volume of pore space, velocities of P-wave and
S-wave propagation, and other petrophysical parame-
ters of rock samples and model materials under mod-
eled rock medium conditions, in a wide range of input
values of pressures and temperatures.
Rock samples were placed in a high-pressure
chamber. Then the confining pressure was increased
gradually to 15.0 MPa and pore pressure to 13.0 MPa,
which allowed to reach the initial effective pressure at
Рef = 2.0 MPa. Then the value of confining pressure
was gradually increased to match the rock medium
pressure (50.0 MPa), while keeping pore pressure con-
stant at 13.0 MPa, which elevated effective pressure to
37.0 MPa. Relative error for measurements of confin-
ing and pore pressures was ±0.25% (Fig. 2).
Obtained experimental data on changes in porosity
enabled us to calculate changes in density of samples
and compressibility of their pore space. The results of
measuring elastic P-wave and S-wave velocities
IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH
ZHUKOV, KUZMIN
Granite Marble
Sandstone Limestone
Intergrain Fracture
porosity
mig = 20%
mig = 30%
mig = 40%
mfr = 1% mfr = 0%
mfr = 2%
mfr = 3%
20 30 30 50
Porosity m, %
allowed to calculate such dynamic elastic parameters
as shear modulus and bulk modulus of studied objects.
At the next stage, values of all investigate parame-
ters (porosity, density, P-wave velocity, elastic param-
eters) under current values of effective pressure were
normalized by values of corresponding parameters
under effective pressure 2.0 MPa and their relative
changes under increasing effective pressure, which
imitated an increase in depth of the rock (Fig. 3), were
obtained.
The highest relative increase—by 40.5%–was
obtained for the bulk modulus K. The P-wave velocity
Vp increased by 11.7%. Density increased by only 0.8%,
and porosity decreased by 11.4% from the initial value.
Going back to the problem of dependence of P-wave
velocity on elastic modules and density that was men-
tioned in the Introduction and analyzing Fig. 3, it can
be noted that the main factor that influences the
increase of velocity with the increase of effective pres-
sure (or the depth of the rock medium) is the increase
in elastic modules, i.e. rigidity of rock. Concurrent
elevation of density only partially reduces the impact
of elastic module growth. Thus, higher strain-sensitiv-
ity of rigidity parameters is confirmed compared to
density of rocks that are used in the equation for calcu-
lating elastic P-wave velocities.
RESULTS OF MODEL EXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES
Basic models of rocks used within the elastic theory
consist of balls (with uniform or varied sizes) packed
into containers (cubic, hexagonal, etc.). However, the
Vol. 56 No. 4 2020
 THE INFLUENCE OF FRACTURING OF THE ROCKS AND MODEL MATERIALS 473

Pump 1
Fluid

Pump 2
М2
Fluid Сore
М1 holder
Tank
of collecting
fluid

Fig. 2. Basic hydraulic structure and the PUMA-650 (EKOPLAST) device.

actual influence of pressure on elastic parameters is P-wave velocity was experimentally studied on model
produced by a more complex structure of sedimentary materials and rock samples. The results of our own
rocks which are inhomogeneous contrary to what is experiments and data obtained by other authors were
assumed in simple elastic rock models. Thus, the used in this study.
influence of intergrain porosity and fractures on
Models of Intergrain Porosity
For experimental verification of the above equa-
Relative changes, % tion (3) we conducted a series of experiments using a
50 model of intergrain porosity—a mixture of lead balls of
varied sizes. In addition, we used published data from
30 (Plona, 1980) on the dependence of P-wave velocity
on the porosity of a material consisting of glass balls
30 with diameters of 0.21 and 0.29 mm.
For modeling intergrain porosity we used lead balls
20 with diameters of 2.40 and 6.93 mm. Samples of mix-
tures containing varied amounts of balls of both sizes.
10 Porosity of each mixture was determined using an
Ultra Pore porosimeter by a go volumetric method,
with porosity of mixtures determined at 45.70;
0 40.95 and 35.23%. Elastic P-wave velocity of the lead
balls was 2.50 km/s. Comparisons of the dependence
–10 of P-wave velocity on porosity for mixtures of lead
balls and mixtures of glass balls are given in Fig. 4.
–20 The dependence of velocity on total porosity for
0 10 20 30 40
mixtures of lead balls (Fig. 4a) with a high degree of
Effective pressure, MPa
accuracy (R2 = 0.998) is approximated by linear equa-
К—bulk modulus Vp—P-wave velocity tion (7):
G—shear modulus Density Vp = −0.040m + 2.494. (7)
Porosity
In this equation the second component (2.494),
Fig. 3. Relative changes of elastic parameters, density, and
signifying the velocity in the material of the balls under
porosity of a rock sample with an increase in effective pres- zero porosity almost coincides with the measured
sure. value (2.50 km/s).

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 4 2020

474 ZHUKOV, KUZMIN

(а) (b)
8 120
7
100
P-wave velocity Vp, km/s

velocity Vp, %
Normalized
80
5

~
4 60
3
40
2
20
1 Glass balls (J. Plona, 1980) Glass balls (J. Plona, 1980)
Lead balls d = 6.93 and 2.40 mm Lead balls d = 6.93 and 2.40 mm

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Porosity m, % Porosity m, %

Fig. 4. Dependences of (а) elastic wave velocity and (b) normalized velocity on total porosity of mixtures of glass balls (according
to (Plona, 1980)) and mixtures of lead balls with diameters 6.93 and 2.40 mm.

The dependence of normalized velocity on total
porosity for models composed of lead ball mixtures
(Fig. 4b) is approximated with high accuracy with lin-
ear equation (8):
Vp = −1.605m + 99.8.
For glass balls the value of P-wave velocity in glass
(5.69 km/s) given in (Plona, 1980) differs significantly
from glass window given in other sources. Thus, in
(NDT, 2001–2014) the glass window is at 6.79 km/s
which we accepted for further calculations of normal-
ized velocity.
The dependence of P-wave velocity on total poros-
ity (Fig. 4a) for glass ball models is well approximated
(R2 = 0.961) with linear equation (9):
Vp = −0.0911m + 6.532.
In this equation the second component (6.532)
representing the velocity in the material of glass balls
under zero porosity is quite close in value to the value
of 6.79 km/s that we adopted from (NDT, 2001–
2014).
The obtained dependence of normalized velocity
on total porosity for glass balls (Fig. 4b) is approxi-
mated with a high degree of accuracy (R2 = 0.940) with
linear equation (10):
Vp = −1.505m + 100.0.
It is shown that the obtained dependences of nor-
malized velocity on total porosity (8) and (10) are sim-
ilar in structure to equation (3) proposed in (Tourenq
et al., 1994) for intergrain porosity. The coefficient at
total porosity in all three equations–(3), (8) and
(10)—appeared to be close to value 1.6 (1.605 for the
mixture of lead balls and 1.505 for the mixture of glass
balls), which bears evidence to the intergrain nature of
total porosity.
Thus, using intergrain porosity models made of
lead and glass balls we confirmed that normalized
velocity depends on intergrain porosity according to
equation (3).
(8)
Fracture Modeling
For experimental proof of dependence (4) for frac-
ture porosity the velocity of ultrasound propagation
through cylindrical metal samples (steel and titanium)
of varied lengths and compound rock samples
(Moroccan and Turkish marble).
The study of influence of fractures on P-wave
velocities was conducted using compound cylinders
with lengths of 10, 15, and 30 mm made of the same
block of metal. P-wave velocity in steel was identical
(9) and equaled 5.556 km/s. The model for one fracture
was a 30 mm long sample consisting of two 15 mm sec-
tions. Two fractures were modeled by joints between
three 10 mm sections with overall length of 30 mm.
Similar studies were conducted on titanium samples.
Total porosity of each compound sample was also
measured by the gas volumetric method using an Ultra
Pore porosimeter as a difference between volumes of
compound and uniform samples of similar lengths.
The volume of each fracture was 0.09–0.11% of the
total sample volume. Dependences of changes in
(10) P-wave velocity and normalized velocity on total
porosity are given in Fig. 5.
Dependence of velocity on total porosity for com-
pound titanium samples (Fig. 5a) has a high degree of
accuracy (R2 = 0.99):
Vp = −1.507m + 6.004, (11)
and the measured velocity in titanium almost matches
the approximation (6.004) obtained with linear equa-
tion (11).

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 4 2020

 THE INFLUENCE OF FRACTURING OF THE ROCKS AND MODEL MATERIALS
6.0 (а)
P-wave velocity Vp, km/s
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2 Compound titanium samples
Compound steel samples
5.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Porosity m, %
Fig. 5. Dependence of (а) P-wave velocity and (b) normalized velocity on total porosity of compound steel and titanium samples.
Dependence of velocity on total porosity for com-
pound steel samples (Fig. 5a) can also be successfully
approximated (R2 = 0.96) with linear equation (12):
Vp = −1.137m + 5.511. (12)
Measured velocity in steel (5.55 km/s) is close to
value (5.51 km/s), obtained with Eq. (12).
Dependences of normalized velocity on total
porosity for titanium fracture models (13) and steel
fracture models (14) can be well approximated with
linear dependences (R2 = 0.99 and R2 = 0.96 respec-
tively). They are given in Fig. 5b:
Vp = −20.548m + 99.92, (13)
Vp = −20.636m + 100.07.
In equations (13) and (14) the coefficient under
total porosity appeared to equal 20.636 for steel sam-
ples, on which the influence of one to three fractures
was modeled, and 20.548 for titanium samples, which
modeled one and two fractures. Its small difference
from 22.0 obtained with equation (4) for fracture
porosity may be connected with the fact that the tran-
sition between the side and the face surfaces on all
cylindrical samples was somewhat smoothed. Thus,
using steel and titanium models of fracture porosity we
confirmed experimentally that normalized velocity
depends on fracture porosity according to equation (4).
El Azhari et al. (2013) study samples of dry and
fluid saturated Moroccan marble with porosity from
0.28 to 0.45% (we accept a mean value of 0.365%),
consisting of blocks with dimensions 5 × 5 × 20 cm.
Using the approach to determining fracture porosity
developed in the paper, we obtained dependences of
P-wave propagation velocity and normalized velocity
on the number of artificially created cracks (block
joints).
If we accept that the opening of artificial cracks
(joints) equals 1 mm, we can determine fracture
porosity at the value of 0.5% for each crack (block
IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH
475
100 (b)
Normalized velocity Vp, %
99
~
98
97
96
95
94
Compound titanium samples
93 Compound steel samples
92
0.30 0.35 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Porosity m, %
joints). The value of matrix’s velocity in the studied mar-
ble was accepted as 6.628 km/s. Using equation (1)
values of normalized velocity were calculated and its
linear dependences on the value of total porosity for
fluid saturated (15) and dry (16) marble were obtained
(R2 = 0.98 and R2 = 0.97 respectively). At that inter-
grain porosity in marble blocks remains constant at
0.365%, and fracture porosity created artificially as
block joints changes from 0.5 to 4.0% with increasing
the number of joints from 1 to 8 (Fig. 6b).
Vp = −20.23m + 100.0, (15)
Vp = −20.61m + 88.5. (16)
(14) In approximation equations with linear depen-
dence of normalized velocity on total porosity (15) and
(16), coefficients at porosity equal 20.23 (fluid satu-
rated sample) and 20.61 (dry sample) close to the
22.0 value, which supports our assumption about pos-
sible use of equation (4) for calculating fracture poros-
ity. In case of complete absence of intergrain porosity
we would have obtained a value for this 22.0 coeffi-
cient according to equation (4). The obtained result
confirms experimentally that P-wave propagation
velocity normalized by the velocity in the sample
matrix reflects the presence of fracture porosity.
Data from another paper (Kurtulus et al., 2011)
investigating the dependence of P-wave propagation
velocity on the number of artificially created fractures
(block joints) on different samples—dry marble from
Turkey (Fig. 7a)—were also used to justify the use of
equation (4) for calculating fracture porosity. Block
dimensions were 6 × 6 × 30 cm and accepting that
opening artificial fractures (joints) is 1mm, it becomes
possible to calculate fracture porosity at the value of
0.333% for each fracture (joint).
The values of normalized velocity were calculated
using equation (1). Further, using the value of velocity
in a solid matrix of studied marble 6.54 km/s, linear
Vol. 56 No. 4 2020
476 ZHUKOV, KUZMIN

7 (a) 120 (b)

Normalized velocity Vp, %

P-wave velocity Vp, km/s
6 100

~
5 80
4
60
3
40
2
1 Water-saturated marble 20 Water-saturated marble
Dry marble Dry marble

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number fracture Nfr Porosity m, %

Fig. 6. Dependence of (a) P-wave velocity and normalized velocity (b) on total porosity of compound blocks of dry and fluid sat-
urated marble sample based on data from (El Azhari et al., 2013).

120
7 (a) (b)

Normalized velocity (V~p), %

P-wave velocity Vp, km/s

6 100

5 80
4
60
3
40
0
Intergrain Vpm = 6.7 km/s
1 20 Fracture Vpm = 6.7 km/s
Dry marble
Marble Vpm = 6.54 km/s

0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 3 4
Number fracture Nfr Porosity (intergrain + fracture) m, %

Fig. 7. Dependence of P-wave velocity on the number of ruptures (a) and normalized velocity on porosity (b) of a dry compound
marble sample based on data from (Kurtulus et al., 2011).

dependence (R2 = 0.92) of normalized velocity velocity of P-wave propagation in the matrix based on
(Fig.7b) on the value of total porosity was ontained (17): known data on marble blocks was adopted as 6.70 km/s.
In this case the dependence of the normalized
Vp = −24.32m + 94.70. (17) velocity on porosity (18) in the porosity range from
0.0% (solid rock matrix) to 1.49% corresponding to a
In this case we accepted that there was no inter- marble block with no joints but with intergrain poros-
grain porosity and fracture porosity changes from ity of 1.49% (non-filled circles in Fig. 7b) an absolute
0.333 to 2.00% with the increase of artificial cracks linear dependence was obtained (R2 = 1.00) that cor-
(joints) from 1 to 6 (filled circles in Fig. 7b). The responds to equation (3):
obtained value of the coefficient at porosity (–24.32)
in equation (17) is significantly higher than 22.0 value Vp = −1.60m + 100.0. (18)
typical for presence of only fracture porosity (4). The interval of total porosity from 1.49 to 3.49%
(1.49 + 2.0) will correspond to a change in only fracture
For a more accurate construction of the depen- porosity of a compound marble block (filled triangles in
dence of normalized velocity on porosity an assess- Fig. 7b), and the linear dependence (R2 = 0.94) on nor-
ment of the structure of marble based on data from malized velocity is described by equation (19):
(Kurtulus et al., 2011) was performed. It allowed to assess
probable intergrain porosity of marble blocks, 1.5%. The Vp = −20.66m + 123.65. (19)

IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 4 2020

 THE INFLUENCE OF FRACTURING OF THE ROCKS AND MODEL MATERIALS
100
90
Normalized velocity Vp, %
80
~
70
60
50
40
30
mig = 0%
20
0 5
Fig. 8. Dependences of normalized velocity of studied rock samples on total porosity under effective pressure increasing from 2.0
to 37.0 MPa.
In equation (18) the obtained value of the coeffi-
cient at porosity equals –1.60, which means presence
of only intergrain porosity. In equation (19) this coef-
ficient equals –20.66, which reflects a change in only
fracture (artificial) porosity.
The above data from our experimental studies and
from research of others support our assumption of
possibility of experimental determination of both
intergrain (equation (3)) and fracture porosity (equa-
tions (4) and (6)).
APPLICATION OF NORMALIZED VELOCITY
TO ASSESSMENT OF CHANGES
IN INTERGRAIN AND FRACTURE
POROSITY OF RESERVOIRS
The authors of this paper applied the approach
above to studying changes in the structure of pore
space in the Daghinsky reservoirs on the Sakhalin
shelf. (Zhukov et al., 2017; 2018). Reservoirs are
formed by medium-grained, fine-grained, and aleu-
ritic sandstones, sandy and argillaceous aleurolites
with total porosity in atmospheric conditions 2.9–
28.5%. 240 samples were studied, in which the mean
value of porosity in atmospheric conditions is 22.2%.
Detailed lithological investigations showed that 37 out
of 60 sections manifest chaotically oriented microc-
racks gravitating toward cleavage surfaces of materials.
The most interesting is the prediction of changes in
porous space—changes in intergrain and fracture
porosity—under increased effective pressure. It is
explained by a practical necessity to integrate these
changes that accompany the process of exploring oil
IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH
477
n = 240 Peff = 2.0 MPa
n = 240 Peff = 37 MPa
Increase Peff from 2.0 to 37 MPa
mfr = 0%
10 15 20 25 30
Porosity m, %
and gas deposits in depletion mode or under a
decrease of fluid pressure in the formation.
It is well known that velocities of P-waves in rocks
increase under increasing confining pressure (Nur,
1965; Nur and Simmons, 1966; Zhukov et al., 1991;
2018; Kuzmin and Zhukov, 2004; Ryzhov et al., 2008;
Sheriff and Geldart, 1983; Zobak, 2007; Tiab and
Donaldson, 2004; Mavko et al., 2009; Zhukov and
Ivanov, 2015). It happens, first, as a result of increased
packing of grains in terrigenous sedimentary rocks,
and, second, due to closing of some of the existing
fractures.
Experimental data on the value of porosity and
P-wave velocity on each sample were obtained under
an increase in effective pressure from 2.0 to 37.0 MPa.
Then we determined the value of P-wave velocity in a
solid matrix of rocks Vpm, which appeared to equal
5.656 km/s, and calculated normalized velocity for
each sample studied under the effective pressures of
2.0 and 37.0 MPa (Fig. 8).
Figure 8 shows dependences of normalized velocity
of studied rock samples on total porosity and their
mean values for effective pressures of 2.0 and 37.0
MPa. The same figure provides lines and equations for
dependences of changes in normalized velocity on
total porosity for two extreme cases: for assumed pres-
ence of only intergrain porosity (mfr = 0.0%) and pres-
ence of only fracture porosity (mig = 0.0%).
The equations for the dependence of normalized
velocity on total porosity (R2 = 0.50 and R2 = 0.63 respec-
tively) differ at effective pressures of 2.0 and 37.0 MPa (21):
Vp = −2.26m + 100.0, (20)
Vol. 56 No. 4 2020
478
–2.5
Changes of porosity, abs. %
–2.0
n = 20 n = 31
–1.5
–1.0
–0.5
0
1 2
Fig. 9. Changes in total porosity and its two components (intergrain and fracture) with effective pressure increase from 2.0 to
37.0 MPa (n—number of studied samples from each borehole).
Vp = −1.84m + 100.0.
Analysis of these equations shows that the coeffi-
cient at porosity equals –2.26 under effective pressure
of 2.0 MPa and –1.84 under effective pressure of
37.0 MPa. This signifies, first, a decrease in the value
of fracture porosity with the increase in effective pres-
sure by 35.0 MPa, as at the value of this coefficient at
–1.6 fracture porosity is completely absent. Second,
that the main factor that influences the value of total
porosity in both cases is intergrain porosity, as the val-
ues of these coefficients (–2.26 and –1.84) are far
removed from –22.0 which is typical for rocks with
only fracture porosity. The value of fracture porosity at
2.0 MPa effective pressure is somewhat higher than at
37.0 MPa effective pressure and is conditional upon
microcracks in samples closing under increased effec-
tive pressure.
Mean values of total porosity and normalized
velocity on all samples (marked with red squares in
Fig. 8) under effective pressure at 2.0 and 37.0 MPa
allowed to obtain a linear dependence of changes in
normalized velocity on changes in total porosity
(Eq. (22)) under an increase in effective pressure to
37.0 MPa:
Vp = −9.43m + 258.9.
This shows that an increase in effective pressure
decreases both intergrain and fracture porosity: the
coefficient at porosity equals –9.43. Notably, at the
value of the coefficient equaling –22.0 the value of
intergrain porosity will remain the same and all
changes will ensue from fracture porosity. At the value
of the coefficient equaling –1.6 all changes will ensue
from intergrain porosity.
Thus, using the above mentioned approach for
determining fracture porosity (equations (3)–(6))
allowed to obtain variations of the value of intergrain
ZHUKOV, KUZMIN
mfr, %
mig, %
n = 29 n = 10 n = 43 n = 43 n = 54 n = 10
3 4 5 6 7 8
Numbers of wells
(21) and fracture components of porosity for each of 240
samples of the reservoir (from eight boreholes) under
the increase of effective pressure from to 37.0 MPa
(Fig. 9).
Experiment results show (Figs. 8 and 9) that an
increase in effective pressure is synchronized with a
0.254–2.164% decrease in the value of total porosity
for different samples. The mean value of total porosity
of all studied samples decreased from 22.22 to 20.95%,
i.e. by 1.28%. The values of both components of total
porosity—intergrain and fracture—also decreased but
at various degrees. Thus, the decrease in the value of
intergrain porosity for different samples was from
0.037 to 1.65%, with the average of 0.779%. Relative to
the initial value (under effective pressure 2.0 MPa)
intergrain porosity decreased by 3.67%. The decrease
in the value of fracture porosity in different samples
was from 0.145 to 0.762%, with an average of 0.493%
(Fig. 9). Relative to the initial value, fracture porosity
decreased by 65.5%. Thus, fracture porosity of rock
samples undergoes stronger changes under an increase
in effective pressure compared to intergrain porosity.
CONCLUSIONS
(22) Results of experimental studies show that the
impact of fractures (ruptures in junctions of rocks) and
of intetrgrain porosity on the velocity of propagation
of P-waves are radically different. It is demonstrated
that an increase in fracture porosity reduces the veloc-
ity of P-wave propagation more significantly than an
increase in intergrain porosity of identical value.
Based on this fact and considering that total poros-
ity consists of two components (intergrain and frac-
ture (2)) it is shown that the introduced equation (6)
allows to assess the value of fracture porosity of rocks.
This is demonstrated using various materials and rocks
which modelled intergrain and fracture porosity. The
IZVESTIYA, PHYSICS OF THE SOLID EARTH Vol. 56 No. 4 2020
 THE INFLUENCE OF FRACTURING OF THE ROCKS AND MODEL MATERIALS
impact of presence and number of fractures on veloc-
ities of elastic P-waves is shown qualitatively and
quantitatively, as well.
It is to be noted that this approach to calculating
fracture porosity is acceptable also for chaotically ori-
ented cracks and for cracks perpendicular to the prop-
agation on the elastic P-wave (compound samples of
metal (steel and titanium) and marble block samples).
The approach proposed allowed to obtain assess-
ments of fracture porosity for a reservoir of an oil and
gas deposit at multiple values of effective pressure
using a large number of samples. Obtained assess-
ments of the impact of an increase in effective pressure
on values of intergrain and fracture porosity can be
used for calculating resources and for developing
exploration projects of oil and gas fields.
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