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Lasse Thoresen FORM-BUILDING TRANSFORMATIONS: AN APPROACH TO THE AURAL ANALYSIS OF EMERGENT MUSICAL FORMS.
Lasse Thoresen FORM-BUILDING TRANSFORMATIONS: AN APPROACH TO THE AURAL ANALYSIS OF EMERGENT MUSICAL FORMS.
4, Winter
2007, section 3. [Do not cite or quote from this version, but only
from the online version]
Lasse Thoresen
with the assistance of Andreas Hedman and Olav Anton Thommessen
Traditionally, music theory and analysis has taken for granted the nature of
the sound objects being dealt with. However, it is clear that the pitched,
stable sounds on which traditional music theory are built is a special case in
the larger world of sounds. The main focus of traditional theory has been a
discussion of how pitched sound objects can be combined in scales, and
chords and into larger compounds such as harmony progressions, etc., all of
which are clearly level 2 phenomena. Studies of contemporary music are also
largely concentrated on this level.
The focus of the Aural Sonology Project is on levels 1 and 3, with a clear
emphasis on level 3. Thus the analysis of musical forms as heard, level 3, is
the focus of the present article. This means that e.g. the harmonic structure
of a piece will not be analyzed on its own terms, and will only be significant
to the extent its effect is deemed relevant for the conception of an abstract
formal model on level 3.
The present approach to analysis consistently replaces the score with the
phonogram as the extra-temporal, material support of analytical reflection.
The advent of recording technology and loudspeakers has opened new
horizons for analyzing music as heard. The only reason why this approach
does not seem to be much exploited in music theory, analysis, and in
musicology in general, seems to be a general scepticism towards the ear as a
sufficiently objective instrument of observation. Aural Sonology insists that
consensus with regard to listening intentions will solve this predicament and
open a new field of research, complementary to other, established
disciplines. This is made possible thanks to the heritage of Pierre Schaeffer,
and his successors at GRM such as Guy Reibel, Michel Chion, Francois Bayle,
and Francois Delalande, who have carried out pioneering efforts in sorting
out the dimensions of the listening consciousness.
The analytical focus of Aural Sonology, then, is the neutral side of the
esthesic domain, i.e. the material, observable aspects of the aural
experience. The neutral side of the esthesic domain must be constituted by
an act of the listener through his choosing the requisite listening intention.
The two listener intentions preferred for our analytical purposes are the
reductive listening intention (for level 1 this is, briefly, the intention to hear
sound as sound, and will not be further dealt with in this article) and the
taxonomic listening (levels 1 and 2).6
A study of the neutral domain (as defined above) will in fact be a study of
the signifiant of the musical sign. In a semiotic perspective, such a study
may only be relevant for approaching its signifié (interpreting its meaning)
to the extent that the musical signs used are motivated signs (dealing with
iconic or indexical links between expression and content) rather than
arbitrary ones (defined purely by convention). The relative lack of musical
vocabularies suggests that music is mostly a system of motivated signs.7 Thus
studies of the neutral aspects of music are potentially relevant also for
approaching musical meaning – the signifié.
The analyses produced by the methods introduced by Aural Sonology are
definitely not compositional techniques. Nevertheless they may be of great
value to composers and performers, since listening and reflecting on the
aural reality of music in most cases contributes positively to the quality of
music making and performing. Thus while Aural Sonology analyses are
focused on the neutral side of the esthesic domain, the exercise of
conducting such analyses is a useful one for giving the composer a number of
more specific ideas about the shaping of his compositions, as it develops his
ability to conceive of what he eventually would like to hear when the piece
is being performed; such an exercise also encourages performers to shape
their interpretations guided by a greater awareness of how musical gestalts
evolve in time and affect the listener.
The Aural Sonology Project has thus far focused mainly on level 3 in creating
methodical approaches to isotopic structures. The general isotopies relevant
to form building that we at present have managed to develop are:11
• Time-fields (the temporal segmentation of the musical discourse)
• Layers (the synchronous segmentation of the musical discourse)
• Dynamic form (time directions and energetic shape)
• Thematic form (recurrence, variation, and contrast)
• Formal transformations (looser and firmer gestalts, transformations
between them).
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
2.2 Context Organization of Form-Elements
Form-building segments will be defined through the combination of form-
elements (as presented in the typology above) into an organized context. A
form-segment is a coherent succession of form-elements, where the
evaluation of similarity and contrast between adjoining elements will serve
as the main criterion for determining what belongs to the form-segment and
what does not. Thus, when there is similarity between juxtaposed form-
elements, a coherent form-segment is easily created. Contrasts tend to
fragment coherent segments or set them off from each other; however,
fragmented form elements, too, can be held together in unifying gestalt (a
phrase) due to other musical dimensions, such as harmony, or constant
background layers. Although the form-segments generally tend to be a
succession, there are also situations in which elements are superposed in
simultaneity.
Figure 5.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
- The transformation from single lines to several superposed lines (that still
are perceptible as lines) is termed proliferation, typical for starting with a
few simple elements, to which more are added. The inverse transformation
is called collection: It starts with a number of superposed elements, and
ends with a simple one, or a simple collection of the elements.
2.4 Prägnanz
In the last pair of form-transformations discussed above, that of
liquidation/crystallization, one other characteristic of musical form is
involved, namely that of Prägnanz. This is an emergent quality considered
essential for the presentation of the classical theme, which thus deserves a
more detailed discussion. The word Prägnanz used in a musical context could
be said to have two meanings: One would suggest that we have an idea that
gives birth to materials and ideas that are essential to the further
development of the composition. A theme in a sonata, as opposed to a
melody in a song, would have this quality. 18 The word can also refer to the
gestalt quality of the statement itself, and it is on this aspect of the concept
we shall concentrate in this context. In the latter sense, a pregnant form-
segment is characterized by an optimal combination of articulated,
distinctive form-elements, contextual self-affirmation and well-defined
boundaries, and good continuation. Moreover, the form-elements have to be
sufficiently complex and articulated, and they can never belong to the
lowest category of differentiation (simple form-elements) or to that of
extreme complexity. The tendency towards articulation and complexity
must, however, be counterbalanced by a self-affirming or redundant
context, which means that the form-elements or segments must be repeated
(exactly or varied) in the immediate context.
Figure 33.
Figure 34a. Period: Mozart, Piano Sonata in A minor KV 310, 2nd movement.
-Figure 18 (contrast theme in Liszt’s Eine Faust Symphonie) and 22: (The b-minor
sonata by F. Liszt) show a similar formal construction: The synthesis transformation
supports the crystallization transformation. After the theme is presented in a firm
gestalt, a liquidation through partitioning follows. The formal pattern suggested is
therefore symmetric: crystallization, repeated presentation of distinctive
materials, liquidation.
In the early 19th century, the musical forms that were more or less
spontaneously created during the 18th century were analyzed and made into
normative theory. For a relatively short period of European music history,
musical form was, at the same time, a spontaneous musical practice and a
normative theory. The more advanced composers of the 19th century were,
however, already developing formal conceptions that had by then bypassed
theoretical dogma. In ways that were not explicable, new musical forms
often made sense to the unprejudiced listener, not through their conformity
with normative conventions that existed in the listeners’ minds prior to
hearing the music, but because of the intrinsic logic of the sonic gestalts.
The listeners were made to marvel at the discovery of rational forms that
eluded conceptualization. The rational syntax of the music emerged to the
listener as the music unfolded, quite independently of the listener’s
preconceived notions of conventions for musical forms. The present
approach focuses primarily on such emergent musical forms.
The dissolution of tonality and the wish to avoid trite clichés has led
composers and theorists of the 20th century to become concerned with
musical morphology. Modality, polytonality, atonality and spectrality have
been explored and explained. Moreover, the desire to include new sonorities
and textures in music (e.g. complex spectra, glissandi, sound accumulations)
has made it necessary to conceive of completely new relationships between
sound qualities and overall shape. However, the need to come to grips with
the new musical materials and their technique has allowed the discussion of
technical aspects of music production to monopolize the theoretical
discourse on contemporary music.
References: Literature.
Bent, I. with Drabkin, W. (1998). Analysis. The New Groves Handbooks in Music.
London.
Bortoft, H. (1996). The Wholeness of Nature. Goethe’s Way of Science. New York:
Lindisfarne Books.
Chion, M. (1983). Guide des Objets Sonores. Paris: INA & Éditions Buchet/Chastel.
Ferrara, L. (1991). Philosophy and the Analysis of Music. Bridges to Musical Sound,
Form, and Reference. New York; Westport, Connecticut; London: Greenwood Press.
Kühn, C. (6. edition, 2001). Formenlehre der Musik. Kassel, Basel, London, New
York, Prague: Bärenreiter Verlag.
Marx, A.B.(1837-47). Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, praktisch und
theoretisch. Vol. I, seventh edition 1868. Leipzig.
Nattiez, J.J. (1990). Music and Discourse. Toward a Semiology of Music. Carolyn
Abbate (transl). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Piaget, J. (1968). Le Structuralisme. Presses Universitaires de France
Smith, F.J. (ed.) (1976). In Search of Musical Method. London, New York, Paris:
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
Thoresen, L. (1987). “An auditive analysis of Schubert’s Piano Sonata Op. 42.” In
Semiotica 66-1/3. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
References: Recordings.
Bach, C.P.E. Sonatas & Rondos. Mikhail Pletnev. Deutsche Grammophon 459 614-2
GB.
Bach, J.C. Jesu Meine Freude. Die 6 Motetten. Bachchor Stockholm, Concertus
Musicus Wien; N. Harnoncourt. Das Alte Werk, 1989 Teldec Record Service Gmbh.
Thoresen, L. Løp, Lokk og Linjar. BIT20, Berit Opheim; Jeffrey Milarsky. Aurora
(forthcoming).
Walton, W. Symphony no.2. The Cleveland Orchestra; George Szell. Sony Classical
01-046732-10.
1
The term “music as heard” is the apt title of an important book on the
phenomenology of music. (Clifton, 1983)
2
“Le processus, plus qu’un procédé, est un matériau. A un niveau plus abstrait, le
fait que le processus soit dérivé d’un ‘matériau sonore’ implique qu’il contient
suffisamment de ce matériau même. Le matériau musical n’est plus l’objet de
départ, mais le mouvement que l’on imprime à l’objet: le processus généré par cet
objet. Cette évolution, qui tend à virtualiser l’objet sonore et à le substituer à
l’action que l’on effectue sur lui correspond à la différence entre les deux
générations que j’ai présentées. Le passage de l’objet au modèle, puis du modèle
au formel se caractérise par l’attitude qui tend à privilégier l’écriture et sa
dynamique par rapport à la contemplation statique du matériau sonore” (Dalbavie,
1991, p. 333).
3
Our perspectives on phenomenological philosophy is based on secondary sources
and interpretations on Husserl’s and Heidegger’s writings, such as Robert
Sokolowsky (1974, 2000), Itzchak Miller (1984), Dreyfus (1991), Henri Bortoft
(1996).
4
The semiological tripartition has been an important feature of the semiological
(or semiotic) approach to music, as worked out by Molino and Nattiez:
(a) The poïetic dimension: even when it is empty of all intended meaning, . .
. the symbolic form results from a process of creation that may be described
or reconstituted.
(b) The esthesic dimension: “receivers”, when confronted by a symbolic
form, assign one or many meanings to the form; the term “receiver” is,
however, a bit misleading. Clearly in our test case we do not “receive” a
“message’s” meaning (since the producer intended none) but rather
construct meaning, in the course of an active perceptual process.
(c) The trace: the symbolic form is embodied physically and materially in the
form of a trace accessible to the five senses. We employ the word trace
because the poetic process cannot immediately be read within its
lineaments, since the esthesic process (if it is in part determined by the
trace) is heavily dependent upon the lived experience of the “receiver”.
Molino proposed the name niveau neutre [neutral level] or niveau matériel
[material level] for this trace. An objective description of the neutral level
can always be proposed - in other words an analysis of its immanent and
recurrent properties. This is referred to throughout this volume as “analysis
of the neutral level.” (Nattiez, 1990, pp. 11-12)
5
Monelle’s criticism of Nattiez’ definition of the “neutral level” in Fondements
d’une sémiologie de la musique (Nattiez, 1975) is justified, particularly with regard
to the fact that his approach does not incorporate criteria for what makes sense
musically according to “native speakers” of the musical language.