Academic Honors Lab Guide 2013

Academic/Honors Chemistry Laboratory Guide
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Introduction
Welcome to chemistry here at WHS. Ms. Cipolla and Mr. Rickard are looking
forward to helping you get the most out of this class during the course of the year. One
of the special things about Chemistry, other than the teachers themselves, is that it is a
laboratory class that meets six times each week. Once a week, in addition to your
regularly scheduled class time, you will have class two periods in a row. This extra
period is intended to provide an extended period of time for activities like experiments
that take longer than a single period.
While we tend to think of it as a “lab period,” experiments don’t always happen
during the double period day. Experiments can be and are performed as appropriate in
the class schedule. Ms. Cipolla and Mr. Rickard recommend always having a pair of
closed toed shoes in your locker just in case, even if it isn’t your class’s day for a double
period.
This manual is meant to be your personal trainer and guide while working in the
laboratory. Sometimes you will have a simple question two which you need an answer or
maybe you just need a reminder of how to setup or use a particular piece of equipment.
This guide can help you with those issues so that you do not need to stop your experiment
until your teacher can answer your question. If you follow the procedures in this manual,
you will be more likely to get better results and you will score more points as well.
If you have suggestions for things that should go in the lab manual or if you find
typos or other mistakes as we work through the year, please bring them to Mr. Rickard’s
or Ms. Cipolla’s attention so that the next version of the manual can be even better.
Ms. Cipolla & Mr. Rickard
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Table of Contents
ACADEMIC/HONORS CHEMISTRY LABORATORY GUIDE..........................................................................1

INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................. I
LAB SAFETY........................................................................................................................................... 3
LABORATORY RULES.......................................................................................................................................3
LABORATORY DRESS CODE..............................................................................................................................5
LAB EQUIPMENT.................................................................................................................................... 6
SAFETY TEST REVIEW GUIDE................................................................................................................ 17
KEEPING A LABORATORY NOTEBOOK (HONORS CHEMISTRY ONLY).....................................................18
RULES FOR WRITING IN YOUR LABORATORY NOTEBOOK.......................................................................................18
SETTING UP YOUR LABORATORY NOTEBOOK......................................................................................................18
ADDING AN EXPERIMENT (PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT).............................................................................................19
DURING THE EXPERIMENT..............................................................................................................................19
AFTER THE EXPERIMENT................................................................................................................................20
EXAMPLE NOTEBOOK ENTRY FROM MR. RICKARD’S NOTEBOOK.............................................................................20
LABORATORY PROCEDURES................................................................................................................. 23
HOW TO USE A BUNSEN BURNER....................................................................................................................23
HOW TO USE A HOT PLATE.............................................................................................................................23
HOW TO USE FILTER PAPER FOR GRAVITY FILTRATION..........................................................................................24
HOW TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS......................................................................................................................25
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS................................................................................................................ 28
EXPERIMENT TITLE: GOLDEN PENNY................................................................................................................29
EXPERIMENT TITLE: CANDLE OBSERVATIONS.....................................................................................................30
EXPERIMENT TITLE: SEPARATING THE SLUDGE..................................................................................................33
EXPERIMENT TITLE: MEASUREMENT MAKING....................................................................................................37
EXPERIMENT TITLE: DENSITY..........................................................................................................................40
EXPERIMENT TITLE: HYDRATES.......................................................................................................................42
EXPERIMENT TITLE: PRECIPITATION.................................................................................................................45
EXPERIMENT TITLE: SPECIFIC HEAT..................................................................................................................47
EXPERIMENT TITLE: CALORIMETRY – HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE..............................................................................49
EXPERIMENT TITLE: MOLAR VOLUME OF HYDROGEN GAS...................................................................................52
EXPERIMENT TITLE: PH.................................................................................................................................54
EXPERIMENT TITLE: CANDY COATING CHEMISTRY..............................................................................................55
EXPERIMENT TITLE: STRONG ACID AND STRONG BASE TITRATION.........................................................................58
THE GOLDEN FLEECE....................................................................................................................................59
WHITE POWDERS LAB..................................................................................................................................60
CHROMATOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................................... 63
MEASURING PLASTICS ...............................................................................................64

PERCENT SUGAR IN BUBBLE GUM NAMES:.................................................................................67
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MATERIALS:......................................................................................................................................... 67
CHALK IT UP TO CHEMISTRY!..........................................................................................................................69
THE MOLAR VOLUME OF HYDROGEN GAS........................................................................................................72
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE..............................................................................................................................72
PRECAUTIONS............................................................................................................................................. 72
WEAR GOGGLES. HYDROCHLORIC ACID IS CORROSIVE........................................................................................72
PROCEDURE................................................................................................................................................72
CALCULATIONS- SHOW THE SET UP FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING.........................................................................73
HYDRATE LAB............................................................................................................................................. 74
PENNY ISOTOPES LAB...................................................................................................................................76
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES......................................................................................................78
CHEMICAL REACTIONS LAB............................................................................................................................80
STRUCTURE OF COMPOUNDS PART 1..............................................................................................................82
STRUCTURE OF COMPOUNDS PART 2..............................................................................................................85
DENSITY OF LIQUIDS.......................................................................................................................................2
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL CHANGES.....................................................................................................................5
DENSITY OF CARBON DIOXIDE..........................................................................................................................9
FLAME TESTS..............................................................................................................................................11
METALS VS. NONMETALS..............................................................................................................................13
EXPERIMENT TEMPLATE................................................................................................................................15
Experiment Title: INSERT EXPERIMENT TITLE HERE..................................................................................15
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Lab Safety
While it may not be the most glamorous topic in chemistry, laboratory safety is a serious matter.
One of the things students say they are most looking forward to in chemistry is “blowing stuff up.” May
of the experiments we do involve things like dangerous chemicals, fire, and fragile glassware. Knowing
how to be safe is the key to being able to do some of the more difficult and exciting experiments.
Laboratory Rules
General Rules
1. All students must read the Laboratory Rules and Dress Code and return the signed block to Your instructor
prior to being allowed into the laboratory area.
2. Students are permitted into the laboratory area only when given teacher permission.
3. All students must follow the dress code detailed below to be permitted into the laboratory area.
4. Medical conditions such as epilepsy, pregnancy, and dyslexia can be particularly dangerous in the
laboratory. We understand that many medical conditions are personal in nature. Please make sure that
the school nurse is aware of any ongoing medical conditions or medical conditions that may develop
during the course of the year. If you are uncomfortable with Your instructor knowing the nature of your
medical condition, the nurse will provide your teacher with guidelines as to what is or is not acceptable
for you in the laboratory. Remember, chemicals don’t know what medical conditions you have and can
also cause additional problems.
Behavior
1. The classroom is a chemical laboratory. Therefore, no food or drink is permitted unless it is supplied for
an experiment.
2. Students may only perform the experiment assigned as instructed. Unauthorized changes to the
experiments (regardless of how interesting they may seem) are not permitted.
3. Wash your hands when the experiment is finished or when leaving the lab for any reason to prevent
contamination. (Chemists are known for washing their hands BEFORE they go to the bathroom.)
4. If you are not feeling well, report it to Your instructor as soon as possible, especially if you believe it is a
result of chemical exposure.
5. Never smell a chemical directly from the original container. Use the wafting technique when smelling a
chemical is absolutely necessary.
6. Students are not required to work with chemicals originating from unlabeled containers except when
issued an unknown to identify.
7. Read the labels on chemical containers before you use them.
8. Estimate how much chemical you need and take only what is necessary.
9. NEVER return unused chemicals to the original container (see the above rule) because this can cause
contamination and result in the entire bottle being unusable. First see if any groups around you need that
chemical and, if not, return the unused chemical to Your instructor.
10. NEVER pour chemicals down the drain or place them in the garbage can without approval from Your
instructor.
11. Keep your lab bench as neat as possible at all times.
Equipment
1. Students must know where safety items such as MSDSs, Eye Washes, Safety Shower, and Fire Blanket are
located and how to use them.
2. Report any accidents, spills, and broken glassware to Your instructor immediately.
3. Broken glassware should not be picked up by hand. Broken glassware should be cleaned up with a
dustpan and broom when possible. If glass pieces cannot be collected using a dustpan and broom, a
damp paper towel should be used.
4. Do not use chipped or cracked glassware. Take them to Your instructor to obtain a replacement.
5. Hot objects in lab often stay hot for an extended period of time. Mr. Rickard has a great hot plate story
from graduate school that illustrates this point.
6. NEVER look down the opening of ANY container such as beakers, flasks, or test tubes containing chemicals
as a splatter or explosion could occur. Glass is clear for a reason.
7. Do not use graduated cylinders for purposes other than measuring liquids. Storing chemicals and reacting
of chemicals should be done in beakers, flasks, and test tubes as instructed.
8. Thermometers are not a substitute for stirring rods.
Fire
1. If an unplanned fire occurs, DO NOT PANIC and tell Your instructor immediately. Turn off all gas taps as
long as it is safe to do so.
2. Never move an object that is burning to avoid spreading the fire.
3. Do not put water on a fire unless instructed. Chemical fires play by their own rules.
4. If the fire can be covered with the fire blanket or a large beaker to cut off the oxygen supply, this is a
good first idea.
5. If the fire is too large to cover, Your instructor will use the fire extinguisher when appropriate.
6. If a part of your clothing or hair is on fire, use the fire blanket or the safety shower as instructed.
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Laboratory Dress Code
1. Safety goggles will be provided and must be worn in a proper manner at all times in the laboratory area.
Splashed chemicals are the most common cause of injury other than hot objects causing burns.
(Goggles are meant to protect eyes, not foreheads and necks)
2. Laboratory aprons must be worn when chemicals are being used. Aprons are chemical and flame
resistant and can help save you and your clothing.
3. All students must wear closed toe shoes. Sandals and open toe shoes are not permitted. (If you think
you will forget, leave a pair of shoes in your locker for lab days.)
4. All long hair and bangs must be tied back when Bunsen burners are being used. (Excessive hair spray is
also not recommended.)
5. Loose clothing is not recommended when working with Bunsen burners because it becomes a fire
hazard. It is also not recommended because it can knock over glassware or absorb liquid chemicals.
6. Exposed skin around the waist is not permitted because corrosive chemicals are used in the laboratory
and may come into contact with skin when leaning against benches.
7. Wearing jewelry in the lab is not recommended. Jewelry can react with chemicals and can also trap
chemicals against your skin. Dangling jewelry can also present the same hazards as loose clothing.
Watches are permitted but it is recommended that you remove them before washing your hands at the
end of the experiment and then rinse the watch as well.
Lab Equipment
Apron: An Apron is one of the most common

forms of protective equipment in the
laboratory. It helps to protect against
chemical spills and is also somewhat
fire resistant.
Balance, An Electronic Balance is used to

Electronic: measure the mass of chemicals and
equipment in the laboratory. Balances
have a variety of ranges and levels of
precision.
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Beaker: A Beaker is used to hold and heat
liquids. Multipurpose and essential in
the lab.
Bottle: Bottles can be used for storage, for

mixing, and for displaying.
Bunsen Bunsen burners are used for heating and

Burner: exposing items to flame. They have
many more uses than a hot plate, but do
not replace a hot plate.
Burette: The Burette is used in titrations to
aka Buret measure precisely how much liquid is
used when a high level of accuracy is
needed.
Clamp, A Burette Clamp is used for holding

Burette: burettes while in use in the laboratory.
Most burette clamps can hold two
burettes at a time. Take care when
using these clamps because they have a
tendency to tip ring stands if not used
correctly.
Clamp, An Extension Clamp is used for holding
Extension: a variety of objects in lab. Be careful
not to uses clamps with plastic coating
for objects that are going to be heated to
high temperatures.
Clamp A Clamp Holder can be used to hold

Holder: clamps and metal rods in the laboratory.
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Crucible: Crucibles are used to heat small
quantities to very high temperatures.
Erlenmeyer The Erlenmeyer Flask is used to heat

Flask: and store liquids. The advantage to the
Erlenmeyer Flask is that the bottom is
wider than the top so it will heat quicker
because of the greater surface area
exposed to the heat.
Evaporating The Evaporating Dish is used to heat

Dish: and evaporate liquids.
Funnel: The Funnel is a piece of equipment that

is used in the lab but is not confined to
the lab. The funnel can be used to target
liquids into any container so they will
not be lost or spilled.
Gas The Gas Collecting Bottle is designed to
Collecting collect gases produced when used with a
Bottle: water bath. They may also be used like
a normal bottle.
Goggles: Goggles are some of the most common

pieces of protective equipment. They
are used to protect eyes from spills,
splashes, and projectiles. Goggles we
will use will have splash guards across
the top as well as a strap for adjusting
the fit.
Graduated Graduated Cylinders are used to
Cylinder measure volumes of liquids when a
medium level of accuracy is needed.
They come in a variety of sizes.
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Hot Plate: Hot Plates are uses to heat objects and
chemicals in the laboratory. They have
adjustable power controls. Due to the
ceramic top, they will remain hot long
after the power has been turned off.
Mortar and The Mortar and Pestle are used to crush

Pestle: solids into the powders for experiments,
usually to better dissolve the solids.
Paper Paper Towels are essential to the lab

Towels: environment. They will be used in
almost every lab
Pipet: The Pipet is used for moving small

amounts of liquid from place to place.
Some pipets come with graduation lines
for a high level of accuracy.
Pipet Bulb: A rubber Bulb used with a pipet to

provide the suction needed to draw
liquid chemicals into the pipet. They
are designed to eliminate the need for
the dangerous method of pipeting by
mouth. Some bulbs come with valves
for added control.
Ring Stand: Ring Stands are used to hold items
being heated. Clamps or rings can be
used so that items may be placed above
the lab table for heating by Bunsen
burners or other items.
Ring Ring Supports are used with other

Support: pieces of equipment such as Triangles
and Wire Mesh to support other pieces
of equipment as needed.
Rubber Rubber Tubing is used for a variety of

Tubing: things in lab including transferring
chemicals and gases during an
experiment. It should be checked for
cracks before use.
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Scoopula: A Scoopula is a metal scoop used to
remove chemicals from a reagent bottle.
Stir Rod: The stir rods are used to stir things.

They are usually made of glass. Stir
Rods are very useful in the lab setting.
Stopper: Stoppers come in many different sizes.

The sizes are from 0-14. Stoppers can
have holes for thermometers and for
other probes that may be used.
Test Tube: The test tube is the vessel of choice for

many reactions and for heating small
amounts of chemicals over a Bunsen
burner or in a water bath.
Test Tube The test tube brush is used to easily

Brush: clean the inside of a test tube.
Test Tube The Holder is used to hold test tubes

Holder: when they are hot and untouchable.
Test Tube The test tube rack is used to hold test
Rack: tubes while reactions happen in them or
while they are not needed.
Thermomet The thermometer is used to take

er: temperature of solids, liquids, and gases.
They are usually in ºC, but can also be
in ºF. All thermometers we will use
contain alcohol and not mercury for
safety purposes.
Tongs: Tongs are used to hold many different

things such as flasks, crucibles, and
evaporating dishes when they are hot.
Triangle: The triangle is used to hold crucibles

when they are being heated. They
usually sit on a ring stand.
Tweezers: Tweezers are used to handle small

aka forceps objects in the laboratory such as many
crystalline chemicals.
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Volumetric The Volumetric Flask is used to
Flask: measure one specific volume. They are
mostly used in mixing solutions where a
one liter or one half liter is needed.
Washing A Washing Bottle contains water and is

Bottle: used to help clean glassware such as test
tubes and flasks. It is not a squirt gun.
When squirt guns are required in lab,
they will be supplied by Mr. Rickard.
Watch The watch glass is used to hold solids

Glass: when being weighed or transported.
They should never be heated.
Weigh Weigh Papers are used to protect the
Paper: balance pan from chemicals and to
make it easy to handle small amounts of
powder chemicals.
Well Plate: Well Plates are used to temporarily store

chemicals for reactions and are also
used as a place to perform reactions on a
small scale.
Wire Gauze: Wire Gauze is used to support items

such as beakers and crucibles on a ring
stand. It may also be used like a trivet
on the lab bench to help hot objects to
cool down. Wire Gauze works much
like Wire Mesh but also aids in heat
dispersion during both heating and
cooling.
Wire Mesh: Wire Mesh is used to support items such
as beakers and crucibles on a ring stand.
It may also be used like a trivet on the
lab bench to help hot objects to cool
safely.
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Safety Test Review Guide
The following topics are things you should know for the safety test. For safety items found in the
laboratory, you should also know where they are located. You will not be permitted to enter the
laboratory until you have passed this test. It is not meant to be hard. It is meant to keep everyone safe
and injury free throughout the year.
 Safety Equipment Location and Proper Use including fire extinguishers, fire blanket, first aid
kit, eyewash station, safety shower, goggles, aprons, etc.
 Safety Vocabulary including but not limited to carcinogen, mutagen, teratogen, flammable,
inflammable, inhalation, ingestion, injection, absorption, corrosive, oxidizer, MSDS, acute effect,
chronic effect, irritant, caustic, toxic
 Laboratory Dress Code
 Safety Procedures
 Glassware and Laboratory Equipment both descriptions and proper uses
Keeping a Laboratory Notebook
(Honors Chemistry only)
A laboratory notebook is a common tool found in a majority of scientific laboratories in one way,
shape, or form. Traditionally, laboratory notebooks have been bound notebooks that can survive the
rigors and abuses of being in the laboratory while experiments are being performed. Many modern
laboratories are taking advantage of computers and using electronic laboratory notebooks that exist on the
computer network and can be accessed by people in a variety of locations.
Regardless of type, the point of a laboratory notebook is to have a record of what was performed
in the laboratory, how it was performed, what results were observed, show how calculations were
completed, record thoughts and ideas of the scientist, and at times to explain those ideas and the results
obtained. The general rule of thumb for a laboratory notebook is that someone else should be able to pick
up the notebook and using the information in the notebook, recreate the experiment, and hopefully get a
similar result.
In honors chemistry this year we will use a traditional, dead tree notebook. You will use your
notebook to help prepare for experiments before you will be allowed to perform the experiment in the
laboratory. It will be your record of what you did in the laboratory and it will be the major source of the
laboratory grades for the course. Develop good notebook habits now and they will carry you through the
rest of your science classes and beyond.
Rules for writing in your laboratory notebook

1. Use only PERMANENT BLACK or BLUE INK in your laboratory notebook. Pencil, erasable
ink, crayon, and other colors of ink are not acceptable and will result in a deduction when the
notebooks are graded.
2. Write only on the right side pages. Left side pages may not be written on by students. Graphs,
charts, and other visual aids may be glued to the left hand pages as instructed. Leaving the left
hand page blank also leaves your instructor a place to write comments and scores when they grade
the experiment.
3. If you make a mistake, draw a SINGLE LINE through the mistake so that the mistake may be seen
and understood but will be recognized as an error and will be ignored. You may then continue
writing the correct information in the laboratory notebook. NEVER scribble out the mistake or try
to erase the mistake. Scribbles and erasures will result in a deduction when the notebooks are
graded.
Example: When you make a misteak in UR mistake in your notebook, simply strike it with a
single line and then continue.
4. No white out.
5. Do not write in the page margins or in the half space below the bottom line.
6. Start a new page for each experiment.
7. Please write legibly. If a laboratory notebook cannot be read, the point of having a notebook in
the first place has been utterly defeated.
8. When explaining, summarizing, or answering use complete sentences. Complete sentences are not
necessary when recording data or completing calculations.
Setting up your laboratory notebook

1. Obtain a bound composition notebook in which the pages are bound and not easy to remove.
2. Write your name, course name, and period on the front cover.
3. Write your name and homeroom on the inside cover.
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4. Write and underline Table of Contents on the top line of the first page. (HINT: Rulers are very
helpful for drawing straight lines.)
5. Skip one line and write and underline Experiment Title and on the same line you also will add
small columns for Page and Grade with those titles underlined as well. Each time you perform an
experiment, you will record its title in this list as well as the page number in the notebook where
the experiment begins.
6. In the lower right corner of the right side pages, number each page in the notebook. Remember,
you will not be using the left side pages for writing. Take your time with this step to ensure none
of the pages have stuck together.
Adding an experiment (Pre-Lab Assignment)

Prior to an experiment, you will usually be given an assignment to prepare your laboratory
notebook for the experiment you are about to accomplish. This must be completed before showing up for
lab. If the pre-lab assignment is not completed, you will not be permitted to perform the experiment until
the pre-lab is complete. If as a result you are unable to complete the experiment before the end of the
allotted time, you will need to make arrangements to complete the experiment AFTER SCHOOL within
one week of the original date of the experiment or the experiment will be considered incomplete. The lab
will be scored based on what is in the notebook at the end of that week. (WARNING: This after school
lab makeup policy tends to make coaches and directors upset with students who are late to practice as a
result. Keep this in mind should you decide to leave your pre-lab go until the last minute.)
1. Record the title of the experiment in the table of contents as well as the starting page number
where it may be found.
2. On the first line of the experiment page, write and underline the experiment title.
3. On the second line, include the date the experiment will be performed. If the experiment is
performed on multiple dates, add those dates here when they occur.
4. Leave the third line blank for the names of your lab partner(s) to be filled in during the
experiment.
5. Skip the fourth line and label the fifth line Purpose: and give a brief description of what the
experiment is and why it is relevant to what you are studying in chemistry. Do not copy the
purpose from the experiment guide directly. Put the purpose into your own words to show that
you understand the idea and to prevent plagiarism.
6. Skip a line, label the next line Hazards and Precautions: and list any special hazards you will
encounter during the experiment such as corrosive and flammable chemicals as well as the
chemicals that pose those hazards.
7. Skip a line, label the next line Procedure: and give a summary of the procedures to be used during
the experiment. This should not be a detailed list of step by step procedures but should instead be
a summary of what you will be doing. The laboratory manual itself will be used for the step by
step procedures.
8. Skip a line, label the next line Pre-Lab Questions:
On the next line, begin numbering and answering any and all prelaboratory questions at this time.
It is not necessary to re-write the questions. Simply answer them using complete sentences when
appropriate and showing all work whenever a calculation is required.
9. Skip a line after the last question and label the next line Results and Observations.
During the experiment
1. Under Results and Observations: record all results and observations using as descriptive words
when possible. Example: “pale blue solid” or “sky blue powder” instead of simply “blue solid”
2. Be certain to mention any time that something changes appearance or if bubbles, smoke, flame, or
other signs of chemical reactions occur.
3. After completing the experiment, skip a line and label the next Data.
4. In this section you will organize data into easy to view tables and charts as necessary. Be sure that
all measurements include the required units.
5. After the data section is complete, skip a line and label the next Calculations:
6. In this section you will show an example of all each kind of calculation performed during the
experiment. These calculations should include any formulas used and units on all measurements.
After the experiment

1. Skip a line and label the next Conclusions:. Write a brief explanation of what can be concluded
based on the experiment. If you are unsure, look back to the Purpose section and see how the
experiment accomplished that Purpose.
2. Skip a line and label the next Sources of Error: Write an explanation of specific sources of error
in your experiment and how they affected your data. Did they cause your results to be larger or
smaller than they should be? Human error should not be listed unless a specific mistake caused a
significant result. If that is the case, explain why you did not go back and correct the error. Errors
in calculations are also not a valid source of error. It is expected that if you know enough to know
a calculation is wrong, you also know enough to either go back and fix it or to ask for help if you
are unsure of how to fix it.
3. If it applies to the experiment, skip a line and label the next Percent Error:.
4. Using the formula below, calculate the percent error, showing your calculations in your notebook.
Percent Error = |(Observed value – Accepted value)| x 100%

Accepted value
5. After you finish the calculation, explain why you think your result has the degree of error that you
calculated.
6. Skip a line and label the next Post-Lab Questions:.
7. Beginning on the next line, number and answer the questions. It is not necessary to rewrite the
questions. If a question requires calculations rather than words, be sure to show all of your work.
Example notebook entry from Mr. Rickard’s notebook
Determining the Density of a Block of Metal

February 31, 2011
Lab Partner: Ms. Cipolla
Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to use experimentally determined mass and volume to
calculate the density of a block of metal and then compare that to the known value for the metal.
The formula used for density calculations will be density=mass/volume.
Hazards and Precautions: There are no chemical hazards for this experiment.
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Procedure: Ruler method – In the first part of the experiment, the metal sample will be massed
on a balance and a ruler will be used to determine the dimensions of the metal so that volume may
be calculated with the formula
V = LxWxH.
Graduated cylinder method – In the second part of the experiment, the metal
sample will be massed on a balance and it will then be submersed in a graduated cylinder to
determine the volume of the metal by liquid displacement.
Pre-Laboratory Questions:
1. Density is equal to the mass of a sample divided by its volume.
2. The area of a box can be calculated by multiplying length times width times height.
3. When an object sinks into the water and does not float, the water level will rise by an
amount equal to the volume of the object.
Results and Observations:

 Metal sample is a copper cube
 Metal has shiny, orange color
 Mass = 2.34g
 Cube length = 0.83cm
 Cube width = 0.84cm
 Cube height = 0.85cm
 Starting volume of water = 5.90mL
 Ending volume of water = 6.44mL
Data:
Method Mass Volume Density
Ruler 2.34g 0.59cm3 3.9g/cm3
Cylinder 2.34g 0.54mL 4.3g/cm3
Calculations:
Ruler method volume V= LxWxH

V = 0.83cm x 0.84cm x 0.85cm = 0.59cm3
Ruler method density D =M/V

D = 2.34g / 0.59cm3 = 3.9g/cm3
Cylinder method volume V = final volume – initial volume

V = 6.44mL – 5.90mL = 0.54mL
Cylinder method density D = M/V
Conversion 1mL = 1cm3 so V = 0.54cm3

D = 2.34g / 0.54cm3 = 4.3g/cm3
Conclusions: In this experiment the density of copper was determined to be 3.9g/cm3 by the ruler
method and 4.3 g/cm3 by the graduated cylinder method. Calculating the volumes in different
ways did have an impact on the density even though the volumes seemed to be rather similar.
Sources of Error: The major sources of error in this experiment were the precisions of the
balances, rulers, and graduated cylinders. Had more precise tools been available, this would have
reduced the errors in the measurements.
Percent Error:
Percent Error = |(Observed value – Accepted value)| x 100%

Accepted value
Accepted Value 8.9g/cm3
Ruler method = |(3.9 – 8.9)| / 8.9 x 100% = 56% error
Cylinder method = |(4.3 – 8.9)| / 8.9 x 100% = 52% error
Both results show a significant amount of error but are consistent with each other. This may
indicate that there is an error with the calibration level of the balance. Multiple massings of the
block may have shown an error in the original mass that was never double checked.
Post-Lab Questions:
1. It should be possible to determine the identity of an unknown metal by calculating the density
of the unknown and then comparing the result to known values for various metals.
22
Laboratory Procedures
How to use a Bunsen burner
Bunsen burners are one of the most common sources of heat in high school chemistry laboratories.
They are either on or off and temperature control is accomplished by adjusting flame type or the object’s
distance from the flame. Bunsen burners should not be used in a laboratory where volatile, flammable
chemicals are being used.
Lighting Procedures
1. Safety Check: Make sure the gas is off (handle perpendicular to the gas tap itself,) the tubing
is connected, goggles are on, long hair is tied back, and flammable objects are away from the
Bunsen burner.
2. If the Bunsen burner has an air flow collar at the bottom with small holes, make sure that the
collar is rotated so that the holes are covered/closed.
3. If the Bunsen burner has a valve that controls gas flow, tighten the valve the entire way and
then turn it two or three turns to open it to gas flow. This is a starting point and it may be
turned later to allow more or less gas to the burner.
4. Make sure you have matches or a striker ready to use.
5. If you are using a match, light the match first then turn on the gas tap.
6. If you are using a striker, check for usable flint, then turn the gas on, count to about five, and
then start striking. Remember to apply upward pressure on the striker to produce sparks.
7. Adjust the flame by using the air flow collar or the control valve as needed.
8. DO NOT leave a Bunsen burner unattended. If you need to leave your station, turn the burner
off. It can always be lit again later.
9. Do not blow out a Bunsen burner flame. Turn the flame off by turning off the gas at the tap.
Flame Types
Yellow/Orange Flame: This flame has the lowest temperature over around 300̊C and should not be
used for heating. It is primarily used to ensure the Bunsen burner is working.
Large Blue Flame: This flame can be hard to see when the lights are on. It is very useful and is
about 500̊C.
Inner Blue Cone: This is the hottest flame possible with a Bunsen burner reaching about 700̊C..
The blue flame is concentrated in a small cone near the top of the burner and can actually be heard.
Making this blue cone flame takes practice and patients but is worth the effort.
How to use a hot plate

Hot plates are a useful alternative to Bunsen burners especially when multiple objects need to be
heated at the same time or when more precise temperature control is needed. WARNING: Due to their
ceramic tops, hot plates stay hot for a LONG TIME after being turned off. Extreme care is required.
Heating Procedures
1. Place the objects to be heated on the hot plate BEFORE the hot plate is turned on. This will help
to prevent glass from breaking due to heat stress caused by large temperature differences.
2. Turn the hot plate on to the required setting.
3. Monitor the hot plate while heating is occurring.
4. DO NOT pour cold water on the ceramic top of the hot plate. The extreme difference in
temperature may cause the ceramic top to crack.
5. Turn the hot plate off when heating is complete. If possible, leave some indication that the hot
plate had been used so that others do not accidentally burn themselves.
How to use filter paper for gravity filtration

One of the easiest ways to separate small amounts of solids from solutions is by filtering. For
gravity filtration, you will need the following items:
1. A funnel
2. A piece of filter paper
3. A ring stand and support ring to hold the funnel
4. A container to collect the supernatant
5. The container with the original mixture
6. A wash bottle with the same solvent as your mixture (usually this will be water)
7. Patience
To perform a filtration using the above materials, the following steps may be used.
1. Place the ring stand on the lab bench.
2. Place the collection container on the ring stand base for stability.
3. Attach the support ring to the stand such that the funnel stem extends into the collection
container.
4. Move the collection container so that the funnel stem touches the inner wall of the
container to help minimize splatter.
5. Fold the circular piece of filter paper in half.
6. Fold the now half circle piece of filter paper in half again so that it looks like a quarter of a
circle.
7. Along the curved edge of the folded filter paper, pull three edges to one side and leave the
fourth edge by itself. This will make a cone like cup to collect the solid without letting it
pass through the paper.
8. Place the filter cone cup in the funnel and dampen with solvent from the wash bottle. This
will help the filter paper stay in the funnel and will prime it for filtration.
9. Carefully pour the mixture into the filter cone to filter. Be careful not to allow the liquid
level to rise above the top of the filter paper. This allows the mixture to bypass the filter
paper and head directly to the collection container.
10. Wait patiently while the mixture filters, adding additional mixture to the funnel as it filters.
11. Once filtering is complete, the liquid supernatant should be in the collection container and
the solids should remain in the filter paper.
12. To allow the solids to dry more quickly, carefully remove the filter cone from the funnel
and unfold the cone to allow the solid to spread out and dry more quickly.
24
How to take measurements
The following procedures are meant to be used as quick reminders. If you do not understand how
to use a particular piece of equipment, check these procedures first with your lab partner. If you still
cannot figure out the process, ask Your instructor for help.
Mass
Mass is a measure of how much matter a substance has and is often reported with the units of
grams. We commonly INCORRECTLY refer to mass as weight. Try to break the habit of using weight
when mass is the correct term. It will make you sound more intelligent and will also help you earn a
higher grade when you take physics. If you would like a detailed explanation of the difference between
mass and weight, sign up for physics next year.
Balance
Zero Method
1. For liquids, place an appropriate container such as a beaker or flask on the balance to contain the
liquid.
2. For solids, place a weighing paper or an appropriate container such as a beaker on the balance to
contain the solid and protect the balance pan from the chemical.
3. Press the zero/tare button on the balance.
4. Verify that the balance reads zero as appropriate.
5. Add the chemical to be massed.
6. Once the reading settles, record the mass value. The last digit of the mass has been rounded and is
therefore uncertain.
Container Mass Method

1. For liquids, place an appropriate container such as a beaker or flask on the balance to contain the
liquid.
2. For solids, place a weighing paper or an appropriate container such as a beaker on the balance to
contain the solid and protect the balance pan from the chemical.
3. Record the mass of the container or paper. The last digit of the mass has been rounded and is
therefore uncertain.
4. Add the chemical to be massed.
5. Once the reading settles, record the combined mass value of the chemical in the container and the
container. The last digit of the mass has been rounded and is therefore uncertain.
6. The mass of the chemical is equal to the combined mass minus the mass of the empty container.
The last digit in the result is uncertain.
Example:
Mass of Empty Beaker 121.21g
Mass of Beaker and Powder 123.45g
Mass of Powder 123.45g – 121.21g = 2.24g
Volume
Volume is a measure of how much space matter takes up and is commonly reported in liters or
milliliters. While each of the following may be used to measure volume, they each will vary in the
amount of accuracy they provide based on the size, the number of graduation lines, and any special
classifications of accuracy in the case of pipettes and burettes. Be sure to use the correct tool for the job.
Regardless of the container, the surface of liquids will have a slight downward curve called a
meniscus. The correct way to determine the volume of liquid in a container is to make the measurement
at the BOTTOM of the meniscus. Remember to estimate an additional decimal place past the smallest
graduation line of the container. This estimated digit is uncertain.
Beaker - low accuracy

Beakers are meant to hold chemicals rather than to accurately determine the volume of the liquid
in the beaker. Beaker graduations are meant as an estimate only.
Erlenmeyer Flask - low accuracy

Erlenmeyer flasks are meant to hold chemicals rather than to accurately determine the volume of
the liquid in the flask. Erlenmeyer flask graduations are meant as an estimate only.
Graduated Cylinder - medium accuracy

Graduated cylinders are meant to provide and accurate estimate of the volume of liquid in the
cylinder before the liquid is transferred to another container. Graduated cylinders come in a variety of
sizes and are more accurate than beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks but less accurate than pipettes, burettes,
and volumetric flasks.
Pipette (aka Pipet) - high accuracy

Pipettes are used to transfer an accurate volume of liquid from one container to another. They use
a bulb to draw in the chemical. Never pipette by mouth. Pipets are more accurate than beakers,
Erlenmeyer flasks, and graduated cylinders.
Burette (aka Buret) - high accuracy

Burettes are used to transfer an accurate volume of liquid from one container to another at a
controlled rate of flow. They use a stopcock to control the rate of flow from a steady stream, to single
drops, to no flow at all. Burets are more accurate than beakers, Erlenmeyer flasks, and graduated
cylinders.
Volumetric Flask- high accuracy at single volume
Volumetric flasks are used to measure a single exact volume of a liquid or solution. While all of
the above glassware may have several graduations, a volumetric flask has a single reference line. The
volume stated on the flask is the volume of liquid at that reference line. Accurate determination of
volume above or below the reference line is not reliable. Volumetric flasks are more accurate than
beakers, Erlenmeyer flasks, and graduated cylinders at the specified volume.
26
Temperature
Temperature is a measurement of the amount of average heat energy of particles in a sample. In
the chemistry laboratory it is usually measured in degrees Celsius.
Digital Thermometer
1. Place the thermometer in contact with the substance to be measured.
2. Wait for the temperature readout to stabilize. The last digit has been rounded and is uncertain.
Liquid Thermometer
1. Place the thermometer in contact with the substance to be measured.
2. Wait for the liquid level inside of the thermometer to stabilize. The liquid in our
thermometers is alcohol and not mercury. If the thermometer breaks it is a fire hazard.
3. Read the temperature like you would the volume of a liquid. Remember to estimate an
additional decimal place past the smallest graduation line of the thermometer. This estimated
digit is uncertain.
4. Be careful not to overheat the thermometer. If the volume of the liquid in the thermometer
expands past the capacity of the thermometer, the thermometer will burst.
Length
Length is a measurement of how long a given object is in a given direction. In the chemistry
laboratory, length is typically measured in centimeters. Large distances may be measured in meters.
Ruler
1. Make sure that the zero mark is lined up with one edge of the object to be measured. If the
ruler does not have a visible zero mark, make note of the measurement at the edge of the
object or obtain a replacement ruler that does have a visible zero mark.
2. Using the graduation lines on the ruler, record the measurement as needed. Remember to
estimate an additional decimal place past the smallest graduation line of the ruler. This
estimated digit is uncertain.
Laboratory Experiments
This section of the laboratory manual will detail several of the major experiments that you will
perform this year in chemistry. Your teacher may add additional experiments if time permits. Any
additional experiments will follow a similar format and you will need to follow the normal policies and
procedures.
The three golden rules for experiments are always

1. Be safe in the lab.
2. Known and understand the experiment before you do it.
3. If you have questions, ask your instructor.
Golden Penny
Precipitates
Specific Heat
pH
Titration
28
Experiment Title: Thinking Inside of a Box
Background Information:
This first experiment is a simulated one where all of the data required has already been collected
and is provided to you. It is meant to give you a chance to learn how to write up an experiment in your
laboratory notebook without the added stress of taking measurements and recording observations while
performing the experiment yourself. Take your time. Follow the guidelines. Don’t wait until the last
minute. If you have questions, email Ms. Cipolla or Mr. Rickard and they will get back to you as soon as
their summer schedules permit.
The Story So Far: A sweaty-toothed mad man has trapped you and your entire chemistry class
inside of the laboratory and has done devious and nefarious things to make the room completely air tight.
He has agreed to let you out of the room if you can tell him how long before the oxygen in the room will
run out and show data and calculations to support your answer. He reminds you that air is actually mostly
nitrogen gas and is only 21% oxygen gas. He also gives you a hint that an average person uses 1.75 liters
of oxygen gas per minute in order to breathe.
Purpose:
To determine how long the oxygen gas supply will last in a sealed classroom full of students.
Materials:
Quant Item Description
1 meter stick
1 calculator
Hazards:
There are no chemical or equipment hazards for this experiment.
1. How many liters are there in one cubic meter?
2. How would you calculate the volume of a room if the room is estimated to be a rectangular box?
Procedures:
1. Determine the length of the room as accurately as possible using a meter stick. Record this value
in your laboratory notebook. Do not forget the units!
2. Determine the width of the room as accurately as possible using a meter stick. Record this value in
your laboratory notebook. Do not forget the units!
3. Determine the height of the room as accurately as possible using a meter stick. Record this value
in your laboratory notebook. Do not forget the units!
4. Clean up and put all of your laboratory equipment back where it belongs.
Simulated Data Table:

Copy the following data table into your laboratory notebook in place of measuring the dimensions
yourself. These will be the values used for all of the required calculations.
Room Length 15.243m
Room Width 9.697m
Room Height 3.544m
Required Calculations: (REMEMBER TO SHOW ALL OF YOUR WORK)

1. What is the volume of the room in cubic meters?
2. What is the volume of the room in liters?
3. How many liters of breathable oxygen are in the room?
4. If your class has twenty four students and one teacher, how many minutes will the oxygen
last? Round to the nearest minute for these calculations.
Percent Error:
There is no percent error for this experiment.
Post-Laboratory Question:
1. Explain how measuring the room as a simple, empty box affects the amount of oxygen in the room
as compared to a situation in which you took into account for all of the other objects in the room
that take up space such as desks, chairs, benches, etc.
30
Experiment Title: Candle Observations
In this experiment you will be exploring the differences between observing and seeing as well as
between observations and explanations. A wise chemistry teacher once said that the difference between
seeing and observing is the same as the difference between hearing and listening. Listening and observing
require active participation and attention by the person which hearing and seeing can be passive actions.
By the end of the experiment you will hopefully find that by actively observing a candle, something you
have probably seen dozens of times during your life, you will be able to develop predictions and theories
about what is happening.
Purpose:
1. To determine what observations can be made about how candles burn
2. To determine if it is possible to predict how a candle will burn in a given situation
3. To determine how to these observations and predictions differ from explanations of why the
candle burns in a certain way
Materials:
To complete this experiment, you will need the following items
PER PERSON
1 safety goggles 1 laboratory apron
PER GROUP
1 pack of matches 1 ceramic dish
1 600mL or larger beaker 1 400mL beaker
1 ~100mL beaker 1 small crucible
2 candles, tea light style 1 stopwatch or other timing
device
Hazards:
You will be working with flames in this experiment. Therefore, all fire safety rules are in effect.
Be sure you know where all fire safety equipment is located before you start the experiment.
Matches are not to be thrown in the sink or in the garbage can. They are to be collected in the
larger ceramic dish while they cool. At the end of the experiment, your teacher will explain what to do
with the used matches.
1. Where are the fire extinguishers, fire blanket, and safety shower located in your laboratory?
2. What is the difference between an observation and an explanation?
3. What three things are required for a fire to occur?
4. What happens if one or more of the three things needed for a fire is missing or runs out while a
fire burns?
5. If you place two candles at different heights within a closed container, which one would you
expect to go out first? Explain your reasoning.
6. ACADEMIC CHEMISTRY: Give a brief summary of the procedures of the experiment listed
below.
Procedures:
Part 1: Single Candle

1. Place a single candle on the laboratory bench.
2. Record at least three observations about the candle.
3. Use a match to light the candle and then place the used match in the ceramic dish.
RECOMMENDATION: Do not blow the match out once the candle is lit. Instead, gently shake it
back and forth until the flame goes out. This will prevent you from accidentally blowing out your
candle or the candle of another group.
4. Record at least five observations of the burning candle while it burns for at least one minute. Do
not move on to the next part until your group has made at least five observations.
Part 2: Single Candle with Beakers of Different Sizes
1. Cover your burning candle from Part 1 with the 600mL beaker and record how long it takes for
the flame to go out.
2. Record at least three observations of what happened inside of the beaker once the candle was
covered with the beaker.
3. Remove the 600mL beaker and light the candle with a new match.
4. Cover the burning candle with a 400mL beaker and record how long it takes for the flame to go
out.
5. Record any differences you observe between what happened when the 400mL beaker was placed
over the candle compared to when the 600mL beaker was placed over the candle.
6. Remove the 400mL beaker and light the candle with a new match.
7. Cover the burning candle with a 100mL beaker and record how long it takes for the flame to go
out.
8. Record any differences you observe between what happened when the 100mL beaker was placed
over the candle compared to when the 600mL and 400mL beakers were placed over the candle.
Part 3: Single Candle in a Reused Beaker
1. Rinse the 400mL beaker out with water and then dry it with a paper towel.
2. Light the candle with a new match.
3. Cover the candle with the 400mL beaker and start the timer.
4. Remove the beaker carefully when the candle is ALMOST out and stop the timer.
5. Sit the 400mL beaker FACE DOWN on the laboratory bench as gently as possible.
6. Light the candle again if it accidentally went out in step twelve.
7. Lift the 400mL beaker straight up and use it to cover the candle. Record how long it takes for the
candle to go out.
Part 4: Two Candles in the Same Beaker

1. Turn the crucible upside down and place it on the laboratory bench.
2. Place one of the candles on top of the crucible.
3. Place the other candle on the laboratory bench beside and touching the crucible.
4. Check to ensure that you can cover both candles at the same time with your large beaker. If you
cannot, double check your setup and get a larger beaker if necessary.
5. Lit both candles with a new match.
32
6. Cover both candles at the same time with the single large beaker and record how long each candle
flame takes to go out.
7. Clean up your laboratory station and return all materials to the designated locations.
Example Data Tables:

Beaker Size Time Burning 400mL Beaker Time Burning
First Use
Second Use
Candle Location Time Burning

On Crucible
On Bench
Percent Error:
There are no percent error calculations for this experiment. You will still need to discuss sources
of error.
Post-Laboratory Questions:
1. What relationship did you observe between the size of the beaker and the amount of time it took
for the candle to go out?
2. HONORS ONLY: Draw a graph of TIME vs BEAKER SIZE from Part 2 to show this
relationship.
3. Develop a theory based on your observations from Parts 1 and 2 to explain WHY the candle goes
out.
4. Using your theory from Post-Laboratory Question #3, explain your results to experiment Part 3.
5. Compare your results from Part 4 to the prediction you made in Pre-Laboratory Question #5. If
the results were different than what you predicted, explain why the candles went out in the order
that they did.
6. Often times on the inside of the beaker a hazy fog is observed. What is this fog and where does it
come from?
7. HONORS ONLY: Remember, your answer to Post-Laboratory Question #6 is a theory. Develop
an experiment to test the correctness of your theory.
Experiment Title: Separating the Sludge
There are a variety of methods that may be used to separate components in a mixture. No one
method will work in all situations because of the variety of physical and chemical properties of the
components. When liquid chemicals have distinct polarities like oil and water, they may separate into
layers that can be separated by hand. Some solid components may be large enough that they may be
removed by hand or with a pair of tongs or tweezers. Smaller components may be separated by using a
filter much like a coffee pot. Sometimes the particles will be too small to filter or may be dissolved in
another component and a process called distillation is needed. Distillation relies on the substances having
different boiling points so that one boils away and leaves the other behind in the container.
Purpose:
To separate a mixture into its components using processes such as filtration and distillation.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 hot plate 1 laboratory balance
2 250mL beaker 2 watch glass to cover beaker
1 insulating pad or wire mesh 1 laboratory tongs
1 filter paper 1 clay triangle
1 ring clamp 1 glass stir rod
1 ring stand 1 funnel
1 tweezers 1 beaker tongs
Sludge Sample weighing paper
Hazards:
This experiment makes use of hot plates, hot water, and hot glass. Proper procedures for the
prevention of burns, broken glass, and cuts must be observed.
1. Explain how filtration works.
2. Describe a situation in which filtration would not work and explain why filtration would not work.
3. Explain how distillation works.
4. Is it possible to collect all components of a mixture separated using distillation? Explain your
reasoning.
Procedures:
Part 1: Removing Solids

1. Obtain a Sludge Sample from your instructor.
34
2. Determine the mass of the Sludge Sample as accurately as possible and record the value.
3. Record the mass of a clean piece of weighing paper.
4. Remove any large chunks from the Sludge Sample and place them on the weighing paper. Make
sure there are no small particles stuck to the large chunks. Any small particles should be returned
to the Sludge Sample.
5. Record the mass of the chunks and the weigh paper.
6. Place the remaining Sludge Mixture in a 250mL beaker and add approximately 100mL of water.
7. Stir the mixture thoroughly to make sure any particles that will dissolve have done so.
8. Using a PENCIL, write your Period and Group Numbers on both sides of the
filter paper so that you will be able to identify it in the future.
9. Record the mass of a piece of filter paper.
10. Prepare the filter paper for gravity filtration inside of the funnel. See the
instructions in the Laboratory Procedures section earlier in this manual if you
need a step by step procedure.
11. Record the mass of the second clean beaker.
12. Construct the experimental setup pictured in Figure SS1 using a ring stand, a
Figure SS1
clean beaker, ring clamp, clay triangle, funnel, and filter paper.
13. Decant the liquid from the first beaker into the filter using a stirring rod. DO NOT allow the
liquid level to rise above the top of the filter paper. Try to keep as many of the solid particles as
possible in the original beaker for now to help reduce the filtration time.
14. Move the solid particles to the filter paper and rinse the beaker with a small amount of water to
transfer the last few particles if needed.
15. Set the beaker with the supernatant (the liquid that passed through the filter paper) aside for Part 2
of the experiment.
16. Carefully remove the filter paper from the funnel and sit it on the watch glass.
17. Open the filter paper so that the sand spreads out and dries as quickly as possible.
18. Store the filter paper as instructed so that it will dry over night so that you may determine its mass
tomorrow.
Part 2: Recovering Dissolved Components

1. Record the mass of a second clean, dry watch glass.
2. Set up a hot plate on your bench.
3. Place the beaker with supernatant you set aside in Part 1 on the hot plate and cover it with the
watch glass.
4. Turn the hot plate on at a setting of between 8 and 10.
5. Watch the beaker as the solution begins to boil.
6. Reduce the heat to a setting between 4 and 6 once the solution is boiling.
7. Remove the beaker from the hot plate using the tongs when the water has evaporated. If the salt
crystals start spattering and popping, it is time to take the beaker off the hot plate. The watch glass
is there to keep the salt inside of the beaker.
8. Allow the beaker to cool to room temperature.
9. Record the mass of the beaker, watch glass, and salt.
Part 3: Clean Up
1. Make sure that your wet sand and filter paper is located in the proper area for drying.
2. Wash all glassware in the sink. The salt solution may be rinsed down the drain.
3. Return all equipment to the proper location in the laboratory. If the hot plate is still hot, simply
leave it on your laboratory bench while it cools.
4. Wipe down your bench using wet paper towels.
5. Return your safety equipment to the appropriate locations.
Part 4: Mass of Sand and Final Clean Up

1. Record the mass of the dry sand and the dry filter paper. If your filter paper is still damp, place it
in the appropriate location per your instructor and check it the following day.
2. Place the dry sand in the appropriate container per your instructor and place the filter paper in the
garbage.
3. Wash the watch glass and return it to the appropriate location.
4. Wipe down your lab bench using damp paper towels.
Experimental Data
Mass of Sludge Sample
Mass of weighing paper
Mass of weighing paper with chunks
Mass of dry filter paper
Mass of dry filter paper with dry sand
Mass of second clean beaker
Mass of second watch glass
Mass of beaker, watch glass, and salt
Required Calculations:
1. Calculate the mass of the chunks.
2. Calculate the mass of the sand.
3. Calculate the mass of the salt.
4. Calculate the total mass of all collected components.
5. Calculate a percent mass of the chunks.
6. Calculate a percent mass of the sand.
7. Calculate a percent mass of the salt.
Percent mass formula: component mass x100%
Sludge Sample mass
Percent Error:
Calculate the percent error between the total masses of all components to the original mass of the
sludge mixture.
Formula:
Sludge Sample mass – (collected component mass) x100%
Sludge Sample mass
1. Why was it necessary to filter the mixture before the water was boiled?
2. Why was it unnecessary to determine the mass of the water at any point during the experiment?
3. Why was it important to use a watch glass to cover the boiling supernatant?
4. Why was it necessary to allow the sand to dry over night before obtaining the mass?
5. How would using a mass of damp sand have affected your results?
36
Experiment Title: Measurement Making
In the past, you have most likely used the English System of measurement which includes units
such as inches, pounds, and degrees Fahrenheit. Unfortunately, these are not the most commonly used
units within the science laboratory. The Metric System is used for most of the standard measurements in
science laboratories worldwide. This helps scientists to better understand results obtained by other
scientists regardless of where the scientists live and work.
In math classes such as algebra and geometry, numbers can simply be numbers. For example,
division problem answers will often be left in fractional form such as 4/3 or will use an indication for a
number that repeats indefinitely such as 1.3. In the science laboratory however, most numbers we are
using in our calculations are not just numbers, but are actually measurements. Measurements all have a
level of precision and error based on the equipment being used to make the measurement. This often
makes the fractional or repeated answer inaccurate. The key is to determine the correct level of precision
and record the measurement to reflect that precision.
Purpose:
1. To review the Metric System of measurement
2. To practice measuring using common laboratory equipment
3. To practice determining error levels of measurements.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER CLASS
Various stations around the room will be used. These will be provided
by the instructor. Do not alter the stations at any time.
Hazards:
1. Review the How to Take Measurements section at the beginning of this manual.
2. Explain what a meniscus is and why it is important.
3. Explain why estimation is necessary for many measurements in the laboratory.
Procedures:
For this experiment, you will start at one of several stations located around the room, each
with its own set of instructions. You will have a limited time at each station before rotating to
the next station. Be sure to make all of the indicated measurements at each station. This
experiment will be due at the end of the period and may not be taken home without permission
from the instructor.
38
Mass Station #1
1. Record individual masses for each of the three items at the station.
2. Record a combined mass of all three items by placing them on a balance at the same time.
3. Explain why it is possible for the sum of the individual masses not to equal the mass obtained by
massing all three items at the same time due to the accuracy of the balance itself.
Mass Station #2
1. Record individual masses for each of the three items at the station.
2. Determine what combination of items would provide a total between 20.0g and 21.0g. (Example,
if Item#1 is 3.0g, Item #2 is 2.0g, Item #3 is 25.1g, one possible solution would be to use seven of
Item #1 for a total of 21.0g)
3. Determine a second combination that would meet the same requirements.
Volume Station #1
1. Record individual volumes for each of the three liquid samples located in graduated cylinders at
the station.
2. Add 200mL of water directly to the 600mL beaker at the bench.
3. Transfer the water from the beaker into a 250mL graduated cylinder and record the volume as
measured in the graduated cylinder.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 two more times.
5. Explain whether the beaker or the graduated cylinder is more accurate and be sure to explain your
reasoning.
Volume Station #2
1. Record individual volumes for each of the three liquid samples located in graduated cylinders at
the station.
2. Measure out one cup of water as exactly as you can using the kitchen style measuring cup
provided.
3. Transfer the water from the measuring cup into a 250mL or 500mL graduated cylinder and record
the volume as measured in the graduated cylinder.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 two more times.
5. Calculate an average volume in mL for one cup of water.
6. Show your answer to your instructor who will give you the accepted value of mL in one cup.
Calculate the percent error between your average and the accepted.
Temperature Station
1. Record the temperature of the boiling water using each of the three thermometers at the station.
2. Record the temperature of the ice water using each of the three thermometers at the station.
3. Explain which thermometer you think is the most accurate and how you reached that conclusion.
Length Station #1
1. Record the length of each of the three thin, straight items located at the station.
2. Record the circumference of the beaker at the lab station.
3. Calculate the area of the piece of aluminum foil at the lab station.
Length Station #2
1. Record the dimensions of a floor tile using each ruler located at the station.
2. Estimate the area of the classroom.
3. Explain how you arrived at your estimate.
Combined Station
1. Determine the volume of the metal cube using the ruler provided at the station.
2. Determine the volume of the metal cylinder using the ruler provided at the station.
3. Determine the volume of the metal cube using the graduated cylinder provided at the station.
4. Determine the volume of the metal cylinder using the graduated cylinder provided at the station.
5. Explain whether the ruler or the graduated cylinder is more effective for measuring volumes of
small objects and how you reached that conclusion.
Station Object Description Measurement
All required calculations were listed in the Procedure section of the experiment.
Percent Error:
Show your percent error calculations for the measuring cup of water from Volume Station #2.
All required questions were listed in the Procedure section of the experiment.
40
Experiment Title: Density
Objects can come in various shapes and sizes. There could be a large wooden block or a small
rubber ball. While the size and shape of two objects may be different, if they are made of the same
substance, the two objects should have the same density because density is a physical property of a
substance. Density is a measure of how much mass a sample has divided by the volume of the sample.
For any given substance, its density should be constant regardless of the size and shape.
This can be very helpful in identifying an unknown as you are about to experience for yourself
during the course of this experiment..
Purpose:
1. To experimentally determine the density of several metal cylinders.
2. To determine the identity of an unknown metal based on its experimentally determined
density.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 metal sample set 1 laboratory balance
1 ruler 1 unknown metal sample
1 10 or 25mL graduated
cylinder
Hazards:
There are no chemical hazards in this experiment. Don’t lick the glassware. Don’t chew on the
metal cylinders or unknowns. Use common sense and you’ll be fine.
1. Which would you expect to have a higher density golf balls or Styrofoam? Explain your
reasoning.
2. How can you tell the difference between pennies, dimes, nickels, and quarters in a pile?
3. What are two different ways of determining the volume of a small cube in a chemistry laboratory?
Procedures:
For each metal sample complete each of the following steps.

1. Write down observations about color, shape, and other observable properties of the sample.
2. Determine the mass of the sample on a balance and record it.
3. Estimate the volume of the sample using a ruler. Record all measurements and show the
calculations.
4. Fill a graduated cylinder about halfway with water.
5. Record the volume of water.
6. Place the sample in the graduated cylinder carefully by tilting the cylinder and sliding the sample
gently down the side.
Clean-up
1. Dry all metal samples, known and unknown with a paper towel.
2. Return all glassware and supplies to the appropriate locations.
3. Return all other supplies to the appropriate locations.
4. Wipe down the laboratory bench.
5. Return safety equipment to the appropriate locations.
Sample Mass Ruler Ruler Based Graduated Graduated

Volume Density Cylinder Cylinder
Volume Based
Density
1. Calculate the volume of the sample based on the water volumes and record it.
2. Calculate the density of the sample using both the ruler volume and the graduated cylinder volume
and record them.
Percent Error:
1. Calculate the percent error between the densities that used the graduated cylinder volumes and the
accepted values for metals listed in class.
2. Calculate the percent error between the density of your unknown and the three closest densities
from the chart of accepted values listed in class.
1. What substance do you think is your unknown? Explain your reasoning. Be sure to mention your
percent error calculation results as a part of your explanation. HINT: If you didn’t pick the
smallest percent error as the identity of your unknown, you need to explain why you picked
another metal.
2. Which method gave better results, the ruler volumes or the graduated cylinder volumes? Explain
your reasoning.
3. How could traders tell the difference between real gold and “fool’s gold” using skills you have
used in the laboratory?
42
Experiment Title: Hydrates
Have you ever ended up with a wet cell phone? Maybe you got stuck in the rain. Maybe you were
pushed into a swimming boots. Maybe you dropped it in the toilet while texting. Before taking it back to
the store and hoping they will fix it for you, one of the things you can try is to put the damp phone in a
bag with rice for a day or two. Over time, the rice will absorb moisture from the phone and hopefully the
phone will work. An alternative to rice would be the silica packets that come with a lot of electronics.
You know the one, it has the “do not eat me” warning on it. It is there to keep the electronics for getting
damaged by moisture between the factory and when you buy it.
A lot of chemicals are like this. We call them “hygroscopic” meaning, they absorb moisture from
their surroundings, including the humidity from the air. In the chemistry lab, sodium hydroxide is the
classic example. You can see just how much moisture it absorbs by leaving it on a balance and watching
it over time. That, however, is another lab for another day.
This lab will focus on chemicals that have extra water trapped in with the actual chemical. The
chemical and water molecules come as a set. Depending on the chemical, it may come with a single
water molecule in a 1:1 ratio. Other chemicals come in a 2:1 ratio. Still other chemicals may come with
more than ten water molecules for each one molecule of chemical. That’s a lot of water! And that water
adds mass.
Purpose:
1. To determine the percentage of water in a chemical with known composition.
2. To determine the percentage of water in a chemical with unknown composition.
3. To determine the hydrated formula of the chemical with unknown composition.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 hot plate 1 laboratory balance
2 400mL beaker 1 watch glass to cover beaker
1 insulating pad or wire mesh 1 laboratory tongs
calcium chloride dihydrate unknown sample
Hazards:
calcium chloride dihydrate
1. Write the formula for calcium chloride.
2. Calculate a molar mass of calcium chloride.
3. Explain why it is necessary to know whether or not a chemical is a hydrate if you are preparing a
2.0M solution.
Procedures:
Part A: Percentage of Water in Calcium Chloride Dihydrate

1. Record the mass of the clean, dry beaker and watch glass.
2. Remove the watch glass using the tongs.
3. Zero the balance.
4. Add calcium chloride dehydrate until the balance reads between 1.0 and 2.0 grams and then record
the mass.
5. Move the beaker to the hot plate using the tongs.
6. Cover the beaker with the watch glass using the tongs.
7. Heat the hydrate gently to avoid spattering the salt until all moisture has evaporated and can no
longer be seen on the beaker or watch glass. The salt should change from crystals to a powder.
8. Use tongs to transfer the hot beaker and watch glass to the insulating pad or wire mesh to allow it
to cool for at least five minutes. Do not touch it during the five minutes.
9. Use tongs to transfer the beaker and watch glass to the balance.
10. Record the final mass of the combined beaker, watch glass, and powder.
11. Empty the contents of the beaker into a paper towel and discard in the designated container.
12. Clean the beaker out with a dry paper towel. Do not use water at this point.
13. Calculate the percentage of water in the sample based on your results and record on the
instructor’s sheet.
14. Check with the instructor to see if you need to repeat Part A or if you may move on to Part B.
Part B: Percentage of Water in an Unknown Sample.

1. Obtain an unknown from your instructor.
2. Record the letter or number of your unknown.
3. Record the mass of the clean, dry beaker and watch glass.
4. Remove the watch glass using the tongs.
5. Zero the balance.
6. Add calcium chloride dehydrate until the balance reads between 1.0 and 2.0 grams and then record
the mass.
7. Move the beaker to the hot plate using the tongs.
8. Cover the beaker with the watch glass using the tongs.
9. Heat the hydrate gently to avoid spattering the salt until all moisture has evaporated and can no
longer be seen on the beaker or watch glass. The salt should change from crystals to a powder.
10. Use tongs to transfer the hot beaker and watch glass to the insulating pad or wire mesh to allow it
to cool for at least five minutes. Do not touch it during the five minutes.
11. Use tongs to transfer the beaker and watch glass to the balance.
12. Record the final mass of the combined beaker, watch glass, and powder.
13. Empty the contents of the beaker into a paper towel and discard in the designated container.
14. Clean the beaker out with a dry paper towel. Do not use water at this point.
15. Calculate the percentage of water in the sample based on your results and record on the
instructor’s sheet.
Part C: Clean Up
6. Wash all glassware with water and return to the appropriate locations.
7. Clean off the pan of the electric balance.
8. Clean the top of the hot plate once it has cooled. Do not try to wash the hot plate before it has
cooled so that the ceramic top does not shatter.
9. Wipe down your lab bench with a damp sponge or paper towel.
44
Part A Part B
Mass of beaker and watch Mass of beaker and watch
glass glass
Mass of calcium chloride Mass of unknown hydrate
dihydrate
Combined mass of beaker, Combined mass of beaker,
watch glass, and calcium watch glass, and unknown
chloride dihydrate hydrate
Combined mass of beaker, Combined mass of beaker,
watch glass, and calcium watch glass, and unknown
chloride anhydrate anhydrate
Mass water lost Mass water lost
1. Mass water lost for each trial.
2. Percent water in sample for each trial.
Formula: mass of water x 100=
mass of hydrate
3. Percent of water in CaCl2*2H2O
Percent Error:
Calculate the percent error in your measurement of water in the calcium chloride dihydrate. The
accepted value for calcium chloride dihydrate is your answer to Required Calculation #3.
1. Why was it necessary to handle the beaker and watch glass with tongs after recording their
masses?
2. How could the procedure be changed in order to ensure that all of the water has left the original
sample making it completely anhydrous?
3. Based on your results from Part B, determine the identity of your unknown by comparing it to a
list provided by your instructor. Which chemical do you think was your unknown? Explain your
reasoning.
4. HONORS ONLY: Determine the chemical formula of the hydrated version of your unknown.
Show all of your calculations. Your answer should be in the form AxBy*ZH2O.
Experiment Title: Precipitation
Many times people think that just because a solution is clear, it must be clean and not have any
chemicals in it. Nothing could be further from the truth. Many clear solutions have ions in them just
waiting to react with other substances and ions. In this experiment, various solutions of various colors
will be mixed in small amounts and reactions may or may not take place. Keep a sharp eye out and use
the solubility rules to help determine what is reactions are occurring and which combinations are simply
“No Reactions.”
Purpose:
1. Observe and identify precipitates formed when aqueous solutions are mixed.
2. Write balanced equations for each reaction.
3. Determine which of the possible products is the precipitate based on solubility rules.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 96-well plate for reactions 1 24 well plate for chemicals
1 set of 10 chemicals in 1 sheet white paper
disposable pipets
Hazards:
sodium hydroxide:
barium hydroxide:
1. What is a precipitate?
2. How can you observe if a precipitate has formed?
3. Use solubility rules to determine which of the following four chemicals would form an aqueous
solution and not be a precipitate. There may be more than one. List the rule number that led to
your decision for each chemical.
KCl AgCl Al(OH)3 Ca(OH)2
Procedures:
1. Obtain a set of sample chemicals from your instructor.
2. Place your 96 well plate on the piece of white paper.
3. Add the first sodium containing chemical to the first five wells of the first row.
4. Add the second sodium containing chemical to the first five wells of the second row.
5. Repeat with each sodium containing compound.
46
6. Add the first chloride containing chemical to each of the wells in the first column that already has
a sodium compound in it.
7. Add the second chloride containing chemical to each of the wells in the second column that
already has a sodium compound in it.
8. Repeat with each chloride containing compound.
9. Create a data table like the one listed below.
10. Record your observations of what happened in each well in the appropriate block of the data table.
Be sure to look at the well plate over the white paper and over the black laboratory bench to make
sure you don’t miss anything.
Clean-up Procedures
11. Place a paper towel on the laboratory bench.
12. Turn your 96 well tray over onto the paper towel and then gently tap the tray against the bench to
dislodge the solutions in the wells.
13. Throw the paper towel in the garbage can.
14. Rinse the 96 well tray three times with tap water, tapping the tray against the inside of the sink
after each rinse to dislodge the water in the wells.
15. Place your 96 well tray upside down on a clean paper towel to dry.
16. Return all other supplies to the appropriate locations.
17. Wipe down the laboratory bench.
18. Return safety equipment to the appropriate locations.

CoCl2 CuCl2 AlCl3 BaCl2 NiCl2
NaI cloudy ppt, No RXN
light blue
Na2CO3
Na3PO4
Na2SO4
NaOH
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for each well in which a precipitate formed.
2. Write a balanced complete ionic equation for each well in which a precipitate formed.
3. Write a balanced net ionic equation for each well in which a precipitate formed.
4. For each precipitate, list which solubility rule shows that the precipitate should be insoluble.
Experiment Title: Specific Heat
This experiment will focus on the flow of heat energy between objects of temperatures until
equilibrium is established. It relies on the property of specific heat being consistent for a substance
regardless of the size of the sample of the substance.
Purpose:
1. Experimentally determine the specific heat values for metal samples of known composition
using calorimetry
2. Calculate the accuracy of the experimental results by comparing to accepted values.
Materials:
Appropriate safety attire is required.
Quant Item Description Quant Item Description

1 coffee cup calorimeter 1 digital thermometer
1 400mL beaker for tap water 1 electronic balance, higher
sample precision preferred
1 25mL graduated cylinder 1 metal samples
Hazards:
Hot plates and hot water will be used in this experiment.
1. none at this time
Procedures:
1. Fill a beaker with 300mL of tap water and sit it aside so that it comes to room temperature.
2. Set up a coffee cup calorimeter
3. Record the mass of your calorimeter.
4. Measure out about 75mL of tap water and add it to the calorimeter.
5. Record the mass of the combined calorimeter and water.
THE FOLLOWING STEPS NEED TO BE CARRIED OUT QUICKLY AND EFFICIENTLY
6. Record the temperature of the water and calorimeter.
7. Obtain a hot metal sample from one of the hot plates.
8. Add the metal sample to your calorimeter and stir until the temperature stabilizes.
9. Record this temperature in your laboratory notebook.
10. Remove the metal sample from the calorimeter and dry it off completely with a paper towel.
11. Record the mass of the metal sample.
12. Empty your calorimeter water down the drain.
13. Repeat steps 4-12 as instructed.
48
Required calculations:
(For this lab, show all calculations for all trials.)
1. Calculate the energy gained by the calorimeter in each trial.
The specific heat of water is 4.184J/gK and the specific heat for your calorimeter is as given
by your instructor. (This will have been determined in a previous lab.)
2. Using Conservation of Energy, calculate the specific heat value for each of your metal
samples.
3. Calculate your percent error between your experimental values and the values given to you by
your instructor.
Percent Error:
Percent Error = |(accepted value – your value) / accepted value| x 100%
1. Explain how the Law of Conservation of Energy makes this lab possible.
2. Explain how the sign of “q” indicates whether heat was lost or gained.
3. What could you have done differently to make this lab work more effectively?
4. What sources of error contributed to your values being different than the accepted?
REMEMBER: Human Error and Math Mistakes are not acceptable answers.
Conclusion:
Write a one paragraph conclusion that covers the following key points:
your actual results
your percent errors
how accurate you think the results are within the confines of the experiment
Experiment Title: Calorimetry – Heat of Fusion of Ice
Insert background information here
Purpose:
To determine the amount of heat energy required to melt one gram of ice.
This value is known as the heat of fusion and is measured in joules.
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 250mL beaker 1 scoop
2 Styrofoam cups 1 100mL graduated cylinder
1 thermometer 1 hot plate
1 beaker tongs 1 support stand
1 extension clamp sample of ice
Hazards:
1. Explain what happens at a molecular level when ice melts.
2. Explain what happens at a molecular level when water boils.
3. What phase does water typically take at room temperature?
4. How does sitting near a camp fire keep you warm?
50
Procedures:
1. Place a beaker containing about 120mL of water on the hot plate.
2. Support the thermometer in the beaker per Figure HFI1 so that you
may measure the temperature of the water as it is heated. Be sure not
to have the thermometer touching the bottom of the beaker as you
may get an incorrect temperature reading of the beaker rather than the
water inside of the beaker.
3. Heat the water to a temperature of about 50̊C.
4. Measure 100.0mL of the hot water using the graduated cylinder.
5. Record this volume as V1.
6. Pour the hot water into a Styrofoam cup.
7. Measure and record the temperature of the water in the Styrofoam cup
as T1.
8. Immediately add several ice cubes to the cup.
9. Continue to add ice so that ice is present at all times.
10. When temperature no longer decreases, this is T2. Record
Figure HFI1
11. Carefully remove the remaining ice. Try not to take water with it.
12. Find the volume of water in remaining in the cup.
13. This volume is V2. Record.
V1
V2
T1
T2
1. Find the volume of water that resulted from the ice melting. (V2-V1)
2. Using the density of water -1.00g/mL, find the mass of 100.0mL of water and the mass of the
volume in #1.
3. Find the change in temperature.
4. Calculate the heat transferred using. ΔQ = mcΔT
c = 4.2J/g ̊C
m = answer found in #2
ΔT = the answer found in #3
5. The heat of fusion of ice is determined by dividing the amount of heat transferred by the mass of
water resulting from the ice melting.
Percent Error:
Calculate your percent error for the heat of fusion of ice.
Accepted value is 336J/g
1. How much energy would be needed to melt 75.0g of ice based on your results? Show your
calculations.
2. How would having excess water on your ice at the start affected your results? Explain your
reasoning.
3. How would having ice below 0 degrees Celsius affected your results?
Explain your reasoning.
4. Why did you need to be careful to take as little water as possible out when you removed the ice?
52
Experiment Title: Molar Volume of Hydrogen Gas
One mole of an ideal gas should occupy a volume of 22.4L according to the Ideal Gas Law at
STP. The challenge in experimentally testing gases in the real world becomes complex because the
amount of gas measured must be experimentally produced rather than simply obtained from a gas cylinder
or other traditional method of containment. The relatively light mass of a mole of most common gases
adds an additional challenge. Due to the limitations of most laboratory balances, the mass of the gas
produced, and thereby the moles, must be calculated rather than directly measured.
Purpose:
1. To experimentally create a known quantity of hydrogen gas
2. To determine the volume of the produced hydrogen gas
3. To compare the created volume with the accepted volume of 22.4L per mole gas
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
1 600mL or larger beaker 25mL 1.0M hydrochloric acid
1 50mL or 100mL burette 1 thermometer
3.5cm magnesium ribbon tap water as needed
1 burette stand 1 burette clamp
1 rubber stopper for the burette 1 thin stem funnel
Hazards:
Determine the hazards for the following chemicals:
magnesium ribbon
hydrochloric acid
hydrogen gas
1. Using the internet or a catalog, determine the cost of a 50mL burette with a Teflon or PTFE
stopcock. Your answer should include the company, price, and part number. If you break one,
this will be handy information to have.
2. Using gas laws, explain why it is important to know what the temperature of the laboratory is
when you are performing the experiment.
3. Write a balanced equation for Mg(s) reacting with HCl(aq) to form aqueous magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas.
4. ACADEMIC ONLY: Give a brief summary of the experiment listed below.
Procedures:
1. Setup the stand, clamp, beaker and water as per Figure MHG1
2. Obtain a piece of magnesium ribbon that is approximately 3.5cm Figure MHG1
long
3. Determine the mass of the piece of magnesium using the balance with the most number of decimal
places available. It should be somewhere between 0.02g and 0.04g. If not, alter the size of your
strip or obtain a new strip if needed.
4. Make sure the burette stopcock is closed and add about 25mL of the 1.0M HCl to the burette.
5. Add 25mL of water to the burette carefully to prevent unnecessary mixing of the chemicals.
6. Bend the magnesium ribbon into a U shape and insert it into the
burette as per Figure MHG2. Figure MHG2
7. Cap the burette with the rubber stopper and quickly put the burette
in the beaker end of the water, stopper end first. The stopper must be below the level of the water.
8. Remove the stopper from the burette and check the liquid level in the burette. If the water level is
in the graduated region of the burette, record this starting volume. If the water level is still above
the graduated region, open the stopcock just long enough to lower the water level until it is in the
graduated region. Record this starting volume.
9. Gently lower the rim of the burette to the bottom of the beaker in case the magnesium ribbon falls
to the bottom.
10. Observe and record what happens inside the burette during the reaction.
11. Record the final volume in the burette once the reaction has reacted completion.
mass Mg ribbon
starting volume
final volume
volume H2(g) produced
moles Mg used
1. Calculate the volume of H2(g) produced.
2. Convert the volume of H2(g) produced from milliliters to liters.
3. Convert the mass of Mg to moles of Mg.
4. Divide the volume of H2(g) produced by the moles of Mg to get the volume per mole ratio.
5. Use Charles’s Law to determine an adjusted volume of H2(g) produced.
6. Divide the adjusted volume of H2(g) produced by the moles of Mg to get the adjusted volume per
mole ratio.
Percent Error:
Calculate the percent error for both ratios you calculated.
The accepted volume per mole ratio is 22.40L/mol.
1. Why was it theoretically necessary to adjust the volume of gas produced for temperature?
2. Did the temperature adjustment make a significant change in the percent error? Explain your
reasoning.
3. Explain how having an electronic balance that reads to an additional decimal place should result in
a lower percent error for the experiment.
54
Experiment Title: pH
Purpose:
Insert purpose here.
Materials:
Insert materials here, chart preferred
Hazards:
Insert hazard warnings and/or list hazardous chemicals here for students to look up for themselves.
5. Insert pre-laboratory questions here.
6. And here
7. And here
8. Etc.
Procedures:
14. Insert procedure list here
15. And here
16. Etc
17. And so on

Insert example data tables if needed
Percent Error:
List all results requiring percent error calculations here
4. Insert post-laboratory questions here
5. And here
6. Yada yada
Experiment Title: Candy Coating Chemistry
Almost any child will tell you that yellow and blue make green. What they mean is that when the
two primary pigment colors yellow and blue combine they result in a secondary pigment color typically
described as green. In addition, when yellow is combined with the third primary pigment color, red, the
result is orange. Finally, when blue and red are combined, violet results. Interestingly, when any of the
secondary pigments are combined with the remaining primary pigment color, it results in a brown, a fact
that can easily be confirmed by watching children using water color paints and a clear plastic cup to rinse
their brushes.
When the three primary colors are combined in various ratios, the results span the spectrum from
fire engine red, to a yellow orange, to teal, and a deep purple. Any easy place to see the variety of
possible colors is in the candy industry. Candy is given a variety of colors in addition to shapes and sizes
in order to make the candy stand out and seem appealing to potential consumers. The rules of pigment
blending apply here as well.
The candy industry primarily relies on a set of standard food dyes and lakes which have been
found to be safe for consumption. The major difference between dyes and lakes is that dyes are soluble in
water and lakes are not. Dyes will provide color by “staining” an object or by simply being dissolved in
the water portion of a product such as juice or soda. Lakes will provide color by dispersing themselves in
fats and oils making them ideal for use in lipstick, soaps, cake mixes, and chewing gum. They also work
well for hard coatings such as those found on prescription medication and M&M’s. By combining these
various dyes and lakes in the correct combinations, the rainbow of colors one associates with a candy
store can be created.
Chromatography is a process where mixtures are separated into their components. Most
chromatography makes use of a stationary phase, which doesn’t move, and a mobile phase, which does.
The mobile phase carries the components of the mixture through the stationary phase at different rates
giving them a chance to separate. This separation allows components to be identified using a variety of
methods including simple observation all the way up to complicated instrumentation that blows the
components to bits and looks at the pieces.
In paper chromatography, the paper itself is the stationary phase. The mobile phase may be any
liquid as long as it does not react with the paper. In this experiment, our mobile phase will be water with
a bit of dissolved salt in it. As the water makes its way up the paper, it will drag the dyes with it to
varying degrees. The distance the each dye travels compared to the distance that the mobile phase (water)
travels is known as the Rf and should be a constant for each individual dye. The formula for Rf is:
Rf = (distance dye component) / (distance mobile phase)
Purpose:
1. To experimentally separate the dyes in several common candy coatings via liquid chromatography
2. To observe the differences between dyes and lakes
3. To determine the which colors of candy are safe for people who have an allergy to yellow food
dye
Materials:
PER PERSON
PER GROUP
56
2 600mL or larger beaker 4 watch glasses
1 ruler 4 pieces of filter paper
1 pencil
1 scissors tap water as needed
1 stapler candy samples
1 small beaker paper towel for blotting
1 glass rod pinch of salt
Hazards:
While none of the candy samples are inherently dangerous, since they are being used in the
laboratory setting, none of the candy may be consumed at the end of the experiment.
1. Using methods you have already learned about this year as well as the background information
above, how would you experimentally separate dye colorings from lake colorings?
2. What is the importance of the mobile phase?
3. What is the importance of Rf values?
4. After you read the procedures, explain what you think will be the most difficult step and why you
think it will be difficult.
Procedures:
1. Obtain all of the required materials from your instructor.
2. Cut the edges off of each circle of filter paper in order to have four rectangles that are
approximately 9.0cm by 7.5cm.
3. Using a pencil, draw a line 2.5cm away from one of the 9.0cm edges of each paper. This is the
line on which you will “spot” each of your samples so that they have an even starting point.
4. Put a small amount of water in each watch glass.
5. Dip the edge of one of the candies in the water in a watch glass.
6. Touch the candy to a paper towel to remove excess moisture. The candy will still be damp.
7. Touch the candy to the first filter paper sheets along the pencil line as neatly as possible. This
should leave a dot of the dye. The smaller and darker the dot, the better.
8. Touch the candy to the paper in the exact same spot a few times to get a dark dot.
9. Place the candy in the water in the watch glass and leave it sit for a minute or two. Then flip it
over and leave it sit for another minute or two.
10. Repeat steps 5 through 9 for each color of the candy until you have four spots on the first piece of
filter paper. Be sure to use a different watch glass for each piece of candy.
11. Once you have all four candies spotted on the same filter paper, curl the paper into a tube with the
line on the outside.
12. Staple the top and bottom of the paper without having the edges overlap as demonstrated by the
instructor.
13. Add about 1.0cm of water to the bottom of the beaker.
14. Add a pinch of salt to the water and stir until the salt is dissolved.
15. Place the filter paper tube into the water with the pencil line at the bottom. Be careful not to tip
the filter paper over. It must remain standing as the water climbs toward the top.
16. While you wait for the water to rise to about 1.0cm from the top of the tube, make your
observations of the dyes/lakes in each of the watch glasses.
17. After you have made your observations, take your watch glasses to your instructor.
18. After your instructor gives you back your watch glasses, repeat the above steps for the second set
of candy, a second filter paper, and the other 600mL beaker.
19. Once the water level has risen to within 1.0cm of the top of the tube, carefully remove it from the
beaker, open the tube up, and lay it flat on your lab bench.
20. Carefully trace a line along the water line at the top of the tube.
21. Measure the distance from the original pencil line to the top line.
22. Record this value in your notebook.
23. Mark a small line beside the center of each die smear on the filter paper. You may have more
than one color smear for each piece of candy. If so, label the center of each color separately as
best you can.
24. Measure the distance to each mark from the original pencil line and record those values in your lab
notebook.
25. Repeat the above steps for each candy sample.
26. Record observations of the instructor’s station as per instructor.

Filter paper #1
Candy color Dot color Distance
Blue blue 3.5cm
Orange Red 1.5cm
Yellow 0.5cm
1. Calculate an Rf for each dot on each filter paper. Show your work.
2. Create a chart that shows which dyes are present in each candy sample.
3. Include a column in the chart that labels candy containing yellow dye as an allergen.
Percent Error:
There are no percent error calculations for this experiment.
1. Why did the line need to be drawn using a pencil and not a pen?
2. Why did you need to dip each candy piece into a separate watch glass?
3. How would the tube falling over, even momentarily, have affected the results?
4. Which candies contained a yellow dye and could therefore be potentially dangerous?
5. Explain how the concept of “like dissolves like” affects the Rf value of a spot in paper
chromatography. ` `
Conclusion:
For this lab, make sure your conclusion contains a summary of what you did, what results you
obtained and how accurate and reliable you think the results are.
58
Experiment Title: Strong Acid and Strong Base Titration
Purpose:
Materials:
Hazards:
Insert hazard warnings and/or list hazardous chemicals here for students to look up for themselves.
6. And here
7. And here
8. Etc.
Procedures:
28. And here
29. Etc
30. And so on

Percent Error:
7. And here
8. Yada yada
The Golden Fleece
If it is gold that you want do your works and leave town before sunrise.
Bathe the lowliest coin of the realm in acid muriaticus,

till it shines with the luster of the metal cupras.
Wash in pure spring water, let stand till needed.
Place a small spoonful of the metal the Prussians call zink, in a glass vessel.
Cover with aqua alkali, which is soda lye, and heat till steam begins.
Plunge the coin into the steaming bath.

Flammable air begins to rise and the token will turn to
purest silver before your very eyes.
Washed and dried, the silver token is now held in the outer flame of a strong fire.
In a blink the change to gold will fill your eyes with wonder.
Blink twice more, then plunge the token into a bath of spring water.
You now have gold, fit for the finest works.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Translate the procedure above following these steps:
1. Write the entry for this lab in your lab notebook following the format prescribed by your
instructor. (Title, purpose, materials, precautions, procedure, observations,
conclusion/post-lab questions)
a. Replace the ancient names of chemicals with their current scientific names.
b. Use MSDS to write precautions and dangers for the chemical you will use.
c. Write a step by step procedure using laboratory equipment from your lab drawers,
hot plates, and lab burners. Include handling equipment and safety equipment
too.
d. Highlight precautions.
e. Submit your notebook to your instructor for approval.
2. Complete the lab in the time allotted. You must make at least one gold coin to be taped
in your lab notebook.
3. Write your conclusion for this lab after our class discussion.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
White Powders Lab
Purpose: To perform a series of tests to determine the physical and

chemical characteristics of several unknown powders. To utilize
test results to identify an unknown substance.
60
Chemical High School has a drug problem. Over the past year, illegal drugs have been seized from student
lockers on five occasions. All of these illegal drugs are white powders that look like table salt. During a
recent locker search, investigators collected several vials filled with white powder. Before charges can be
pressed on the individual in possession, the identity of the powder must be established.
You are a member of a forensic science lab team that has been sent to Chem High. The unknown white
powders are delivered to you in the lab so you can determine their identity.
Due to limitations in equipment at the school, you have been asked to use a simple series of tests to
determine the identity of the powders. Six known white powders have been provided. You will run tests on
each of the six known powders and record your results. Next, you will test an unknown powder to determine
its identity.
Materials: (you need to complete this list)

White powder samples A,B,C,D,E,F
Spot plate
Precautions:
Sodium Carbonate Solution-
Acetic Acid-
Iodine Solution-
Procedure:
Part A
1. Place a very small amount of sample A on the black paper and observe its appearance with a
hand lens or microscope. Record appearance, draw a sketch if helpful. Repeat for other
samples B-F.
2. Make a tray from aluminum foil with 6 sections to it. Place a small scoop of each sample on
the tray. Draw a sketch in your notebook of the tray and the location of each white powder.
3. Place the foil tray on a hot plate set at a medium setting. Observe each substance for
several minutes. Record your results carefully. Dispose of foil and contents in trash can.
4. Place three small scoops of sample A in a test tube. Add about 10 mL of water. Shake from
side to side for several seconds. Does the substance dissolve? Float? Record observations.
Repeat for samples B-F. Do not dispose of these samples. You will need them in the
next step.
5. Using the six test tubes from step 4, add about 5 mL of sodium carbonate solution, NaCO 3, to
each test tube. Record observations. Wash out tubes. Use a test tube brush and detergent.
6. Place a small scoop of each sample in individual wells of a spot plate. Add 2 drops of iodine
solution to each well. Record your results. Wash spot plate.
7. Again, place a small scoop of each sample in individual wells of a spot plate. Add 3 drops of
acetic acid to each well. Record your results. Wash spot plate.
8. Show your instructor your observations for the 6 known substances. She will initial or
stamp your notebook.
Part B
1. Once Part A has been completed you will be issued an unknown from your instructor. Record
the unknown number and carry out all of the same tests as in part A.
2. Record all your observations.
3. Compare the results of the unknown to those of the known powders.
4. Determine which white powders A-F are in your unknown. It may be just one or a mixture
of the powders.
5. Record your results in your instructor’s lab notebook. Your correct identification of the
unknown is worth 30/100 lab points.
powder appearance heat water sodium iodine acetic

carbonate acid
62
A
unknown
Chromatography
Purpose: To separate mixtures using the technique of paper chromatography. To calculate retention
factors and determine if the same dye is used in different mixtures.
Materials:
Filter paper
Ruler
Pencil
Markers
Solvents: ethanol and water
Plastic wrap
Candies or food dyes
toothpicks
Precautions:
Ethanol is flammable.
Procedure:
1. Draw a line using pencil 1.00cm from the bottom of the filter paper.
2. Using sharpie markers, make dots on the line about 1.00cm apart. (or use a toothpick wet
with water to make dots of color from candy coatings) Use different colors.
3. Concentrate the color by going over each dot repeatedly.
4. Pour ethanol into beaker to .50 cm. (use salt water solution if using candies)
5. Place paper into beaker making sure dots do not get wet by solvent. The solvent should be
below the 1.00 cm line initially. It will travel up the paper and carry pigments with it.
6. Cover beaker with plastic wrap and watch until solvent level nears the top of the paper.
Remove paper from beaker and draw over the solvent line with a pencil.
7. Calculate the retention factor for each color spot for each marker (or candy) used.
Note that there are no units of Rf. They are naked numbers.
Rf= distance traveled by pigment in cm

distance traveled by solvent in cm
8. Compare Rf values. Are any of the pigments the same? How do you know?
64
Measuring Plastics
Purpose: To determine the mass to volume ratio of 5 different plastics

using proper techniques for measuring and calculating with
significant figures.
Materials: lab balance calculator

Centimeter ruler tank of water
5 plastics
Procedure:
1. Record the appearance of each plastic.
Use a lab balance to measure the mass of each plastic. Record masses.
Use a ruler to measure the length, width, and height of plastic #1 to 0.01 cm. Record all values.
Repeat step #2 for plastics 2-5.
Calculate the volume of each solid using length x width x height.
Follow the rules for sig figs.
Divide mass/volume for each plastic. Follow the rules for sig figs.
Data:
Mass Length Width Height Volume Density
plastic (g) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) g/cm3
Clear
Cloudy
White
Gray
Black
Analysis:
Record the accepted values for the density of each plastic as provided by your instructor.
Clear =__________
Cloudy =__________
White =__________
Gray =__________
Black =__________
Calculate your % error for each plastic.
Clear=
Cloudy=
White=
Gray=
Black=
Sources of Error:
Post Lab Questions:

1. Write the definition for the word density.
2. Several units of length may be inches, centimeters, or miles.

List 3 possible units for density.
3. Based on your lab calculations, explain how density can be used to

help scientists identify one solid from another.
4. Do you think density can be used to identify liquids or gases? Explain.
5. The density of water is 1.00g/mL, which is equal to 1.00g/cm 3.

Compare each of the plastic’s densities to that of water to predict
if the plastic will sink of float when placed in a tank of water.
Write the color of each plastic in the correct column on the chart below.
I think it will…
float sink
66
6. We will test your predictions as a class. How many of your predictions where correct? __________
7. Define the following terms:

a. Intensive property-
b. Extensive property-
8. Explain why density is an intensive property of matter.

Percent Sugar in Bubble Gum Names:
Problem: What percent of bubble gum is sugar?
Hypothesis:
Experiment:
Materials:
 5 pieces of bubble gum containing sugar
 paper cup
 balance
Procedure:
1. Use a balance to determine the mass of a clean paper cup. Record the mass in your data table.
2. Unwrap 5 pieces of bubble gum containing sugar and place them in the cup.
3. Determine the mass of the cup and the gum. Record the mass in your data table.
4. Each person in the group should chew a piece of gum to remove the sugar.
5. After about 5 minutes, collect the chewed gum in the massed cup and wash your hands.
6. Determine the mass of the cup and gum. Record it in your data table.
7. Calculate the mass of sugar dissolved from the gum (original mass of gum – final mass of
gum). Record the answer in your data table.
8. Calculate the percentage of sugar in the gum by dividing the mass of the dissolved sugar by
the mass of the un-chewed gum and multiply by 100. Record the answer in your data table.
Data:
Mass of Mass of Mass of
Mass of Mass of Unchewed Cup + Chewed Mass of Percent of
Paper Cup Cup + Gum Gum Chewed Gum sugar Sugar
Gum
Conclusions:
1. What is the percent of sugar? (Show calculations below.) __________________________
2. What is the molar mass of the sugar, C12H22O11? (Show your work below.)
_______________________
68
3. Convert the mass of dissolved sugar to moles. (Show your work below.)
_______________________
4. How many molecules of sugar are in the dissolved sugar? (Show you work below.)
_______________
Chalk it up to Chemistry!
Goals
• Visualize the concept of the mole
• Gain experience in calculating grams and moles
The Activity
In this activity, you will visualize the concept of the mole using a mole of chalk as a model. You will practice calculations of
moles and grams, and end up with a better understanding of what a mole is and how chemists use it.
Materials for Each Group

• Lab sheet and pencil
• A chunk of chalk
• Electronic balance (share- use the same one before and after)
• Periodic Table/Ion Sheet
• A calculator
SAFETY
No special safety considerations are required.
Instructions- Complete the following. Show all calculations. Remember units and sig-figs!
1. Take a chunk of chalk and measure its mass on

the balance:
2. Go outside and draw something on the

sidewalk.
3. Go back in class and weigh the unused chalk.
4. Based on the initial mass of the chalk and the

mass at the end, calculate how many grams of
chalk you left out on the sidewalk.
5. Write down the molecular formula of the chalk.

Its chemical name is calcium carbonate.
6. Calculate the molar mass of the chalk.
7. How many moles of chalk did you leave on the sidewalk?
70
8. How many molecules of chalk did you leave on the sidewalk?
9. How many atoms of calcium did you use?
10. How many atoms of carbon did you use?
11. How many atoms of oxygen did you use?
Summary
A. How much does a mole of chalk weigh? __________________________________________________________
B. How many grams did you leave outside? __________________________________________________________
C. Is it (circle the correct answer):

1. less than a mole
2. equal to a mole
3. more than a mole
D. Define a mole, and explain its importance:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
72
The Molar Volume of Hydrogen Gas
From Royal Society of Chemistry Student Sheets—Classic Chemistry Experiments
Introduction/Purpose
One mole of any gas occupies the same volume when measured under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure. In this experiment, the volume of one mole of hydrogen is calculated at room temperature
and pressure.
Precautions
Wear goggles. Hydrochloric Acid is corrosive.
BE EXTREMELY CAREFUL WITH THE BURETTE! You break it you bought it!
Procedure
1. Clean a piece of magnesium ribbon about 3.5 cm long and weigh accurately. (This should weigh between 0.02
and 0.04 g; if not adjust the amount used.)
2. Measure 25 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into the burette. Carefully add 25 mL of water on top of this.
3. Push the magnesium into the end of the burette so it will stay in position with its own tension.
4. Add 50 mL of water to a 250 mL beaker.
5. Quickly invert the burette into the water. If this is done quickly and carefully very little is lost. It is important that
the liquid level in the burette starts on the graduated scale. If it is not on the scale; momentarily open the tap,
this allows the level to drop). Clamp the burette vertically.
6. Take the burette reading (care: it is upside down!)
7. Observe the magnesium react as the acid diffuses downwards, wait until all the magnesium has reacted.
8. Note the new volume on the burette (care: it is upside down).
9. Record your results.
Observations/Data
1. Record your observations for each step.
2. Record the mass of magnesium used and the volume of hydrogen produced.
______________________________________________________________________________
The equation for the reaction is Mg(s) +2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
__________________________________________________________________
Calculations- Show the set up for each of the following.
1. Convert the mass of Mg used to moles of Mg.
2. Convert the volume of H2 gas produced from milliliters to liters.
3. Divide the liters of hydrogen gas produced by the moles of magnesium used.
4. Compare your experimental value of liters of gas per mole to the

accepted value of 22.4 L per mole by calculating your percent error.
74
Hydrate Lab
Purpose: To determine the percentage of water in magnesium sulfate heptahydrate within 1%

of the theoretical value and to determine the percentage of water in an unknown
hydrate.
Materials: hot plate lab balance

Beaker insulating pad
Watchglass beaker tongs
scoop
magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO 4 *7H2O)
unknown hydrate salt
Precautions:
Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate-
Procedure:
A. Percentage of Water in Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate
1. Mass a clean dry beaker and watch-glass. Record the mass.
2. Remove the watch-glass using beaker tongs. Zero the balance. Use a scoop to add
1-2 grams of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate to the beaker. Record the exact mass of the
Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate.
3. Use beaker tongs to transfer the beaker to a hot plate. Do not touch the beaker or
Watch-glass with your hands. This may change the mass and increase your
%error.
4. Cover the beaker with the watch-glass. Heat the hydrate gently to avoid spattering the
salt. You will observe moisture on the sides of the beaker and the bottom of the
watch-glass. Continue heating until all the moisture is evaporated; the salt will change
from a crystalline to a powder form.
5. Use beaker tongs to carefully transfer the beaker/watch-glass to an insulating pad.
Allow it to cool for at least 5 minutes. Don’t touch.
6. Use tongs again to transfer the beaker/watch-glass to a balance. Record the final mass.
7. Empty the beaker contents into a paper towel and discard.
8. Calculate the percentage of water for this trial. Record it in your instructor’s lab notebook as
well as your own. Your instructor will let you know if you need to do a second trial or if you can
proceed to the unknown.
B. Percentage of Water in an Unknown Hydrate

1. Obtain an unknown hydrate from your instructor. Record the letter or number of your unknown.
2. Repeat the above procedure with the unknown and again calculate and report the % of
water in the hydrate.
Data:
A. Percentage of Water in Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate
Mass of beaker and watch-glass: _________________________/______________
Mass of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate:_______________________/______________
Mass of beaker, watch-glass, and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate:__________/________
Mass of beaker, watch-glass and magnesium sulfate anhydrate:___________/_______
Mass of water:______________________________
Show calculation for % of water:
Mass of water x 100=

Mass of hydrate
B. Percentage of Water in Unknown Hydrate unknown #___________
Mass of beaker and watch-glass: _________________________/______________
Mass of hydrate:_______________________/______________
Mass of beaker, watch-glass, and unknown hydrate:__________/________
Mass of beaker, watch-glass and unknown anhydrate:___________/_______
Mass of water:______________________________
Show calculation for % of water:
Mass of water x 100=

Mass of hydrate
Conclusion:
Possible Sources of Error:
76
Penny Isotopes Lab
EACH PERSON TURNS IN HIS/HER OWN PAPER; write points student points
on back of this sheet except data table possible assessment earned
Heading (first and last name, date, period, lab group) 1
Title 1
Objective 2
Data table (including unknown #) 2
Calculations (work shown and explanation provided) 3
Post-lab questions 3
Conclusion (correct number of each type of penny 3
with reason)
Total 15
Background:
In 1982, the U.S. government changed the composition of the penny; the actual amount of copper per
penny was decreased because the price of the raw copper had become more than 1¢. Thus, pre-1982
and post-1982 pennies have different masses.
In this activity, a mixture of pre- and post-1982 pennies will represent the atoms of a naturally occurring
mixture of two isotopes of the imaginary element “coinium.” Using the pennies, you will simulate one
way scientists determine the relative amounts of different isotopes present in a sample of an element.
You will be given a sealed container that holds 10 pennies – some mixture of pre-1982 and post-1982
pennies. Your container will hold any particular atomic mixture of the two “isotopes” – 9 of one isotope
and 1 of the other isotope, or 8 of one and 2 of the other, etc. Your task is to determine how many of
each of the isotopes of the element coinium are present without opening the container.
Real copper has 2 naturally occurring isotopes:

63
Cu Mass = 62.9298 g Occurs in 69.09% of all Cu atoms
65
Cu Mass = 64.9278 g Occurs in 30.91% of all Cu atoms
Recall that the atomic mass (as recorded on the Periodic Table) is really a weighted average of the
isotopes:
63
Cu: (62.9298 g)(69.09%) = 43.48 amu
65
Cu: (64.9278 g)(30.91%) = 20.07 amu
Therefore, the atomic mass of Cu = 43.48 + 20.07 = 63.55 amu
Materials and Equipment

Electronic balance 1 post-1982 penny
1 pre-1982 penny 1 empty container and 1 sealed container with a mixture of 10 pre- and
post-1982 pennies
Procedure:
Record the number of your sealed container (most likely your group number).
Measure and record the masses of a pre-1982 penny, a post 1982 penny, the empty container,
and the sealed container.
Use math to determine the number of pre- and post-1982 pennies in your sealed container.
Post-lab Questions:
What is an isotope?
In what ways is the penny mixture a good analogy or model for actual element isotopes?
In what ways is the analogy misleading or incorrect?
Name at least one other familiar item that could serve as a model for isotopes. Explain.
Unknown # : _____
Mass of pre-1982 penny
Mass of post-1982 penny
Mass of empty container (envelope)
Mass of sealed container (envelope with pennies)
*include proper units and sig figs
78
Classification of Chemical Substances
Purpose: To classify 10 chemical substances as

ionic, molecular, macromolecular, or
metallic based on physical properties.
Materials:
Unknown substances Scoop
Hand lens Spot plate
Test tubes Conductivity apparatus
Hot plate
Precautions:
*Handle all chemicals carefully. Do not inhale, ingest, or touch.
*Keep flammable materials away from flame.
Do not point test tube at anyone while heating.
*Use conductivity apparatus properly.
Procedure:
Appearance
Record appearance of each substance.
Melting Point
1. Place a small sample of 3-4 substances on a foil tray and place on a cool hot plate.
2. Heat gently. Record observations. ( low mp-melts, high mp-no change, decomposes-
turns brown or black, releases water)
3. Repeat #2 for all substances.
4. Discard foil in trash.
Solubility and Conductivity
1. Place a small scoop of substance in a clean test tube. Add a dropper full of water
to the tube. Shake from side to side to dissolve. Record observations. ( very
soluble, slightly soluble, or not soluble)
2. Transfer some of water solution to a spot plate. Test electrical conductivity. Rinse
tester with distilled water. It is not necessary to test conductivity for
substances that do not dissolve. (strong conductor, weak conductor, not a
conductor)
3. Repeat for each substance.
Classification- Using your chart of substances, select the best classification for each
substance.
 I= ionic  MM=macromolecular
 M= molecular  Me= metal
Substance Appearance Heating Solubility Conductivity Classification

in water
Post-Lab Questions:
1. Discuss why some substances were easy to classify.
2. Which substances were more challenging to classify? Why?
80
Chemical Reactions Lab
Purpose: To observe chemical reactions and classify the type of reaction and write a balanced chemical
equation for each reaction.
Materials:
2 test tubes lead (II) nitrate soln
spot plate sodium carbonate soln
pipettes cobalt (II) chloride soln
lab burner & matches copper(II) sulfate soln
silver nitrate soln copper wire
sodium chloride soln solid aluminum
Precautions: _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Procedure:
A. Mix the following solutions together in a spot plate and observe and record any changes.
1. silver nitrate and sodium chloride :
2. sodium chloride and lead (II) nitrate:
3. sodium chloride and sodium carbonate:

4. cobalt (II) chloride and sodium chloride:
5. copper (II) sulfate and sodium carbonate:
6. copper (II) sulfate and cobalt (II) chloride:
B. Put the following substances together in a test tube:
7. copper wire and silver nitrate:
8. copper wire and sodium chloride :
9. solid aluminum and copper (II) sulfate :
C. Heat a sample of the following in a test tube in the flame of a lab burner:
10. copper (II) sulfate:
82
Structure of Compounds Part 1
Follow the procedure step by step. Record the color of the substance
at each step. Calculate the oxidation number of the selected element in
each form.
Manganese
Form ox # color procedure_________________________________
Mn ______ _________1. Manganese metal
MnO4 ______ _________ 2. Add 5 drops potassium permanganate

sol’n into a test tube.
MnO4-2 ______ __________3. Add 3 drops of 6 M NaOH and 1 drop

sodium sulfite.
MnO2 ______ __________4. In a clean test tube, add 5 drops of

Potassium permanganate. Add sodium
Sulfite until the color fades. After
Several minutes observe the solid
particles of MnO 2.
Mn+2 ______ __________5. In a clean test tube, add 5 drops of

Potassium permanganate and 1 drop of
6 M HCl. Add 5 drops of sodium sulfite.
Observe Mn +2.
Chromium
DO NOT POUR CHROMIUM SOLUTIONS IN THE SINK! PUT IN WASTE JAR UNDER FUME HOOD.
Cr ______ __________6. Chromium metal.
K2Cr2O7 ______ __________7. Place a few crystals of potassium

dichromate into a dry test tube.
CrO3 ______ __________8. Add 5 drops of concentrated sulfuric

acid.
CrO4-2 ______ __________9. In a clean test tube, add 10 drops of

potassium dichromate sol’n. Add 3
drops of 6 M NaOH.
Cr+3 ______ __________10. In a clean test tube, add 10 drops of

potassium dichromate sol’n and 1 drop of
6 M HCl. Add 5 drops of sodium sulfite.
*******************************************************************
Nitrogen
N2 ______ _________11. Air contains over 78% nitrogen. Breathe the air.
Note the color, odor, and taste.
NO ______ __________12. Put 10 drops of 6M HNO 3 into a test tube. Add
84
A small piece of copper.
HNO3 ______ __________13. In a clean test tube, add 5 drops of concentrated

HNO 3. Observe the color of the acid.
NO2 ______ __________14. Add a small piece of copper.
NH4Cl ______ __________15. In a clean test tube, add a pea-sized portion

of solid ammonium chloride.
NH3 ______ __________16. Add a 5 drops of 6 M sodium hydroxide and

cover the end of the tube with your thumb for
30 seconds; shake the tube from side to side
(DO NOT LET THE SOLUTION TOUCH
YOUR THUMB). Release your thumb and
Carefully. Observe any odor.
Structure of Compounds Part 2
Complete the following exercises in your lab notebook.
 Create a chart in your lab notebook like the one shown below. Hold your book sideways
so the columns can be wide.
 Draw a dot diagram for each formula listed. Use the kits to create models of each.
 Draw and color a diagram of what the model looks like.
 Use VSEPR Theory to predict the shape of the molecule.
Chemical Dot model sh po

Formula Diagram ap lar
e ity
1. H2 H:H li no
ne np
ar ol
ar
2. Cl2
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
1. H2
2. Cl 10. CCl4 18. C2H4
2
3. Br2 11. Cl2O 19. C2H2
4. I2 12. NH3 20. CHCl3
5. HCl 13. O2 21. CH3OH
6. HBr 14. N2 22. H2O2
7. HI 15. HCN
8. H2O 16. CO2
9. CH4 17. C2H6
86
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^
Model sphere colors:
Carbon= black
Nitrogen= blue
Oxygen=red
Chlorine= green
Fluorine= also use green

Bromine= orange
Iodine= purple
1
Density of Liquids
Purpose: To determine experimentally the density of isopropanol, acetone,
and water.
Materials:
Erlenmeyer flask
Buret
Ringstand
Buret clamp
Isopropanol
Acetone
Water
Balance
funnel
Precautions:
Both acetone and isopropanol are flammable. Keep away from open flames. Keep plastics away
from acetone. Be careful with glass.
Procedure:
1. Set up equipment as shown in diagram.
2. Fill the buret with isopopanol using a funnel.
3. Mass the empty Erlenmeyer flask.
4. Dispense about 5.00 mL of liquid into the flask, record the actual volume.
5. Remass flask and contents.
6. Add liquid in 5.0 mL increments to the flask remassing and recording actual volume each
time until the volume of liquid in the flask is 25.00 mL.
7. Repeat the above procedure with water and acetone.
8. Calculate the density for each trial of each liquid.
9. Graph the mass to volume ratio for each liquid on the graph provided.
10. (volume on the horizontal axis, mass on the vertical)
11. Color code each line and draw a key next to the graph.
12. Submit your densities to your instructor (yellow book)
13. Calculate your % error.
14. List as many sources of error as possible.
Acetone
Mass of beaker + Mass of liquid(g) Volume (mL) Density (g/mL)
liquid (g)
0.00 0.00 -------
2
Isopropanol
Mass of beaker + Mass of liquid (g) Volume (mL) Density (g/mL)
liquid (g)
0.00 0.00 -------
Water
Mass of beaker + Mass of liquid (g) Volume (mL) Density (g/mL)
liquid (g)
0.00 0.00 -------
Graph mass vs. volume of acetone, ethanol, and water.
3
Calculate % error: Accepted values will be provided by your instructor. (show work!)
List Possible Sources of Error:
4
Physical & Chemical Changes
Purpose: To classify changes observed in lab as either physical
or chemical changes.
Materials: read the procedure and write a list of all materials you will need to complete
this lab.
Precautions: Use MSDS to find information for each chemical used.

Magnesium
Cupric sulfate
Iron
Silver nitrate
Sodium chloride
Hydrochloric acid
Calcium chloride
Ammonium chloride
Potassium permanganate (solution K)
Procedure: Record all observations in your lab notebook.
1. Cut a piece of magnesium ribbon about 5 cm long. Note the color, luster, and
flexibility of the metal. Holding one end with crucible tongs ignite the other with
your lab burner. Caution! Do not look directly at the burning magnesium!!
Compare the ash with the original metal.
2. Add 2 pipettes full of HCl into a test tube. Add a small scoop of zinc. Record
your observations. When the reaction is proceeding vigorously place a burning
splint down into the mouth of the test tube. Result? What gas do you think is
produced?
3. Add 2 pipettes full of cupric sulfate solution into a test tube. Note the appearance
of each substance before you put them together. Add a small scoop of iron
filings. Wait 5 minutes then examine the tube contents carefully. Record
observations.
4. Add a pipette full of silver nitrate to a test tube. Add 5 drops of sodium chloride
solution. Observations? Take the tube and contents to station #5.
5. Set up a funnel with filter paper. Dampen the paper using water from a wash
bottle. Place a beaker under the funnel. Pour the contents of the test tube into the
funnel. Use the wash bottle to rinse the tube adding the additional water to the
funnel. Unfold the filter paper and expose the residue in it to sunlight for several
minutes. Observations? Discard the filtrate (liquid remaining in the beaker) into
the sink and rinse.
6. Put a pipette full of water each into 2 separate test tubes. Add a scoop of
ammonium chloride to the first tube and a scoop of calcium chloride to the
second. Shake each tube from side-to-side. Place your hand around the bottom of
each tube. Add a second scoop of the substance to each tube. Record your
observations.
7. View the writing on the index card while you look through the mystery oxide
solution. Record your observations.
5
8. Squirt some solution K on a piece of paper towel. Watch it for about a minute.
Record your observations.
change observations
1. burning Mg
2. Zn + HCl
3. CuSO4 + Fe
4a. AgNO3 +
NaCl
5a. filter
b. sunlight
6. NH4Cl +
H2O
CaCl2 + H2O
7. mystery
oxide
6
8. sol’n K +
paper
Post-Lab
Classify each of the following as an example of a physical or chemical change. Give a
supporting statement for each.
1. ________________________ Burning Mg ribbon.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________
2. ________________________ zinc and sulfuric acid

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________
3. _________________________ cupric sulfate solution and iron

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________
4. _________________________ HCl and silver nitrate solution

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________ centrifuge mixture

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________
5. __________________________ filtering mixture
________________________________________________________________________
_
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________ sunlight on white precipitate
7
_______________________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________ ammonium chloride and water
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
___________________________ calcium chloride and water
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________ mystery oxide

__________________________________________________________________
____
__________________________________________________________________
____
8. ___________________________ solution K on paper towel

__________________________________________________________________
_____
__________________________________________________________________
_____
8
Density of Carbon Dioxide
We will investigate a reaction that makes carbon dioxide in your stomach when an
antacid is taken for stomach distress. You will let the gas escape from the reaction tube
and measure its volume after collecting the carbon dioxide by water displacement. You
will also find the mass and calculate the density of carbon dioxide.
Materials:
Antacid tablet broken into 2 or 3 pieces
Test tube
Stopper, glass bend, and rubber tubing to fit
Tub of water for water displacement of gas
Flask or bottle to collect the gas, 250 or 400 mL
Graduated cylinder, 100 mL
Laboratory balance sensitive to 0.01 g
Procedure:
1. Place 10 mL of water in the test tube.

2. Mass the test tube of water and the tablet pieces together. Keep the tablet pieces dry.
Support the
test tube in a beaker.
3. Fill the flask or bottle with water. Cover the mouth of the bottle and turn it upside down in
the tub of
water. Put the gas delivery tube up inside the top of the bottle or flask.
4. Drop the tablet pieces into the test tube and immediately put the stopper that is attached to
the
glass bend and the rubber tubing.
5. Collect the gas in the inverted flask or bottle by displacing the water.
6. When no more CO2 is produced, hold the flask so the level of water is the same inside and
out.
7. Mark the level of water with a piece of masking tape.
8. Invert the flask letting out the water and CO 2.
9. Fill the flask with water to the level marked by the tape. Pour this water into a graduated
cylinder.
This is also the volume of CO2 produced by the reaction.
10. Find the mass of the test tube and contents.
Calculations:
1. Subtract the final mass from the original mass of the test tube and tablet pieces.
2. Why is this mass less than the original mass?
3. Calculate the density of the gas produced.
9
4. Determine your percentage of error using the accepted value for the density of CO 2
provided by your instructor.
10
Flame Tests
Purpose: To determine the color created by metallic ions in a flame and to
use the technique of flame tests to determine the identity of an unknown
cation.
Materials:
Wooden splints soaked in water
Lab burner
Solids containing copper (Cu), sodium(Na), barium(Ba), potassium(K), strontium(Sr), lithium(Li),
and calcium (Ca) ions. These will be compounds containing the metals.
Spectra-glasses
Unknown cation solids or solutions.
Precautions:
Long hair must be tied back and flammable materials kept from flame.
All chemicals should be handled with care, avoiding direct contact.
Clean up spills or drips immediately!
Procedure:
1. Get one sample at a time of the substances.
2. Dip a soaked wooden splint into one of the solids, then hold it in the outer flame of a
lab burner.
3. Record the color of the flame observed. You can dip the splint into the solid again
to see the color. If the splint begins to burn the color produced by the cation will
be masked.
4. Repeat this procedure for each substance using a new splint (or the other end of a
splint) for each test. DO NOT CONTAMINATE THE SAMPLES!
5. Record your results.
6. Get an unknown from your instructor. Conduct a flame test and identify the metal.
Compare to known samples if necessary.
7. Record your unknown results in your instructor’s lab notebook.
Data:
cation color
Unknown
Barium _____________________
Color produced in flame
Calcium __________________________
____
Copper Cation indicated
__________________________
Strontium
___
Sodium
11
Lithium
Potassium
12
Metals vs. Nonmetals
Purpose: To determine physical and chemical properties of unknown elements from the
Periodic Table and based on experimental results classify each as a metal,
semi-metal, or nonmetal.
Materials:
Precautions:
Procedure:
Physical Properties
1. Record the color of each element.
2. Hammer a small sample of each element on the tray provided.
Indicate if the element is malleable, brittle, or somewhere in between.
Clean up after yourself disposing of unusable samples in the trash can.
3. Use the electrical conductivity tester to determine whether each
substance
conducts electricity or not. Record your observations.
Chemical Properties
1. Using tongs, heat a sample of each element in the flame of a lab
burner for
about 1 minute. Record observations.
2. Place a small sample of each element in a separate well of a spot plate
and cover each with distilled water. Let stand for 5 minutes.
Record observations.
Next, add 3 drops of phenolphthalein to each well. Record
observations.
3. In separate wells of a spot plate place a small piece of each element.
Cover with 3 M HCl. After several minutes record observations.
Observations:
Conclusion: Classify each element as a metal, semi-metal, or nonmetal. Give reasons

for each.
Element Classification Reasons:
13
C
14
Experiment Template
Experiment Title: INSERT EXPERIMENT TITLE HERE

Purpose:
Materials:
Hazards:
Insert hazard warnings and/or list hazardous chemicals here for students to look
up for themselves.
10. And here
11. And here
12. Etc.
Procedures:
32. And here
33. Etc
34. And so on

Percent Error:
10. And here
11. Yada yada
15

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Academic/Honors Chemistry Laboratory Guide

Ms. Cipolla & Mr. Rickard

ACADEMIC/HONORS CHEMISTRY LABORATORY GUIDE..........................................................................1

MEASURING PLASTICS ...............................................................................................64

7. Read the labels on chemical containers before you use them.

11. Keep your lab bench as neat as possible at all times.

8. Thermometers are not a substitute for stirring rods.

2. Never move an object that is burning to avoid spreading the fire.

Apron: An Apron is one of the most common

Balance, An Electronic Balance is used to

Bottle: Bottles can be used for storage, for

Bunsen Bunsen burners are used for heating and

Clamp, A Burette Clamp is used for holding

Clamp A Clamp Holder can be used to hold

Erlenmeyer The Erlenmeyer Flask is used to heat

Evaporating The Evaporating Dish is used to heat

Funnel: The Funnel is a piece of equipment that

Goggles: Goggles are some of the most common

Mortar and The Mortar and Pestle are used to crush

Paper Paper Towels are essential to the lab

Pipet: The Pipet is used for moving small

Pipet Bulb: A rubber Bulb used with a pipet to

Ring Ring Supports are used with other

Rubber Rubber Tubing is used for a variety of

Stir Rod: The stir rods are used to stir things.

Stopper: Stoppers come in many different sizes.

Test Tube: The test tube is the vessel of choice for

Test Tube The test tube brush is used to easily

Test Tube The Holder is used to hold test tubes

Thermomet The thermometer is used to take

Tongs: Tongs are used to hold many different

Triangle: The triangle is used to hold crucibles

Tweezers: Tweezers are used to handle small

Washing A Washing Bottle contains water and is

Watch The watch glass is used to hold solids

Well Plate: Well Plates are used to temporarily store

Wire Gauze: Wire Gauze is used to support items

Rules for writing in your laboratory notebook

Setting up your laboratory notebook

Adding an experiment (Pre-Lab Assignment)

After the experiment

Percent Error = |(Observed value – Accepted value)| x 100%

Example notebook entry from Mr. Rickard’s notebook

Determining the Density of a Block of Metal

Results and Observations:

Ruler method volume V= LxWxH

Ruler method density D =M/V

Cylinder method volume V = final volume – initial volume

Cylinder method density D = M/V

Conversion 1mL = 1cm3 so V = 0.54cm3

Percent Error = |(Observed value – Accepted value)| x 100%

Accepted Value 8.9g/cm3

Ruler method = |(3.9 – 8.9)| / 8.9 x 100% = 56% error

Cylinder method = |(4.3 – 8.9)| / 8.9 x 100% = 52% error

How to use a hot plate

How to use filter paper for gravity filtration

Container Mass Method