Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942

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Estimation of plastic waste inputs from land into the Persian Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman: An environmental disaster, scientific and social concerns
Mehdi Ghayebzadeh a,b, Hassan Taghipour c,⁎, Hassan Aslani a
a
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
b
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
c
Health and Environment Research Center, School of Public Health, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• About 1634.9 Kt of plastic waste is gen-

erated by the Persian Gulf littoral states,
annually.
• About 204.6 Kt of plastic waste is gener-
ated by the Gulf of Oman littoral states,
annually.
• About 65% and 81% of plastic waste in
the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman
regions have been mismanaged, respec-
tively.
• The amount of plastic waste entering
the Persian Gulf is about 155–413.4 Kt.
• The amount of plastic waste entering
the Gulf of Oman is about 29.2–77.9 Kt.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: It has been reported that, the huge amount of plastic waste is present in marine environments. This study eval-
Received 26 January 2020 uated solid waste generation, management, disposal approaches, and the amount of plastic waste entered into
Received in revised form 21 April 2020 the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2016. The findings showed that waste in the Persian Gulf and the
Accepted 21 April 2020
Gulf of Oman regions has been mismanaged by 65% and 81%, respectively. According to our estimates, about
Available online 11 May 2020
1634.9 k-tons (Kt) and 204.6 Kt of plastic waste have been, respectively, generated by the Persian Gulf and the
Editor: Kevin V Thomas Gulf of Oman littoral states in 2016. Most likely, the mass of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the
Gulf of Oman in 2016 was ranged from 155 to 413.4 Kt and 29.2–77.9 Kt, respectively. Without implementation
Keywords: of effective waste management strategies, it is estimated that by 2030, the mass of plastic waste entering the Per-
The Persian Gulf sian Gulf will increase to 199.4–531.6 Kt, while in the Gulf of Oman it would be about 40.4–107.7 Kt. The entry of
The Gulf of Oman plastic waste into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman has been expected to increase by 29% and 38% in 2030,
Plastic waste respectively. As a result, the related cumulative environmental and health effects can be more intensive. It can be
Plastic debris emphasized that all countries located in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman need to modify
Mismanagement
their solid waste management, plastic waste in particular, policies to conserve sensitive marine ecosystems.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hteir@yahoo.com (H. Taghipour).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138942
0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942
1. Introduction
“Plastics” has been defined as synthetic organic polymers through-
out the 20th century (Elias, 2018; Singh and Sharma, 2016). Across
the modern world, plastics usually replace glass, aluminum, and natural
fibers (Critchell et al., 2019) because of their convenient features such as
versatility, lightweight, and low cost (Elias, 2018; Geyer et al., 2017;
Singh and Sharma, 2016). The production and consumption of plastics
are increasing worldwide (Gross, 2017). Proportionately, most plastic
products are in the waste stream. Global plastic production has in-
creased by 197 times, from 1950 (1.7 × 103 Kt) to 2015 (3.35 × 105
Kt) (Balcer, 2019; Europe, 2015; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016) has reported that plastic use
has increased twentyfold in the past half-century, and has predicted
that plastics production will double again in the next 20 years and al-
most quadruple by 2050, resulting in an increase of plastic-related
waste (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2016). The excessive consumption
of plastic and failure to manage plastic waste may lead to several envi-
ronmental, economic, and health-related complications. Plastics pollute
the air (Dris et al., 2017; Gasperi et al., 2018), drinking water resources
(Horton et al., 2017; Schwarz et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2016), marine
ecosystems, and land habitats (Critchell et al., 2019; Geyer et al., 2017;
Jambeck et al., 2015; Wang and Wang, 2018). These substances gradu-
ally find their way into the oceans and seas either by direct discharge
or by rivers, waterways, sewage, tide, or even by the wind (Geyer
et al., 2017; Jambeck et al., 2015). The accumulation of plastics in the
marine ecosystems and the pollution caused by them destroy the habi-
tats and force the species to migrate to new areas. It also leads to the ex-
tinction of marine fauna, complicates maritime transport, aesthetic
unpleasing appearance, affects the attractiveness of coastal areas and
tourism, and is detrimental to fishing and seafood industries (Gregory,
2009; Islam and Tanaka, 2004; Seltenrich, 2015; UNEP, 2016; Walker
et al., 2006). It should be noted that plastics (microplastics, to be more
precise) ultimately leads to the human and animal food chains and ac-
cumulates in tissues of marine organisms (de Sá et al., 2018; Dias and
Lovejoy, 2012; Thompson and Gall, 2014). It has been reported that be-
tween 4.8 and 12.7 million tons of plastic waste are entering the ocean
annually (Jambeck et al., 2015). It is widely cited that 80% of marine de-
bris originates from the land; however, this figure is not well established
and does not provide detailed information on the total amount of plastic
waste entered into the oceans (Barnes et al., 2009; Boteler et al., 2015;
Veiga et al., 2016; Watkins et al., 2015). Due to limited exposure to ther-
mal oxidation, the plastics of oceanic environment degrade much
slower than on land. As a result, plastics gradually accumulate in aquatic
environments, creating several environmental, scientific, and social
concerns (Elias, 2018). There is still no accurate way to estimate the
plastic waste entering the marine ecosystems. Nevertheless, it can be
stated that some of the mismanaged plastic waste is gradually entering
the marine ecosystems, which referred to as marine debris. The plastic
waste entering the marine environment depends on several factors, in-
cluding (i) weather conditions, (ii) topography and vegetation, (iii)
plastic management methods, such as recycling and waste-to-energy,
(iv) economic status or area income level, and (v) activities such as mu-
nicipal street sweeping, beach cleaning and stormwater catchment de-
vices (the infrastructure that removes or traps mismanaged waste
before it reaches the marine ecosystem) (Geyer et al., 2017; Jambeck
et al., 2015).
The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman are among the most im-
portant water bodies and are a unique ecosystem in terms of biodi-
versity, fisheries resources, and especially rich oil resources (Tolosa
et al., 2005). The Persian Gulf covers an area of approximately
240,000 km2 and has been surrounded by eight countries (namely,
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE),
Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman). The Gulf of Oman covers an area of
about181,000 km2 and has been surrounded by four countries (in-
cluding Iran and Pakistan on the north, Oman on the south, and a
small part of the UAE on the west) (Bayani, 2016). The political, eco-
nomic, and commercial significance of the region has made it a
major point of strategic and geopolitical focus (Riad, 1986). The Per-
sian Gulf is a shallow semi-landlocked sea, and one of the largest
aquatic ecosystems in the world surrounded mainly by land. Ac-
cordingly, this body of water is quite susceptible to environmental,
and man-made pollution (Fowler, 1993; Poonian, 2003; Sharifinia
et al., 2019). The Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf are now
among the most polluted aquatic environments due to the discharge
of petroleum and industrial pollutants, as well as wastes, crude oil
transport, the several oil and gas facilities, refineries, and petro-
chemical plants on their shores, putting local ecosystems at serious
risk (Najafi Asfad and Darabinia, 2011; Sharifinia et al., 2019). Ac-
cording to documented evidence, solid wastes, particularly plastics,
are among these pollutants. Field investigations and reports point
out plastic pollution in most coastal areas in the region (Aliabad
et al., 2019; Naji et al., 2017; Pak and Farajzadeh, 2007). In the
World Bank (WB) (Kaza et al., 2018) as well as other scientific pub-
lished documents, the generation of plastic waste has been esti-
mated for the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states, in
2016. Based on the population of these countries in 2016, and the
percentage of plastic in the waste stream, the amount of plastic
waste generation was approximately 1800 Kt for Iran (Kaza et al.,
2018; Khayamabshi, 2016), 2040 Kt for Iraq (Abdulredha et al.,
2017; Kaza et al., 2018), 298 Kt for Kuwait (Al-Maaded et al., 2012;
Kaza et al., 2018; Yadav and Samadder, 2018), 823 Kt for Saudi
Arabia (Hadidi and Omer, 2017; Kaza et al., 2018; Ouda et al.,
2016), 168 Kt for Qatar (Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Kaza et al., 2018;
Yadav and Samadder, 2018), 128 Kt for Bahrain (Al-Maaded et al.,
2012; Al Sabbagh et al., 2012; Kaza et al., 2018), 1029 Kt for the
UAE (Abdallah et al., 2018; Kaza et al., 2018), 317 Kt for Oman
(Das et al., 2019; Kaza et al., 2018; Palanivel and Sulaiman, 2014),
and 5464 Kt for Pakistan annually (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata,
2012; Kaza et al., 2018; Yadav and Samadder, 2018). Nevertheless,
the amount of plastic which eventually finds their way to the Per-
sian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman has not been documented yet. The
amount of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman is considered a serious environmental issue, especially in
terms of marine ecosystem protection. This study was done to esti-
mate the plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman from its littoral states.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study area
The Persian Gulf is surrounded by eight countries including Iran,
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Bahrain, the UAE, and Qatar, and the
Gulf of Oman is surrounded by four countries including Iran, the UAE,
Oman, and Pakistan (Fig. 1), which their coastal areas have been se-
lected as the study area. As a presumption it has been mentioned, that
most of the mismanaged plastic waste which potentially find their
way into the marine ecosystem, usually generated by people living
within 50 km of coastal areas worldwide (Jambeck et al., 2015). In this
study, the amount of plastic waste entered into the Persian Gulf and
the Gulf of Oman by their littoral states was estimated based on the
data obtained from population numbers (provinces, cities, and villages)
living within 50 km from the coastline. Buffer function in the Arc GIS
10.3 was used to zoning the study areas. Using Arc GIS and ruler tool
in the Google earth software, we separated the perpendicular distances
of 50 km of the Persian Gulf coastal line and the Gulf of Oman in several
points with a horizontal distance of 10 km between two consecutive
points (Fig. 1). Then the population of those societies within the
50 km distance was estimated based on the online information pro-
vided by each country. Table 1 shows the population, economic status,
 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942 3

Fig. 1. Countries studied on the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

and coastline length of provinces and cities located within 50 km of the digestion, incineration, open dump/non-sanitary, and landfill-
coast. unspecified (Kaza et al., 2018).

2.2. Quantity and composition of solid waste generated by the Persian Gulf
littoral states and the Gulf of Oman 2.4. Estimation of the amount of mismanaged plastic waste

The data reported by the WB, as well as the results of previous stud-
ies, were employed to determine the waste generation rate and compo-
sition. According to the coastal population of each country, composition
of waste (especially the percentage of plastic), the total amount of the
waste and the total amount of plastic waste produced in the coastal
areas of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman were estimated. It is note-
worthy that the composition and the amount of waste generated by
these countries were reported for the whole country, and we assumed
that the data can be applied to their coastal areas, too.
2.3. Status of waste management and disposal condition in the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman littoral states
A literature review was conducted to investigate the status of solid
waste management practices and final disposal conditions in the
study area. Existing articles and scientific reports, especially the WB re-
port in 2018, were comprehensively reviewed. According to previous
studies, waste disposal and management methods were classified as
sanitary landfills, controlled landfills, composting, recycling, anaerobic
After identifying the disposal conditions and waste management
status, waste management practices for these areas were classified
into two categories. One category includes sanitary landfill, controlled
landfill, composting, recycling, incineration and anaerobic digestion
which are considered to be adequate waste management. Other cate-
gory including open dump and non-sanitary landfill considered as inad-
equate waste management. It should be mentioned that, in some of the
studied countries “landfill-unspecified” also reported as one of the
methods regarding their waste management options. For allocation of
“landfill-unspecified” as adequate or inadequate waste management,
decision was made individually according to the condition (such as in-
come level and scientific reports about their waste management condi-
tion) of each country. Accordingly, in the UAE and Qatar, the “landfill-
unspecified” assumed as proper waste management, while for
Pakistan and Bahrain it was considered as inadequate. According to
Jambeck et al. (2015), 2% of the mass of total waste generated by each
country is considered as littered waste (Jambeck et al., 2015). Therefore,
the amount of mismanaged plastic waste is the sum of inadequate man-
agement plus 2% littered plastic waste (Jambeck et al., 2015).

Table 1
Specifications of the study areas in terms of population and economic level in 2016.

Area of study Persian Gulf Gulf of Oman

Country Iran Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Qatar Bahrain UAE1 Oman Iran UAE Oman Pakistan

Economic status UMI 2 UMI HIC 3 HIC HIC HIC HIC HIC UMI HIC HIC LMI 4
Coastline length (Km) 1800 20 250 600 500 200 580 50 640 70 480 50
Total pop [Millions] 80.277 37.200 4.053 32.276 2.570 1.425 9.270 4.425 80.277 9.270 4.425 193.200
Coastal Population (50 Km) [Millions] 3.486 0.130 4.053 4.280 2.570 1.425 7.570 0.100 0.370 0.190 2.400 0.100
1
United Arab Emirates.
2
Upper Middle Income.
3
High Income.
4
Lower Middle Income.
4 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942
2.5. Estimating the amount of plastic waste entered into the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman
Not all plastic waste that is mismanaged potentially enters the ma-
rine ecosystem, there is still no accurate way to estimate the amount
of plastic waste entering the marine ecosystems. Part of the
mismanaged plastic waste could form the marine debris of the Persian
Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Jambeck et al. (2015) used three assumed
conversion rates (15%, 25%, and 40%) to estimate the amount of plastic
waste entered into seas and oceans (Jambeck et al., 2015). Accordingly,
the above assumptions were applied to estimate the amount of plastic
waste entered into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
2.6. Prediction of plastic waste input into the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman for 2030
Due to population growth, gross domestic product (GDP, including
urbanization development, economic condition, degree of industrializa-
tion, and inflation index), and waste generation rate, the WB using
Eqs. (1) and (2) forecasted the amount of waste generated in 2030
(Ebrahimi et al., 2016; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012; Kaza et al.,
2018).
In Eq. (1), the regression model was used to estimate the expected
growth in the amount of waste produced by each country. Using the re-
gression model coefficient and intercept as well as GDP per capita data
for the base year and the projection years, proxy waste generation
rates per year were modeled for each country in both base and target
years.
The change in proxy waste generation rates developed through the
model was used as the growth rate for the waste generation for that
country. This growth rate was used to generate the baseline waste per
capita from the data collected to adjust actual waste generation rates
from the base year to the target year, by Eq. (2). The adjusted per capita
waste generation rates for 2030 were multiplied by the respective
projected population levels for the target year.
Proxy waste generation per capita ¼ 1647:41–419:73 ln ðGDP per capitaÞ ð1Þ
þ29:43 In ðGDP per capitaÞ2
Projected Waste Generation RateTarget Year
 
¼ Proxy Waste Generation RateTarget Year =Proxy Waste Generation RateBase Year
Actual Waste Generation RateBase year
Given the complexity of the issue and the lack of accurate data, the
exact prediction of future infrastructure development, consumption
patterns, improvements in solid waste management and future solid
waste composition (share of plastic in the waste stream) as well as
the percentage of mismanaged plastic in 2030 is almost not feasible.
Therefore, for the 2030 forecast, the amount of plastic share and the per-
centage of mismanagement in both areas was assumed equal to 2016.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Composition and generation of waste by the Persian Gulf and Gulf of
Oman littoral states in 2016
Table 2 shows the waste generation and composition of waste by the
Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman states, in 2016. It is observed that the
number of inhabitants within 50 km of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman littoral states in 2016 was approximately 23.614 and 3.060 mil-
lion people, respectively. Total waste generated in coastal areas of the
Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2016, is estimated to be 11,907.9
Kt and 1259.3 Kt, respectively. The highest and the lowest amount of
waste generation between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral
states are attributed to Bahrain (1.83 kpd1) and Iran (0.603 kpd), and
the UAE (1.6 kpd) and Pakistan (0.43 kpd), respectively. The weighted
average of waste generation in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman lit-
toral states was determined by about 1.382 and 1.127 kpd, respectively.
Due to the waste generation rate and the population of coastal regions,
it can be inferred that the highest and the lowest mass of waste gener-
ated in the Persian Gulf countries belongs to the UAE (4420.9 Kt year−1)
and Oman (43.8 Kt year−1), respectively. Also, the highest and the low-
est mass of waste generated in the Gulf of Oman countries belongs to
Oman (1051.2 Kt year−1) and Pakistan (15.7 Kt year−1), respectively.
Geographical location, socioeconomic factors, social habits, consump-
tion patterns, lifestyle, and awareness can greatly affect the quality
and quantity of waste generated (Damghani et al., 2008; Dangi et al.,
2011; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012; Karak et al., 2013). The per-
centage of plastic in the waste stream was different in the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman littoral states. In the waste stream, among the Per-
sian Gulf littoral states, the highest and lowest percentage of plastic was
attributed to the UAE (19%) and Saudi Arabia (5%), respectively. On the
other hand, in the littoral states of the Gulf of Oman, the highest and the
lowest percentage of plastic in the waste stream belongs to the UAE
(19%) and Iran (10.2%), respectively. The average plastic waste percent-
age in the Persian Gulf region and the Gulf of Oman was equal to 13.73%
and 16.25%, respectively. In addition, the mass of plastic waste gener-
ated in coastal areas of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman is esti-
mated to be around 1634.9 and 204.6 Kt year−1, respectively. Table 2
shows the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf in the UAE, with 840 Kt
year−1, had the highest share of plastic waste generation; while Iraq
produced the lowest amount with 7.1 Kt year−1. In the coastal areas
of the Gulf of Oman, the highest and the lowest mass of plastic waste
generated belonged to Oman (172.4 Kt year−1) and Pakistan (2.8 Kt
year−1), respectively. Among the Persian Gulf littoral states, about 51%
of plastic waste is produced by the UAE, and in the Gulf of Oman littoral
states, about 84% of plastic waste is produced by Oman. Previous studies
have reported that the trend of waste (especially plastic waste) genera-
tion, similar to other areas of the world, has been increasing in recent
years in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states (Abdallah
et al., 2018; Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Hadidi and Omer, 2017; Palanivel
and Sulaiman, 2014; Han et al., 2019). In general, some proportion of
plastic consumption worldwide is unavoidable, however, it can be par-
tially prevented through the provision of training programs (e.g. en-
ð2Þ
couraging people to reduce plastic consumption) and adjustment of
consumption patterns (Europe, 2015; Jambeck et al., 2015).
3.2. Status of waste management and final disposal
A summary of documented reports on the waste management and
disposal conditions in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral
states has been presented in Fig. 2 (Kaza et al., 2018). By accounting
the “landfill-unspecified” as proper waste management in the UAE
and Qatar and improper in Pakistan and Bahrain, it is clear from this
Figure that the status of waste management in the Persian Gulf and
the Gulf of Oman littoral states is not satisfactory. In Saudi Arabia
(Kaza et al., 2018) and Qatar (Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Ayoub et al.,
2014), all waste is adequately managed; while in other countries, solid
waste is managed under poor conditions, putting both the environment
and public health at risk. In Iran (Kaza et al., 2018), Iraq (Abdulredha
et al., 2018), Kuwait (Kaza et al., 2018), Bahrain (Al-Joburi, 2018; Kaza
et al., 2018; Zafar, 2018), the UAE (Issa et al., 2014; Kaza et al., 2018),
Oman (Kaza et al., 2018), and Pakistan (Batool and Ch, 2009; Kaza
et al., 2018; Yadav and Samadder, 2018), about 72.3%, 95%, 100%, 92%,
62%, 100%, and 90% of the wastes are inadequately managed, respec-
tively. On average, 65% of the waste in the Persian Gulf coastal areas
and 81% of wastes on the Gulf of Oman coastal areas are managed
1
kg/person/day
 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942 5

Table 2
Composition and waste generation rate in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman littoral states in 2016.

Area of Country Coastal Waste Waste % Food % Paper and % % Glass % Metals % Others Plastic waste References
study pop generation generation waste Carton waste Plastic waste waste generation
[Millions] rate [kpd]1,⁎ [Kt/year]2,⁎ waste [Kt/year]

Persian Iran 3.486 0.603 767.3 61.6 10.8 10.2 4.2 3.2 10 78.3 Kaza et al., 2018;
Gulf Khayamabshi, 2016
Iraq 0.130 1.03 48.9 57.9 15 14.6 2.4 3.6 6.5 7.1 Abdulredha et al., 2017; Kaza
et al., 2018
Kuwait 4.053 1.55 2293 51 19 13 4.5 5 7.5 298.1 Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Kaza
et al., 2018; Yadav and
Samadder, 2018
Saudi 4.280 1.4 2187.1 45 29 5 5 8 8 109.4 Hadidi and Omer, 2017; Kaza
Arabia et al., 2018; Ouda et al., 2016
Qatar 2.570 1.274 1195.1 57 11 14 4 9 5 167.3 Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Kaza
et al., 2018; Yadav and
Samadder, 2018
Bahrain 1.425 1.83 951.9 59.6 9.9 13.4 2.1 3.4 11.6 127.5 Al-Maaded et al., 2012; Al
Sabbagh et al., 2012; Kaza
et al., 2018
UAE3 7.570 1.6 4420.9 42 25 19 4 3 7 840 Abdallah et al., 2018; Kaza
et al., 2018
Oman 0.100 1.2 43.8 35.2 25.2 16.4 8 2.8 12.4 7.2 Das et al., 2019; Kaza et al.,
2018;
Palanivel and Sulaiman, 2014
Average – 1.3824 – 48.5 21 13.73 4.15 4.95 7.67 – –
Sum 23.614 – 11,907.9 – – – – – – 1634.9 –
Gulf of Iran 0.370 0.603 81.4 61.6 10.8 10.2 4.2 3.2 10 8.3 Kaza et al., 2018;
Oman Khayamabshi, 2016
UAE 0.190 1.6 111 42 25 19 4 3 7 21.1 Abdallah et al., 2018; Kaza
et al., 2018
Oman 2.400 1.2 1051.2 35.2 25.2 16.4 8 2.8 12.4 172.4 Das et al., 2019; Kaza et al.,
2018;
Palanivel and Sulaiman, 2014
Pakistan 0.100 0.43 15.7 67 5 18 2 1 7 2.8 Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata,
2012;
Kaza et al., 2018; Yadav and
Samadder, 2018
Average – 1.1274 – 37.91 24 16.25 7.32 2.82 11.7 – –
Sum 3.060 – 1259.3 – – – – – – 204.6 –
1
Kg/person/day.
2
Kilo-tons per year.
3
United Arab Emirates.
4
Weighted average.
⁎ The data of columns 4 and 5 are taken directly from Kaza et al. (2018).

inadequately and incorrectly (Kaza et al., 2018). The most important
factors contributing to inappropriate waste management in some of
these countries can be attributed to the following deficiencies in litera-
ture. In Iran, for example, lack of enforcement of regulations, weak tech-
nical and financial resources (Dehghanifard and Dehghani, 2018), in
Kuwait lack of education and awareness among stakeholders for
participation in sustainable waste management, lack of improved
waste-reduction decisions and insufficient recycling and/or reuse pro-
grams at local and national levels (Al-Jarallah and Aleisa, 2014; Al-
Yaqout and Hamoda, 2002), in Iraq weak public awareness, poor infra-
structure, insufficient policies and deficiency of political priorities, oper-
ational and governance weaknesses (Abdulredha et al., 2018), in

Fig. 2. Management status and final disposal of solid wastes in the countries States of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman * In the UAE and Qatar, the “landfill unspecified” assumed as
adequate waste management, while for Pakistan and Bahrain it was considered as inadequate waste management.
 6
Table 3
Amount of mismanaged plastic waste and plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in 2016.

Area of Country Plastic waste % Inadequately % Littered % Inadequately Plastic Mismanaged Mismanaged Plastic waste Share of plastic waste References
study generation managed waste waste Mismanaged managed plastic waste plastic waste plastic waste entering the entering the Persian Gulf
[Kt/year]1 2
waste [Kt/year] littered [Kt/year] [gpd] 3 Persian Gulf and and Gulf of Oman (%)
[Kt/year] Gulf of Oman

M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942

[Kt/year]

15% 25% 40%

Persian Iran 78.3 72.3 2 74.3 56.6 1.6 58.2 45.7 8.7 14.6 23.3 5.6 Kaza et al., 2018
Gulf Iraq 7.1 95 2 97 6.75 0.15 6.9 145.4 1 1.7 2.8 0.7 Kaza et al., 2018;
Abdulredha et al., 2018
Kuwait 298.1 100 5 – 100 298.1 – 298.1 201.5 44.7 74.5 119.2 28.9 Kaza et al., 2018
Saudi 109.4 0 2 2 0 2.2 2.2 1.4 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.2 Kaza et al., 2018
Arabia
Qatar 167.3 0 2 2 0 3.3 3.3 3.52 0.5 0.8 1.3 0.3 Kaza et al., 2018;
Al-Maaded et al., 2012
Bahrain 127.5 92 2 94 117.3 2.6 119.9 230.5 18 30 48 11.6 Kaza et al., 2018;
Zafar, 2018;
Al-Joburi, 2018
UAE 45 840 62 2 64 520.8 16.8 537.6 194.6 80.6 134.4 215 52 Kaza et al., 2018;
Issa et al., 2014;
5
Oman 7.2 100 – 100 7.2 – 7.2 197.3 1.1 1.8 2.9 0.7 Kaza et al., 2018
Sum 1634.9 – – – 1006.75 26.65 1033.4 120 155 258.4 413.4 100 –
Gulf of Iran 8.3 72.3 2 74.3 6 0.2 6.2 45.9 0.9 1.6 2.5 3.2 Kaza et al., 2018
Oman UAE 21.1 62 2 64 13.1 0.4 13.5 194.7 2 3.4 5.4 6.9 Kaza et al., 2018;
Issa et al., 2014;
Oman 172.4 100 5 – 100 172.4 – 172.4 196.8 25.9 43.1 69 88.6 Kaza et al., 2018
Pakistan 2.8 90 2 92 2.5 0.1 2.6 71.2 0.4 0.7 1 1.3 Kaza et al., 2018;
Yadav and Samadder,
2018
Sum 204.6 – – – 194 0.7 194.7 174.3 29.2 48.7 77.9 100 –
1
Kilo- tons per year.
2
Mismanaged waste is the sum of inadequately managed waste and Littered waste.
3
g/person/day.
4
United Arab Emirates.
5
For countries with 100% inadequate waste management, it is not necessary to assume 2% as “Littered waste”, because already “Littered waste” is among 100% of “Inadequately managed waste”.
 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942
Pakistan, lack of pre-planning, poor infrastructure, weak public aware-
ness, and ineffective waste collection system (Korai et al., 2017;
Mahar et al., 2007), in Oman, lack of collection and disposal facilities,
as well as, lack of public awareness, low priority of waste management,
the lack of qualified recycling industries (Zafar, 2016), in Bahrain, high
population growth rate, rapid industrialization, high per capita waste
generation, unorganized SWM sector, limited land resources, poor coor-
dination between authorities, and poor public awareness (Zafar, 2018),
in the UAE, high population growth rate, rapid urbanization, poor waste
management practices, lack of legislation, were mentioned as the major
causes of inappropriate management (Almansoori and Moussa, 2017).
3.3. Estimation of the amount of plastic waste input to the Persian Gulf and
the Gulf of Oman
The mass of mismanaged plastic waste and the corresponding per
capita, along with the percentage of mismanagement in these areas,
was estimated according to the mass of plastic waste generated in the
coastal regions of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman (Table 3). Fi-
nally, according to Table 3, the mass of plastic waste entering the Per-
sian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman was calculated for 2016. As a result,
the mass and per capita mismanaged plastic waste in the Persian Gulf
coastal areas was ranged from 2.2 to 537.6 Kt year−1 and 1.4 to 230.5
gpd,2 respectively. It should be noted that in the Persian Gulf coastal
area, Bahrain, with 230.5 gpd, and Saudi Arabia, with 1.4 gpd, have the
highest and the lowest per capita of mismanaged plastic waste, respec-
tively. On average, per capita of mismanaged plastic waste in the Persian
Gulf littoral states was equal to 120 gpd. Accordingly, the sum of
mismanaged plastic waste in the Persian Gulf coastal areas was about
1033.4 Kt year−1. The mass and per capita of mismanaged plastic
waste, in the Gulf of Oman coastal areas were respectively ranged
from 2.6 to 172.4 Kt year−1 and 45.9 to 196.8 gpd. It is necessary to ex-
plain that in the coastal area of the Gulf of Oman, Oman with 196.8 gpd,
and Iran with 45.9 gpd, have respectively the highest and the lowest per
capita of mismanaged plastic waste. On average, per capita of
mismanaged plastic waste in the Gulf of Oman, littoral states were
equal to 174.3 gpd. Accordingly, the sum of mismanaged plastic waste
in the Gulf of Oman coastal areas is estimated at 194.7 Kt year−1. As
mentioned previously, the amount of plastic waste entering the Persian
Gulf and the Gulf of Oman for 2016 were estimated based on three as-
sumed conversion rates (15%, 25%, and 40%) (Jambeck et al., 2015). Ac-
cording to these assumptions, the amount of plastic waste entering the
Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2016 was ranged from 155 to 413.4
and 29.2 to 77.9 Kt year−1, respectively. Among the Persian Gulf littoral
states, the UAE with 52% (80.6–215 Kt year−1) and Saudi Arabia with
0.2% (0.3–0.9 Kt year−1) showed the highest and the lowest share of
plastic input into the Persian Gulf, respectively. Among the Gulf of
Oman littoral states, Oman with 88.6% (25.9–69 Kt year−1) and
Pakistan with 1.3% (0.4–1 Kt year−1) showed the highest and the lowest
share of plastic input into the Gulf of Oman, respectively. Between the
Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman littoral states, there is a large variation
in the mass of mismanaged plastic waste and consequently in the
mass of plastic waste entering the marine ecosystem; which depends
on the number of different population living in the coastal areas in
each country and also the various waste generation rate among them.
Despite the fact, all the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states
should pay more attention to pollution control and prevent plastic
waste from entering the marine ecosystem.
Table 4 shows the comparison of our findings with those reported in
other researches. As can be seen, waste generation rate and plastic share
in the waste stream are different in various areas of the world. For this
reason, the plastic waste generated and the amount of plastic marine
debris will be different. Based on the results, it can be stated that the
2
g/person/day
7
waste generation rate, as well as plastic waste generation, is directly af-
fected by the level of income (Ghayebzadeh et al., 2020; Zia et al., 2017).
In Kenya (low income), Egypt (lower middle income), South Africa
(upper middle income), and the US (high-income), for example, the
waste generation rate is equal to 0.3, 1.37, 2 and 2.58 kpd, respectively.
So, according to Table 4, the waste generation rates in countries with
higher income level are more than in countries with lower and middle
income. Based on the results of this study, the amount of plastic marine
debris originating from the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman coastal
areas is from 0.2 to 92.2 and 6.9 to 78.7 gpd, respectively. In other
areas of the world, the amount of plastic marine debris has been re-
ported in the range from 0.3 to 57.2 gpd, which is significantly lower
than the findings of the present study. The difference of plastic marine
debris in different areas of the world can be attributed to socio-
economic factors, social habits, lifestyle and consumption patterns,
mass of plastic waste generated, and waste management methods
(Damghani et al., 2008; Dangi et al., 2011; Karak et al., 2013). It is nec-
essary to mention that the role of waste management methods is
more important than others. It is clear that the amount of plastic
waste generated in high-income countries is higher, however, due to
the adequate management of plastic waste in these countries, the
amounts of plastic marine debris are much less. However, it is notewor-
thy that plastic waste worldwide is a major environmental challenge
(Thompson et al., 2011).
3.4. Prediction of plastic waste inflow to the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman in 2030
The predicted results for waste generation rates, the mass of plastic
waste, the mass of mismanaged plastic waste, and the mass of plastic
waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2030, have
been presented in Table 5. According to the results, plastic waste enter-
ing the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman will follow an increasing trend
from 2016 to 2030. It is estimated that in 2030, probably the sum of
plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman will
reach 199.4 to 531.6 Kt and 40.4 to 107.7 Kt in 2030, respectively. Pop-
ulation growth, change in GDP, and increasing waste generation rate
could be the main possible reasons for this variation. As noted earlier,
due to some problems and uncertainties, the amount of plastic in the
waste stream and the percentage of mismanaged plastic waste for
2030 is assumed constant in each of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman littoral states. Complications in predicting future infrastructure
development, predicting and contributing to behavioral change, and fu-
ture advancements in waste management practices are among those
limitations of this part of the study.
It is estimated that approximately 4.8–12.7 million tons (Jambeck
et al., 2015) of plastic waste generated annually from the surface of
the land are imported into marine ecosystems, globally. This study
showed that the plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf in 2016, was es-
timated from 155 to 413.4 Kt, which is expected to increase from 199.4
to 531.6 Kt by 2030. Also, the plastic waste entering the Gulf of Oman in
2016, was estimated at around 29.2 to 77.9 Kt, which is expected to in-
crease from 40.4 to 107.7 Kt by 2030. Therefore, it can be stated that the
plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman will respec-
tively increase by 29% and 38%, in 2030 compared to 2016. Since the
massive production and consumption of plastics has begun from de-
cades ago, so the total accumulation of plastic debris mass, already in
the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman probably is massive. Conse-
quently, the overall environmental and health difficulties could be
more acute over the decades.
The Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman are unique ecosystems in
terms of biodiversity, fisheries resources, and especially rich oil re-
sources. These areas are a vital international transport route and have
become a place to discharging and dumping of large volumes of differ-
ent types of pollutants due to the traffic of oil tankers, unreasonable ex-
ploitation of resources, urbanization as well as economic development
8 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942

Table 4
Comparison of the amount of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman with other areas of the world.

Reference Areas Country Economic Coastal Waste % Plastic in Plastic % Mismanaged Mismanaged Plastic marine
status pop generation waste waste mismanaged plastic plastic waste debris
[Millions] rate [kpd] 1 stream generation waste 3 waste [gpd] 4 [gpd]
[Kt/year]2 [Kt/year]
15% 25% 40%

This study Persian Iran UMI 5 3.486 0.603 10.2 78.3 74.3 58.2 45.7 6.9 11.4 18.3
Gulf Iraq UMI 0.130 1.03 14.6 7.1 97 6.9 145.4 21.8 36.4 58.2
6
Kuwait HIC 4.053 1.55 13 298.1 100 298.1 201.5 30.2 50.4 80.6
Saudi Arabia HIC 4.280 1.4 5 109.4 2 2.2 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.6
Qatar HIC 2.570 1.274 14 167.3 2 3.3 3.52 0.5 0.9 1.4
Bahrain HIC 1.425 1.83 13.4 127.5 94 119.9 230.5 34.6 57.6 92.2
UAE HIC 7.570 1.6 19 840 64 537.6 194.6 29.2 48.7 77.8
Oman HIC 0.100 1.2 16.4 7.2 100 7.2 197.3 29.6 49.3 78.9
Gulf of Iran UMI 0.370 0.603 10.2 8.3 74.3 6.2 45.9 6.9 11.5 18.4
Oman UAE HIC 0.190 1.6 19 21.1 64 13.5 194.7 29.2 48.7 77.9
Oman HIC 2.400 1.2 16.4 172.4 100 172.4 196.8 29.5 49.2 78.7
Pakistan LMI 7 0.100 0.43 18 2.8 92 2.6 71.2 10.7 17.8 28.5
Jambeck Other Bangladesh LI 8 70.88 0.43 8 884.3 89 787.33 30 4.5 7.5 12
et al., 2015 coasts of Somalia LI 5.97 0.6 9 117.0 87 101.53 47 7.1 11.8 18.8
9
the world Kenya LI 2.73 0.3 9 26.8 85 22.66 23 3.5 5.8 9.2
India LMI 187.5 0.34 3 686.4 87 599.82 9 1.4 2.3 3.6
Egypt LMI 21.751 1.37 13 1408.5 69 967 122 18.3 30.5 48.8
Vietnam LMI 55.86 0.79 13 2085.8 88 1834 90 13.5 22.5 36
Yemen LMI 6.049 0.79 13 225.9 75 169.2 77 11.6 19.3 30.8
Brazil UMI 74.7 1.03 16 4479.1 11 471.4 17 2.6 4.3 6.8
China UMI 262.9 1.1 11 11,557.9 76 8820 92 13.8 23 36.8
Malaysia UMI 22.9 1.52 13 1644.6 57 936.8 112 16.8 28 44.8
South Africa UMI 12.9 2 12 1125.3 56 630 134 20.1 33.5 53.6
Thailand UMI 26.05 1.2 12 1363.1 75 1028 108 16.2 27 43.2
Turkey UMI 34.05 1.77 12 2628.2 18 486 39 5.9 9.8 15.6
Australia HIC 17.24 2.23 5 694.4 2 13.9 2 0.3 0.5 0.8
Japan HIC 115.23 1.71 10 7156.1 2 143.12 3 0.5 0.8 1.2
UK HIC 43.259 1.79 12 3377.4 2 67.55 4 0.6 1 1.6
US HIC 112.93 2.58 13 13,771.2 2 275.4 7 1.1 1.8 2.8
Ghayebzadeh Caspian Iran UMI 5.950 0.603 10.2 133.6 74.3 99.27 46 6.9 11.5 18.4
et al., 2020 Sea Russia UMI 2.445 1.134 12 121.5 97.5 118.43 133 20.0 33.3 53.2
10
Kazakhstan UMI 0.600 0.780 18.5 31.6 99.1 31.31 143 21.5 35.8 57.2
Turkmenistan UMI 0.400 0.274 3 1.2 100 1.2 8 1.2 2 3.2
Azerbaijan UMI 4.592 0.817 10 137 100 137 82 12.3 20.5 32.8
1 2 3 4
Kg/person/day Kilo-tons per year Mismanaged waste is the sum of inadequately managed waste plus 2% littering g/person/day
5 6 7 8
Upper Middle Income High Income Lower Middle Income Low Income
9 10
Jambeck et al. (2015) have used the older World Bank data (Hoornweg and Ghayebzadeh et al. (2020) have used the newer World Bank data (Kaza et al., 2018).
Bhada-Tata, 2012).

and industrialization (Kor and Mehdinia, 2020; Pashaei et al., 2015; control the pollutants in this ecosystem. According to the Sustainable
Sarafraz et al., 2016). Therefore, in terms of environmental and strategic Development Goal (SDG) of 14, one of the main aims of SDG is the sus-
decision-making, international cooperation, is crucial to prevent and tainable management and protection of marine and coastal ecosystems

Table 5
Prediction of waste generation, plastic waste generation, plastic waste mismanaged and plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in 2030.

Country Coastal Waste generation rate % Plastics Plastic waste % Mismanaged plastic Mismanaged plastic Plastic waste
pop [kpd] waste generation Mismanaged waste waste entering the the
[Millions] [Kt/year] [Kt/year] [gpd] Persian Gulf and
Gulf of Oman
[Kt/year]

15% 25% 40%

Iran 3.859 0.657 10.2 94.4 74.3 70.13 49.8 10.5 17.5 28.1
Iraq 0.186 1.082 14.6 10.72 97 10.4 153.2 1.6 2.6 4.2
Kuwait 4.874 1.627 13 376.28 100 376.28 211.5 56.4 94.1 150.5
Saudi 5.235 1.456 5 139.1 2 2.78 1.5 0.4 0.7 1.1
Arabia
Qatar 3.232 1.35 14 222.96 2 4.46 3.8 0.7 1.1 1.8
Bahrain 2.013 1.938 13.4 190.81 94 179.36 244.1 26.9 44.8 71.7
UAE 9.028 1.686 19 1055.6 64 675.58 205 101.3 168.9 270.2
Oman 0.133 1.26 16.4 10.03 100 10.03 206.6 1.5 2.5 4
Average – – 14 – 63.3 – 127.5 – – –
Sum 28.56 – – 2099.9 – 1329.02 – 199.4 332.3 531.6
Iran 0.410 0.657 10.2 10.03 74.3 7.45 49.8 1.1 1.9 3
UAE 0.227 1.686 19 26.54 64 17 205 2.5 4.2 6.8
Oman 3.198 1.26 16.4 241.2 100 241.2 206.6 36.2 60.3 96.5
Pakistan 0.126 0.476 18 3.94 92 3.63 78.9 0.5 0.9 1.5
Average – – 16.3 – 95.6 – 186.25 – – –
Sum 3.961 – – 281.72 – 269.27 – 40.4 67.3 107.7
 M. Ghayebzadeh et al. / Science of the Total Environment 733 (2020) 138942 9

Table 6
Presumptive improvement of mismanaged waste in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman littoral states in 2030 and consequent reduction in plastic waste input into the marine ecosystem.

Areas Caspian Sea Presumptive improvement Mismanaged plastic 15% marine 25% marine 40% marine
Coastal Countries of mismanaged waste waste [Kt/year] debris [Kt/year] debris [Kt/year] debris [Kt/year]

Persian Gulf Iran 40% 42.08 6.31 10.52 16.83

Iraq 6.24 0.94 1.56 2.50
Kuwait 225.76 33.86 56.44 90.30
Saudi Arabia 1.67 0.25 0.42 0.67
Qatar 2.68 0.40 0.67 1.07
Bahrain 107.61 16.14 26.90 43.04
UAE 405.35 60.80 101.34 162.14
Oman 6.02 0.90 1.51 2.41
Sum 797.41 119.6 199.36 318.96
Gulf of Oman Iran 4.47 0.67 1.12 1.79
UAE 10.2 1.53 2.55 4.08
Oman 144.72 21.71 36.18 57.89
Pakistan 2.18 0.33 0.55 0.87
Sum 161.57 24.24 40.4 64.63

against pollution (Bowen et al., 2017; Van Assche et al., 2013). There-
fore, regional and trans-regional engagement is needed to prevent pol-
lution (especially plastic pollution) in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
Oman. So, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states should
have accurate and regular plans for management of plastic waste;
source reduction, the prohibition of the using single-use plastics, replac-
ing plastics with glass, aluminum, and natural fibers, governmental sup-
port for degradable plastic manufacturing, enforcement of incentives
(e.g. reduction of taxes on the manufacture of permanent bags, biode-
gradable polymers, cellulose disposable tableware, etc.), extended pro-
ducer responsibility (EPR3), plastic recycling and management to
reduce the plastic waste entering the sensitive ecosystem are among
those actions that can be suggested (Ghayebzadeh et al., 2020).
If the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman states can change their
policies and strategies and improve the condition of their waste
management, they can reduce the volume of plastics entering the
marine ecosystem. For example, as shown in Table 6, if those coun-
tries improve the mismanaged plastic waste by about 40% in 2030,
the amount of plastic waste entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf
of Oman, will be about 119.6–318.96 Kt year−1 and 24.24–64.63 Kt
year−1, respectively.
4. Conclusions
The study results showed that the mass of plastic waste generated
by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman littoral states in 2016 was
about 1634.9 and 204.6 Kt, respectively. It is estimated that 155 to
413.4 Kt of plastic waste enter the Persian Gulf annually, and 29.2 to
77.9 Kt enter the Gulf of Oman which is referred to as plastic debris. As-
suming the plastic waste management infrastructure will not be im-
proved, the research team predicted that the sum of plastic waste
entering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in 2030 would be ap-
proximately 199.4 to 531.6 Kt and 40.4 to 107.7 Kt, respectively,
which will increase by 29% and 38% compared to 2016, respectively.
Considering the entry of plastic waste into this aquatic ecosystems
over the past decades, the health and environmental sensitivity of the
Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and sustainable development, goal
No. 14, the littoral states need to pay more attention to pollution control
by the implementation of effective strategies and using integrated plas-
tic waste management.
3
EPR is a waste management strategy brand owners and manufacturers taking envi-
ronmental responsibility for their products and the associated packaging when they be-
come waste.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank all members of the research team and
others who participated in this study.
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