UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS 2.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE

(UCSP)
(SEARCH NIYO NALANG YUNG IBANG DETAILS ABOUT
SA BAWAT TOPIC, KASI AYAN LANG NOTES KO DYAN
HAHAHA)
CULTURE
- From the word COLERE , that means
“cultivate”
- Sum of knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, norms
and values shared by members of a
particular society.
- Everything that people have and think as
members of society (Ferrow, 2003)
DEVELOPMENT
a. Jean Piaget
b. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (first 2 years of
life) – know the word only through the
five senses
c. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 Y/O) –
use languages and other symbols.
d. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11
Y/O) – first see casual connections in
their surroundings.
e. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12 Y/0)
– thinks abstractly and critically.
POLITICS

PARTS OF CULTURE - Activity through which people make,

preserve and amend.
- Knowledge - The act of government.
- Customs (nakasanayan) - The affairs of the state.
- Beliefs
- Language LAWS
- Dress  Make
- Habits and behaviours  Preserve/retain
- Social norms  Amend/change
ASPECTS OF CULTURE - Revolves around the state, its institutions,
its decision and its relationship with other
- Learned states and individuals.
- Symbolic
- Integrated whole STATE consists of the following:
- Shared  People
- All encompassing  Place
CULTURE SHOCK  Government
 Sovereignity
- Experiencing culture you’re not used to.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
SOCIETY
- Systematic study of politics
- Group of people who have learned to live - Public affairs
and work together. - Compromise and consensus
*WITHOUT SOCIALIZATION YOU ARE NOT A MEBER OF - Power
SOCIETY POLITICAL BUT MAY NOT LOOK POLITICAL…..
SOCIALIZATION - Births/deaths have to be registered.
- Lifelong social experience by which people - Limited number of children per family
learn culture - Couples who want to get married have to
- Enculturation secure a license.
- Process of preparing members for - Mandatory prenatal examination of
membership in a given group of society. pregnant women.
- Prepares individuals to occupy statuses and - Alcoholic drinks are not supposed to be sold
roles. to minors.
- Minimum salary for wage earners.
SOCIAL EXPERIENCE - You have to pay your tax.
- The foundation of personality - Passport to travel.
- Senior citizens and students discounts.
PERSONALITY
POLITICAL ACTIVITY
- Patterns of actions, thinking and feeling
- Any activity that tries to change, retain,
THEORIES ABOUT SELF DEVELOPMENT
oppose a law, policy on decision of any
1. FREUD’S MODEL OF PERSONALITY government.
a. Sigmund Freud
STATE
b. ID- human brings basic drives on
biological and physical needs which are  Form of social and political organization that
unconscious and demand immediate has a formal, central government and a division
satisfaction. of society into classes.
c. EGO- persons’ efforts to balance innate  First state was developed in Mesopotamia
pleasure –seeking drives with the (5500 b.p.) and in Mesoamerica since 3,000
demands of society (superego) years later.
d. SUPEREGO- refers to the cultural values
and norms internalized by an individual.
CHIEFDOMS (Informal Government) *DEVIANT AND DEVIANCE PAKISEARCH NALANG
 Precursors to states, with privileged and HAHAHAHA
effective leaders-chiefs-but lacking the sharp
class divisions that characterize states NORMS
 Middle East (7,000 b.p.) and Mesoamerica
(3,200 b.p.): evidence of elite level indicating a - Standards
chiefdom or a state - Rules defining appropriate and
STATE FORMATION
inappropriate behaviour
1. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
- Helps guide social behaviour
- Hydraulic water based
- States have emerged to manage systems of - Vary overtime and across societies
irrigation, drainage and flood control
- Hydraulic Agriculture is neither a sufficient DIFFERENT TYPES OF NORMS
nor a necessary condition for state
formation but it does not have certain FOLKWAYS
implications for state formation o Norms that lack moral significance
2. LONG DISTANCE TRADE
- States may have emerged at strategic o EX: (talking loudly in quiet places)
location on regional trade networks.
MORES
- These sites includes points of supply on
exchange o Norms that have moral discussions and
- PARA IWAS AWAY, MAY GOVERNMENT
that should be followed by members of
3. POPULATION, WARS AND CIRCUMSCRIPTION
- Robert Carneiro (1970) society
- Incorporates 3 factories working together
o EX: (able bodied men should work for a
instead of a single case.
living)

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! MAKE RESEARCH ON THEORY OF TABOO

EVOLUTION NI CHARLES DARWIN !!!!!!!!!!!!!! o Rule of behaviour, the violation calls for
STATUS (occupied) a strong punishment.

 STATUS = POSITION o EX: (incest)

 Social position that a person holds in a society. LAW

o ASCRIBED STATUS – social position o Norm that is formally defined and

receives at birth or takes on enforced by officials.

involuntarily later in life (daughter,
Filipino, widower)
o ACHIEVED STATUS – social position a
person takes on voluntarily that reflects
DEVIANCE
- Any violation of rules and norms
*IT IS NOT THE ACT ITSELF THAT MAKES AN ACTION

personal ability and effort (honor DEVIANT, BUT RATHER HOW SOCIETY REACTS TO IT.

students, athlete, nurse, thief) FUNCTIONS OF DEVIANT by Emile Durkheim

ROLE (play) 1. Define cultural norms and values.

 Eto yung ginagawa mo/ginagampanan mo 2. Clarifies moral boundaries.

 ROLE = FUNCTION 3. Brings people together.

 Behaviour expected of someone who holds a 4. Encourage social change.

particular status. *PASERACH DIN NG ABOUT SA MERTON’S STRAIN

 Manner in which individual fulfils the THEORY
obligations of a status and enjoy its privileges.
CONFORMITY
VALUES
- Achieving culturally set goals by way of
- Good qualities conventionally approved means.
- Basic for norms
- Broad ideas about what is good and
desirable shoed by people in a society
- (Religions, Family-oriented)
TYPES OF DEVIANT TYPES OF REFERENCE GROUP

CONFORMITY INNOVATION 1. IN-GROUP

RITUALISM RETREATISM a. Social group toward with a member
that feels respect and loyalty
(belongings)
CITIZENSHIP
b. EX: unions, sororities, sports team
 Legal or juristic concept
2. OUT-GROUP
 Shows that the individual is registered as a
a. Social group with a person feels a sense
citizen by the government of the respective
of competition/opposition.
country.
4. NETWORK GROUP
 Citizen of multiple nations.
 Status of a person recognized under the custom a. Group containing people who come into
or laws as being a legal member of a sovereign occasional contact but who lack a sense of
state. boundaries/belonging
b. EX: facebook
COMPONENTS OF CITIZENSHIP
CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
 Membership/belongings
 Right 1. KINSHIP
 Participation a. Family ties
b. Refers to a set of relation and relatives
R.A. 9225 (Retention/Re-acquisition of Philippine
formed.
Citizenship)
c. Social bond based on common ancestry
NATIONALITY
i. CONSANGUINEAL KINSHIP –
 Ethnic or racial concept relationship based on blood.
 Indicates his/her place or country of birth. ii. AFFINAL KINSHIP – relationship
 Nationality of only one nation. formed on the basis of
marriage.
SOCIAL GROUPS
iii. RITUAL KINSHIP – refers to
- Consists of two or more people who
ritual parent – child relations
interact with one another.
such as the godparent-god child
TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS relationship that established

1. PRIMARY GROUP through the baptism ceremony

a. Small social group whose members of Roman Catholic. Ritual

share personal and lasting relationships. kinship is also as “compadre

2. SECONDARY GROUP system”.

a. Large and impersonal social group 2. MARRIAGE

whose members pursue a specific a. The relationship that exists between a

goal/act. husband and wife.

b. EX: students in a classroom, employees FORMS OF MARRIAGE

in a work
 MONOGAMY
3. REFERENCE GROUP
o Married to one person
a. Social group that serves as a point of
 POLYGAMY
reference in making
o Married to more than one person
evaluation/decisions.
 POLYGYNY (married to more
b. EX: college freshman, peer groups,
than one wife)
labour unions
  POLYANDRY (married to more 4. LINGUISTICS
than one husband) a. Study of language
3. DESCENT
a. Refers to the existence of socially
recognized biological relationship
between individuals in society.
b. EX: Patrillineal, Matrillineal
4. FAMILY
a. Basic unit of the society
i. NUCLEAR FAMILY – composed
of parent and children.
ii. EXTENDED FAMILY – composed
of parent and children as well
as other kin.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

- Pertain to the governance

BANDS

- Smallest of the political structures.

- Led by headman
- Comprises 100 persons.
- Have little to no formal leadership.

TRIBES

- Combination of smaller kin or non-kin

groups, linked by common culture that is
usually, act as one.

ANTHROPOLOGY

- ANTHROPOS (human), LOGOS

(reason/knowledge)
- Reasons about humans.
- Knowledge about humans.
- Study of humans.
- Comparative study of cultural and social
life.
- Studied the diversity and similarity of the
way people live.

SUBFIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

1. SOCIAL/CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
a. Society
2. PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
a. Appearance
3. ARCHEOLOGY
a. Fossils INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN
PERSONS
PHILOSOPHY a. Onto means “being” and Logy means
“study”
- Comes from the Greek word philo which
b. “LOGY” can be a written or spoken one.
means “love” and sophia which means
2. METAPHYSICS
“wisdom”.
a. Meta means “after/beyond” while
- Understanding the love of wisdom.
Physics consists of nature, human,
- Attitude of life.
energy and matter.
- Not a set of well-doctrines.
- Critical and rationale examination. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
- Deals with the basic beliefs
WESTERN (Greece)
- Goal: achieve autonomy by making us more
 Philosophy is thinking.
aware
 Find and prove (truth)
- Encouraging to reason.
 Individual rights
- Desire to ask question in order to find out
some important things. EASTERN (China)

PHILOSOPHY IS NOT…  Accept the truth as given.

 Social responsibility
 A quest or journey for the meaning of life.
 They oppose the opponent.
 Not the search of paranormal (unbelievable
things) PERIOD OF PHILOSOPHY

 Philosophy and religion are not the same. 1. ANCIENT

 It is not one of the Social Science. a. To have a good life.

APPLYING PHILOSOPHY i. PRE-SOCRATIC (myth) –

rejected mythological
- Matter of developing and depending of you.
explanation.
- Requires understanding, considering, giving
ii. SOCRATIC/CLASSICAL – they
fair consequences of our beliefs.
believe at critical reasoning.
- Involves evaluating arguments.
iii. HELLEMESTIC – influence the
KNOWLEDGE non-Greek land

- Really about facts and ideas. iv. ROMAN PERIOD – early

- Through studying and observation. Christian

2. MEDIEVAL
WISDOM
a. Focuses to defend God.
- Ability to discern and judge which aspects
i. MEDIEVAL – influence of
of knowledge are true.
Christianity.
PADRE ROQUE ANGEL JAMIAS FERRIOLS – Filipino ii. RENAISSANCE – revival
Philosopher civilization and learning. The
birth of modern Philosophy.
- Born on August 16, 1924
3. MODERN
- Naging teacher sa Ateneo De Manila
- To reason/rationalize
University ng 40 years.
- Age of reason
PHILOSOPHY AS A CONCEPT
- Theology (study of religions)
- A system about reality - Age of enlightenment
- System of belief - Intellectual movement
- The product of rational mind of man

PHILOSOPHY AS PROCESS
4. POST-MODERNC (Richard Rorty)
1. ONTOLOGY - To find meaning.
PHILOSOPHY AS A JOURNEY ii. Investigation
iii. Communicate result
- It is activity
3. PHILOSOPHICAL
- Like other skill/learning
a. Fundamental nature of knowledge (set
- Have no limitations
of ideas), existence (state of living)
- It never finished
b. EX: Is our universe real?
PHILOSOPHY RELATED TO HUMAN
PHILOSOPHY BEGINS IN WONDER (Aristotle, Aquinas,
1. They clarify what they believe.
Socrates, Theactetus)
2. Stimulated to think.
a. Complex emotion involving elements of
3. Classification
surprise, curiosity, contemplation and
4. Institution society
joy.
5. System of education
b. State of consciousness and emotion
6. Help us to solve problem.
i. MARVEL – “Mirabilia” (Latin)
7. Make a better decision.
which means “wonderful
8. Discover what really is true and good.
things”
9. Evaluate possible life choices.
ii. MIRUS – wonderful
10. Good way to know certain things.
iii. ADMIRE – marvel or to wonder
TO PHILOSOPHIZE
at
1. To think reasonably and clearly. c. Similar to owe – a feeling of profound
2. Speculate and theorize. respect for someone or something.
3. To reason in the right manner. (More closely to association of fear,

PHILOSOPHERS WHO WERE MENTALLY DISTURBED respect, reverence or joy.

d. Similar to surprise and curiosity.
1. Friedrich Nietzsche – tertiary syphilis, manic
i. SURPRISE – spontaneous and
depressions.
short-lived reaction
2. Adam Smith – talking to himself.
ii. CURIOSITY – a strong desire to
3. Martine Hiedger – nervous break-down.
know or learn something
4. David Hume – nervous break-down.
e. GRAND VISTAS – a pleasing view
5. Socrates – daemonic signs.
especially one seen through a long,
6. Paul Feyerabend – major depression.
narrow opening.
7. Michael Foucault – acute depression. He
attempt suicide. HUMDRUM – dull and lacking excitement

8. Soren Kierkegaard – grandfather extentialism. DOUBT (Rene Descartes)

9. John Stuart Mill – a child of prodigy.
- Practical Life – a field of action
10. William James – severe depression.
- Science of Truth – ultimate of truth
THREE LEVELS OF INQUIRIES o A state of indecision

1. COMMON SENSES o Hesitancy with respect to accepting

a. Basic ability to perceive, understand o Rejecting a given proposition

and judge things. o Is opposed to belief

b. EX: Not going out nude in public.
2. SCIENTIFIC
a. Methods and principles of science.
b. EX: what makes light come out of a LIMITING SITUATION (Karl Jasper)

flashlight when I turn it on? - GRENZE – limit: to have differing

c. Involves scientific inquiry experiences.
i. Question
 - HEIDEGGER – co-worker: death completes a. Making decisions
us as a human. b. Solving problems
- JEAN-PAUL SARTRE – “Philosophy of c. For inventing
existence” d. Changing
e. Improving lives
METAPHYSICAL UNEASINESS (Pre-Socratic)
3. Serve as communication
- Studies of what cannot be reached through
a. DISCIPLINE OF QUESTIONING
objective studies of material reality.
i. Way to discover
- Studies of:
ii. To know
o Ontology
iii. Understand one’s self
o Cosmology (the origin of the
b. DISCIPLINE OF LIBERATION
universe)
i. Already fixes with rules
o Epistemology (theory of knowledge
ii. Following the regulations from
methods, validity and scope)
the environment
- Generally seek to explain inherent or
c. DISCIPLINE OF PERSONHOOD
universal elements of reality.
i. Jumping out of the box
- Explaining the features of reality. Example,
ii. Reveal himself/herself to the
proofs for the existence of God, soul and
world
spirit.
iii. Asking questions about wisdom
JOHARI’S WINDOW OF PERSONALITY and love from other people.

A. Open self FREEDOM OF THE HUMAN PERSON

B. Blind self
NATURE OF MAN AND ITS DIGNITY
C. Hidden self
 To “will” something, one has “to know”
D. Unknown self
beforehand
JOHN LOCKE – Mind as a “Tabularasa”: empty mind or
 Man cannot choose an act unless he knows
vessel.
which is better than good.
ALBERT BANDURA – Social Learning Theory: Imitation  When a person chooses to act according to
and modelling what he knows is right – he acts freely.
 Only man is capable of acting free – HUMAN
BERTRAND RUSELL – Philosophy does not have direct
ACTS
value.
 But the intellectual does not always determine
DOGMATIC – belief that is passed down and never
the will.
questioned.
WHEN IS AN ACT FREELY DONE?
VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Under the control of the will – it is the power
1. It’s natural to wonder and to be inquisitive
trending toward, choosing adhering to and
2. Philosophizing is pleasurable
talking pleasure in a good known by the
3. We appeal to Philosophy’s usefulness
intellect – voluntary.
4. Protect us against unsupported
2. We do things because we want to and we own
5. The freedom from narrow and personal aims
the decision of action.
resulting from contemplation
3. We face the consequences of our
actions/decisions – we face it with full

THE DISCIPLINE OF PHILOSOPHY responsibility.

1. Allow us to make sense of the world. NATURE OF FREEDOM

2. One of the powerful tools:  Process from the intellectual and will
  Based on reason which the will followed EXAMPLE (Hunger, Hearing, Blinking of the
 When man makes decisions, he is free. eyes, Breathing, Contraction of the heart beat)
 Man is accountable for what he is doing
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF ACTS OF MAN
because he is conscious of what he is doing,
1. Done without knowledge
why he is doing it and how he is doing it.
2. Without consent
DECISIONS results in ACTION and has CONSEQUENCES
3. Involuntary
that faced with SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY.
4. EXAMPLE: (unconscious, involuntary, semi –
HUMAN ACTS deliberate, spontaneous actions)

Actions done consciously and freely by the ACTS NOT MORALLY ACCOUNTABLE
agent or by man.
 Reflects actions where the will has no time
The act is performed with intervention of
to intervene
intellect or free will or comes from a person
 Acts performed under serious physical
acting with full knowledge and the exercise of
violence
his/her free will. It is voluntary and it is
o EXAMPLE: A hostage obliged to do
controlled.
an evil action
EXAMPLE (Killing, Dancing, Listening, Singing
o Since the will is constrained, then it
and Reading)
is not a moral act which could be
Actions done with “will” and “knowledge”
evaluated.
ESSENTIAL QUALITIES/CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF
WHAT IS MORALITY?
HUMAN ACTS
 Greek word “moves” which means behaviour
1. Knowledge of the act
 Refers to the sense of rightness or wrongness of
2. Freedom
an act
3. Voluntaries
 Quality of the human act that is either good or
WILL bad, right or wrong, based on some norms that

 Willingness to do something are either inherent in the act or are observed

 Broader, deeper and richer than information due to some individual or social conventional

 Facts, information and skills acquired through acceptance.

experience or education, the theoretical or EXAMPLE OF MORAL RULES IN SOCIETY

practical understanding of a subject.
- Tell the truth
 Awareness of familiarity gained by experience
- Do not vandalize property
of a fact or situation.
- Have courage
ACTS OF MAN - Keep your promises

Actions beyond one’s consciousness; not - Do not cheat

dependent on the intellect and the will. - Treat others as you want to be treated

Can become human acts when he employs his - Do not judge

intellect and will in performing the action. - Respect others

Are actions with the absence of either “will” or NATURAL MORAL LAW/NATURAL LAW
“knowledge”
Historically, natural law refers to the use of
Contrary to human acts, it is involuntary and
reason to analyze human nature to deduce binding
instinctive and unintentional.
rules of moral behaviour from nature’s or God’s
Actions performed without any reasons or
creation of reality and mankind. The concept of natural
explanations. It is involuntary and can’t be
law was documented in ancient Greek philosophy,
controlled.
including Aristotle, and was referred to in Roman
Philosophy by Cicero.

As an example of natural law, it is universally

accepted that to kill someone is wrong, and that to
punish someone for killing that person is right, and even
necessary. For example, acts of violence, like murder,
work against people’s natural inclination to live a good
and innocent life.

The term “natural law” is derived from the

belief that human morality comes from nature.
Everything in nature has a purpose, including humans.
In short, only law that is good is moral, and any moral
law is good. Legal positivism is a legal theory that is the
opposite of the natural law theory.

MORALITY AND HUMAN ACTS

 Human acts are those that are freely chosen in

consequences of a judgement of conscience.
 They are either good or evil
 Their morality depends on the object chosen,
the intention and the circumstances.

WHAT IS FREEDOM?

1. It is the power rooted in reason and will to act

or not to act, to do this or that and so on to
perform deliberate actions.
2. Freedom is power
3. Freedom is rooted in reason and will
4. Freedom is performing deliberate actions
5. Freedom is doing what is good
6. Freedom is always doing what is good

What freedom is NOT?

1. Freedom is not licentiousness. Licentiousness is

doing anything you want without restraint.
2. Freedom is not absolute. One’s freedom is
always limited by the freedom of others.
3. Freedom could be misused and abused.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH
(Pinaghalo ko na ang 1 and 2 kasi related naman siya
hahahaha)
RESEARCH
- The word “research” is one of the most over-
used expressions on individual students.
- Research is a “key to progress” there can be no
progress without research if not all human
endeavours.
- Is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing
and interpreting information in order to
increase our understanding of a phenomenon
about which we are interested or concerned.
- Is a systematic and objective (unbiased)
creation of knowledge.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
 Add to existing knowledge.
 Improve practice
 Inform policies
 Solve problems
STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identify and develop your topic.
2. Find background information.
3. Use catalogues to find books and media.
4. Use indexes to find periodical articles.
5. Find additional interne resources.
6. Evaluate what you find.
7. Cite what you find using a standard format.
TITLE – main problem of the study
RESEARCH TOPIC
The first challenge of any researcher is the
identification of a research topic. A research topic or
problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer
in the form of scientific inquiry. Topics or problems are
general questions about relations among variables, or
characteristics of the phenomenon which a researcher
needs to undertake.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPIC OR PROBLEM
The following are the things that may be
considered before starting the research activity:
1. Prevailing theories or philosophy.
2. Observations, intuitions or a combination of
both.
3. Different subjects taken and from them identify
a problem that interest a student – researcher
most.
4. Fields of interest or specialization or event from
related fields.
5. Existing problems in the
classroom/school/campus/university which are
may want to solve are good sources of research
problems.
6. Existing needs of the community or society.
7. Repetition and extention or investigations
already conducted or may be an off-shoot of
studies underway.
8. Related studies and literature.
9. Advice of authorities or experts from funding
agencies.
10. Offshoots of friendly conversations.
11. Incidental from interesting topics of professors
during the course meeting/session.
12. Wide readings/ critical film viewing
13. Gray areas
SELECTING THE RESEARCH TOPIC
In choosing a research problem, be guided by
the following criteria:
1. It should be something new or different from
what has already been written about.
2. It must be original.
3. It should be significant to the field of study or
discipline.
4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
5. It should be of researcher’s interest and
researcher must be with the topic.
6. It should be a modest one for a beginner to be
carried on within a limited period of time.
7. It should be clear, not ambiguous.
8. It should be specific, not general.
9. It should consider the training and personal
qualifications of the researcher.
10. It should consider the availability of data
involved in the study and the methods and
techniques to be employed in gathering them.
11. It should consider the financial capacity of the
researcher to support the project.
12. It should consider the time factor involved in
the undertaking.
SELECTED GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF A
RESEARCH TITLE
1. The title must contain the following elements:
a. The subject matter or research problem
b. The setting or locale of the study
c. The respondents or participants
involved in the study; and
d. The time or period when the study was
conducted (If the title becomes too long
because of these elements, the
timeframe or period may be omitted
except in evaluation studies)
2. The title must be broad enough to include all
aspects of the study but should be brief and
concise as possible.
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of”, “A study of”,
“An Investigation of” and the like should be
avoided. All these are understood to have been
done in research.
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should
be written in invented pyramid.
 5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all
words in the title should be in capital letters.
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than
15 substantive words.
7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much
information.
8. To shorten the title, delete the terms
“assessment” or “evaluation” if these are
already emphasized in the text.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TITLE
 A title should give readers information about
the contents of the research and is preferable
to one that is vague or general.
 Titles do not need to be stuffy or dull but they
should generally give readers some idea at the
outside of what the research paper will contain.
 Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a
complete sentence.
 Select the straightforward title over other kinds.
 Use no punctuation at the end of the title.
 Do not underline the title of research or enclose
it in quotation marks, instead, use a word
processing program or printer that permits
italics. Use them in place of underlining.
Based on experience, problem awareness could be
developed among students of research. Students are
confronted with many problems within their reach
which can be used as opportunities to formulate
potential research topic. All of these researchable areas
or concerns lend themselves to investigation. The
inquisitive and imaginative minds of students may bring
forth interesting and worthwhile research topics.
Technological changes constantly bring forth new
problems and new prospects for research.
Educational motivations, classroom lectures,
classroom interaction, class discussion, seminar report
and out-of-class exchange of ideas with fellow students
and professor suggest many stimulating problems to be
solved. Tap all these resources and in a minute, one will
identify a feasible research topic. (Birrnet. al 2005, p.10)
After the student has identified the problem, which
may have come from the following sources –
specialization, observations, institutions or both, subject
offerings of the course, occupation, events, related
fields, theories, practices/needs or may be offshoot or
extension of previous studies, replication of studies,
form funding agencies or research sponsors, habits and
interest, authorities, friendly conversations,
advisers/professors, other teachers, in lectures or
seminars, from technological changes, class discussions,
interactions, professional journals, or personal curiosity,
the student can now state the research problem.
The researcher has to settle first the problem of
selecting the problem to research on. The following may
be considered as basis for revealing the problem
technical and personal.
 TECHNICAL CRITERIA
o Significant to chosen
field/advancement of science or
specialization
o Pioneering or novel
o Originality
o Arouse intellectual curiosity
o Relevance to degree
o Availability or manageability of data
o Availability of instruments
 PERSONAL
o Interest
o Training
o Expertise
o Financial capacity
o Time factor involved in the project
VARIABLES
A variable varies and has values. The values of
variables under study are the research data. Are
these variables? Chair, shape of table, tweet,
shirt style?
CLASSIFYING VARIBALES ACCORDING TO SCALES OF
MEASURE
 NOMINAL SCALE
o Characterized by data that conflict of
names, labels, or categories only.
 ORDINAL SCALE
o Involves data that may be arranged in
some order but differences between
data values either cannot be
determined.
 INTERVAL SCALE
o Is data for which we can determine
meaningful amounts of differences
between data. However, there is
inherent zero starting point.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH
Research is imply a systematic and refined
technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more
adequate solution of a problem than would be possible
under ordinary means.
BEST, gives a summary of the more important
characteristics of a good research as follows:
 Research gathers new knowledge data from
primary or first-hand source.
 Research is expert, systematic and accurate
investigation.
 Research is logical and objective, applying every
possible test to verify the data collected and the
procedures employed.
 Research endeavours to organize data in
quantitative terms, and express them as
numerical measures.
  Research is carefully recorded and reported. o Is making up data or results and
recording or reporting them.
RESEARCH IS:
 FALSIFICATION
1. Systematic o Is manipulating research materials
2. Controlled equipment or processes, or changing or
3. Empirical emitting data or results such that the
4. Analytical research is not accurately represented
5. Objective, unbiased and logical in the research record.
6. Employs hypothesis  PLAGIARISM
7. Employs quantitative or statistical method o Is the appropriation of another person’s
8. Original work ideas, processes, results or words
9. Done by an expert without giving appropriate credit.
10. Accurate in investigation, observation and
Research misconduct does not include honest, error or
description
differences of opinion.
11. Patient and unhurried activity
12. Requires an effort – making capacity DATA MANIPULATION
13. Requires courage
 Researchers who manipulate their data in ways
RESEARCH PROBLEM – SOLVING that deceive others are violating both the basic
There may not be a There is always a values and widely accepted professional
problem, only interests problem to be solved.
standards of science-failure to fulfil all three
in answering a question
obligations.
or query.
A research problem is A problem to be solved  They mislead their colleagues and potentially
more rigorous and is less rigorous and less impede progress in their field or research.
broader in scope. broad.  They undermine their own authority and
The research problem is The problem to be trustworthiness as researchers.
not necessarily defined solved has to be defined
specifically. specifically and MISLEADING DATA
identified definitely.
 Can also arise from poor experimental design or
careless measurements as well as from
SETS OF OBLIGATIONS OF A RESEARCHER TO improper manipulation.
ADHERE TO PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS  When a mistake appears in a journal article or
1. An obligation to honour the trust that their book, it should be corrected in a note, erratum
colleagues place in them. (for a production error/additions/corrections)
2. An obligation to themselves. Irresponsible ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
conduct in research can make it impossible
to achieve a goal. 1. Respect
3. An obligation to act in ways that serve the 2. Honesty
public. 3. Responsible
4. Legality
PLAGIARISM – is the act of using the ideas or words of 5. Confidentiality
another person without giving appropriate credit. 6. Openness
SELF PLAGIARISM – the verbatim copying or reuse of 7. Carefulness
one’s own research 8. Objectivity
9. Competency
*BOTH TYPES OF PLAGIARISM ARE CONSODERED TO 10. Integrity
BE UNACCEPTABLE PRACTICE IN SCIENTIFIC
LITERATURE. TYPES OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH MISCONDUCT 1. Basic research

2. Applied
The means of fabrication, falsification, or 3. Library
plagiarism in proposing, performing or reviewing 4. Field
research or in reporting research results. 5. Laboratory

CHAPTER II

RRL – description, variable (what is your problem?)

 FABRICATION RRS – same study (upgraded, 2nd paragraph), similarities

of studies form the past (1st paragraph)
SYNTHESIS – some studies (summary)
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK – what would be the
process, what would be the solution to the problem
DEFINITION OF TERMS – lexical definition or operation
definition
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK – theory applicable in
research with illustration
CHAPTER III (Methodology)
 Restate the purpose and the research question
 Population and sampling
 Instrumentation
 Procedure and timeframe
 Analysis plan
 Validity and reliability
 Limitation of the study
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH
Case study research was the framework utilized
to conduct this study. Case study is defined as an
exploration of a “bounded system”. Case study research
takes place overtime through detailed, in depth data
collection involving multiple sources.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND DATA COLLECTION
The most appropriate sampling strategy. In case
study, research is the most common form, which is
called purposeful sampling (Patton, 1980)
Participant observation is a major avenue for
data collection in case study research. This data
collection gives a firsthand account of the event being
studied.
Field notes are an important aspect of data
collection in case study research. The researcher should
be able to shift from wide angle lens to a narrow angle
lens, focus on a single person or event.
Interviews are also a source of data collection.
In case study research (Merriam, 1988), several things
should be included in effective interviews.
The researcher should make clear his motives
and purposes for the research study. The respondents
should be protected through the use of pseudonyms.
The value of interviews depends on the
interviewer’s knowing enough about the topic to ask
meaningful questions. The most common way to record
interview is to tape-record the interview. Occasionally,
interviews are videotaped. Also researchers, takes notes
during the actual interview.
Appendices can be found at the end of the
research document.
APPENDIX A represents administrators and teacher
interview protocol.
APPENDIX B presents a list of questions for student
interview protocol.
APPENDIX C lists of students’ survey question.
APPENDIX D represents the parent information letter
for students who participate in the study.
APPENDIX E represents the permit consent form.
APPENDIX F is the student information letter for
participating students.
APPENDIX G is the student assent form.
POPULATION DESCRIPTION (example)
 The population description for this study
included all those in Saturn, middle school
which are involved in the mentoring program.
This population include administrators, teachers
and students.
SAMPLE DESCRIPTION (example)
 The administrator interviewed was the school
principal, Mrs. Randolf. This was a purposeful
sample selection. The principal was purposefully
selected because she was the initial school
contact. And it was through her that permission
was granted to conduct the study. Student
sampling included twenty – two students
enrolled in this mentoring program. This was a
purpose sample description of students who
were currently enrolled in the class.
INTSRUMENTATION (example)
 The interview protocol for administrators and
teachers is attached to this study as Appendix A.
APPENDIX A show the eight established
questions used when the researcher conducted
initial interviews with administrators and
teachers.
Prior to these interviews, the researcher
informed the administrators and teachers the
purposes of the research study.
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES AND SELECTIONS OF
SUBJECT (example)
 Procedures for this study began with the
researcher’s filling an IRB and receiving
clearance to conduct the study, initial phone
contact was made with administrator in the
school were the study was to be conducted. An
appointment was made to make first visit in
which the researcher obtained permission from
the school administration to conduct the
research study. During first visits into the school
setting, permission slips and information letters
were given to all subjects involved in the study.
VALIDITY
 Validity must be assessed in terms of
interpreting the researcher’s experience.
 Rateliffe concludes there is no universal way of
guaranteeing validity; there are only “notions of
validity”
o INTERNAL VALIDITY refers to how one’s
research findings match real events.
o EXTERNAL VALIDITY concerned with
the extent to which data results can be
applied to other situations. This issue
centers on whether one can generalize
from a single case.
RELIABILITY
 Refers to the extents a researcher’s findings can
be replicated.
 Is based on the assumption there is one single
reality.
 Lincoln and Guba (1981) suggest thinking about
“dependability” or “consistency” of results
obtained from the data.
TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH IN DIFFERENT
AREAS
1. APPLIED RESEARCH
a. Designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge’s sake.
b. Its goal is to improve human condition.
c. It is used to find solutions to everyday
problem develop technologies and
current illnesses.
2. BASIC RESEARCH
a. Also referred to as fundamental or pure
research.
b. Driven by a scientists’ curiosity or
interest in a scientific question.
c. Main motivation is to extend man’s
knowledge not to create or invent
things.
d. Designed to add to an organized body
of scientific knowledge and does not
necessarily produce results of practical
value.
3. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
a. Refers to the systematic investigation or
statistical study of relationship among
two or more variable without
necessarily determining cause and
effect.
b. Seeks to establish a relation or
association between two or more
variables that do not readily lend
themselves to experimental
manipulation.
4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
a. Refers to research that provides an
accurate portrayal of a class or a
particular individual situation or group.
b. Also known as statistical research.
c. These studies are a means of discussing
new meanings describing what exists,
determining the frequency, with which
something occurs.
d. Deals with everything that can be
counted and measured and which has
an impact on people or communities.
5. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
a. Refers to the investigation of a culture
through an in-depth study of the
member of the culture.
b. It involves the systematic collection,
description and analysis of data for
development of theories of cultural
behaviour.
c. Attempts to understand what is
happening naturally in the setting and
to interpret the data gathered so
implications could be formed.
i. TWO APPROACHES TO
ETHNOGRAPHY
1. Realist, researcher
provides an objective
account of the
situation.
2. Critical, researcher
shows his advocacy for
marginalized group or
attempts to empower
the group by giving it
voice.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANT
- Defined as a market research method that
causes on obtaining data through open-ended
and conversational communications.
- This method is not only about “what” people
think but also “why” they think so.
- Allows for in-depth and further proving and
questioning of respondents based on their
responses, where the interviewer/researcher
also tries to understand their motivation and
feelings.
- The result of a qualitative method is more
descriptive and inferences can be drawn quite
easily from the data that is obtained.
- Originated in the social and behavioural science.
- It is more communicative and descriptive.
CHARACERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Context and meaning
2. Naturally occurring setting
3. Human instruments
4. Emerged design
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESOGN QUESTIONS:
 1. What do I want to know? SEMI – STRUCTURED – both open and close ended
2. Why I want to know it? questions.
3. What assumptions in research and knowledge?
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
4. What assumptions am I making?
5. What type of data would answer this question? Data are collected through the researcher’s
6. How much data I need? immersion in the natural setting of research.
7. How will you collect data?
8. Who will I need to collect data for? OBSERVATIONAL EVALUATION
9. How will you access and recruit these
The researcher observes and record both verbal
participants?
and non-verbal behaviour of a person.
10. How will you analyze your data to answer your
question? QUESTIONNAIRE
11. What particular ethical issues do I need to
consider? More formal way of gathering facts.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCEDURES

1. CASE STUDY 1. CODING – reads the data, marks segments

a. Study of an individual or a group of
persons during a specific period of time.
2. ETHNOGRAPHY
a. An interactive study.
3. CONTENT ANALYSIS
a. A detailed and systematic examination.
4. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
a. Focused on understanding the
underlying meaning of the experiences.
5. GROUNDED THEORY
a. The researcher aims to glean a general
abstract theory.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SAMPLING
1. CRITERION SAMPLING
a. Selection is based on specific
characteristics.
2. PURPOSEFUL RANDOM
a. Selection of participants who have been
purposively selected.
3. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
a. Selection is based on availability and
willingness of participants.
4. HOMOGENOUS SAMPLING
a. Selection is based on the participant’s
similarity in experience.
5. MAXIMUM VARIATION
a. Selection is intended to attain more in-
depth views form a big number of
participants.
6. INTESITY SAMPLING
a. Selection is intended to sample the
same characteristics over and over
again.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
INTERVIEW
UNSTRUCTURE – using open ended questions.
STRUCTURED – using close ended question
within the data, each one of which is labelled
with a “code” – a word or phrase that suggests
how the associated data segments address the
research objectives.
2. RECURSIVE ABSTRACTION – summarizes the
sets of data.
3. CONTENT OR DISCOURSE ANALYSIS – counts
words or phrases, or coincidences of tokens
within the data.
4. COMPUTER ASSISTED QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS SOFTWARE – uses programs in
editing, revising and coding which allow for
work sharing.
GENERIC STEPS TO FOLLOW IN DATA ANLYSIS
PROCEDURES
1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin detailed analysis with coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a
description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes of analysis.
5. Decide how the description and themes will be
presented.
6. Make an interpretation of data –lessons,
meanings, suggestion for new question that
need to be asked.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
1. ONE TO ONE INTERVIEW
a. Conducting in-depth interviews is one
of the most common qualitative
research methods.
b. It is a personal interview that is carried
out with one respondent at a time.
c. This is purely a conversational method
and invites opportunities to get details
in depth from the respondent.
d. One of the advantages of this method
provides great opportunity to gather
precise data about what people believe
and what their motivations are.
 e. If the researcher is well-experienced
asking the right questions can help
him/her collect meaningful data.
f. If they should need more information,
the researcher should ask such follow
up questions that will help them collect
more information.
g. These interviews can be performed face
to face or on phone and usually can last
between half an hour two hours or even
more.
h. When the in-depth interview is
conducted face to face, it gives a better
opportunity to read the body language
of the respondents and match the
responses.
2. FOCUS GROUPS
a. Commonly used qualitative methods,
used in data collection.
b. Usually includes a limited number of
respondents (6-10) from within your
target market.
c. Aims to find answers to the why, what
and how questions.
ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUPS
 You don’t necessarily need to interact
with the group in person.
 Can be sent online survey on various
devices and responses can be collected
at the click of a button.
HOWEVER,
 An expensive method as compared
to the other qualitative research
method.
 Used to explain complex processes.
 Very useful when it comes to
market research of new products
and testing new concepts.
3. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
a. The most in depth observational
method that studies people in their
naturally occurring environment.
b. Requires the researchers to adopt to
the target audiences’ environments
which could be anywhere from an
organization to a city or any remote
location.
IMPORTANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Green and Bloome (1997) confronted with the
question what counts as ethnography made a useful
distinction between ethnography of education and
ethnography in education.
They claimed that the ethnographer of
education (usually a sociologist or anthropologist) seeks
to understand what counts as education for members of
a particular group, while the ethnographer in education
(usually an education “insider” often a teacher) is
concerned with the social and cultural dynamics of a
school or classroom. Ethnographic studies of learning
and knowledge in education ask the question what
counts as knowledge and learning in classroom to
teachers and students. An example would be how
teaching styles match the learning styles of students.
They concluded that ethnographic practice like
any set of social and cultural practices – are ways that in
a site act and react to each other pursue an agenda;
including research agenda. An example would be how
students react to the evaluation of their academic
performance.
QUALITATIGVE RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL
COMMUNICATION
Qualitative methodologies are also effective for
technical communication which determines the
effectiveness use of technology in the workplace to
ensure smooth flow of communication.
Focus groups are used to probe deeper research
results in order to describe or illustrate current
practices in technical communication which can take
the forms of Email, fax, messaging, video and voice
conferencing and extranet, jargons and graphics.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Braun and Clanke (2013) claimed that a
qualitative research paradigm in psychology has been
emerging. Qualitative ideas and approaches have been
part of psychology since its inception in the second half
of the 19th century. The early 20th century marked
behaviourism and the second half, the cognitive
revolution of quantitative methods employed within a
positivist, experimental paradigm dominated the
discipline.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. CORRELATIONAL
a. Studying relationship
2. EXPERIMENTAL
a. Manipulating conditions and studying
effects.
3. DESCRIPTIVE
a. Describing characteristics
4. DESCRIPTIVE RESERACH
a. Aims to describe the facts and
characteristics of a given population or
area of interest factually and accurately.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
1. OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
a. Used to document and describe animal
and human behaviour in a natural or
artificial environment.
2. CASE STUDIES
 a. Involves an in-depth study of an reputable sources that support your
individual or a small group of problem.
individuals. 4. You must be precise and clear with your
3. SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN problem statement.
a. Involves administering a survey to a 5. Gather data and information to answer
sample or the entire population of all posed questions.
people to describe the attitudes, 6. Organize the data, analyze the findings
opinions, behaviours or characteristics and formulate the conclusions and
of the population. recommendations.
i. USE IT WHEN… 7. Prepare the draft of the research
1. Describing trends report, revise as needed and present
2. Determining individual the final paper.
opinions about policy
issues
3. Identifying important
beliefs and attitudes of
individuals.
4. CROSS – SECTIONAL STUDY
a. Used it when the researcher collects
data at one point in time. The purpose
is to examine current attitudes, beliefs,
opinions or practices.
b. Compare two or more groups in terms
of attitude, beliefs, opinions or
practices.

PARTS OF METHODOLOGY (Quantitative Research)

1. RESEARCH DESIGN
a. Specific procedures involved in the
research process: sampling, data
collection, and data analysis.
2. THE SAMPLE
a. Involves determining which group of
people will study, who, specifically,
these people are, and how many of
them you will need to involve.
3. THE INSTRUMENT
a. Refers to the questionnaire or data
gathering tool to be constructed,
validated and administered.
4. INTERVENTION
a. Describe what happens in comparison
group.
5. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
a. Describe whose permission will be
sought and arrangements to make to
administer instruments.

GUIDELINES IN SELECTING RESEARCH TOPICS

- Selecting a topic may be quite confusing.

However, the following guidelines may help you
concentrate and produce an excellent research
paper.
1. Listen to your teacher for proper
directions.
2. Select a topic within your field of
interest.
3. You elaborate on the topic by doing
initial exploratory research and use
 INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATION AND IMMERSION
(Dito nagkaroon kami ng feasibility study tapos eto
mga naibigay na hands out samen.)
CHAPTER I
WHAT IS A FEASIBILITY STUDY?
A feasibility study is defined as an evaluation or
analysis of the potential impact of a proposed project or
program. It is conducted to assist decision makers in
determining whether or not to implement a particular
project or program.
Feasibility study means an analysis of a project
to determine if it is practical or not.
FEASIBILITY – the possibility that can be made, done, or
achieved, or is reasonable.
A feasibility study is essentially a process for
determining the viability of a proposed initiative or
service and providing a framework and direction for its
development and delivery.
An analysis and evaluation of a proposed project to
determine if it…
 Can the product be delivered profitably in an
ongoing manner?
 Is there sufficient customers?
 Technically feasible
 Feasible within the estimated cost
 Will be profitable
 Operational (will it work?)
 Economical (costs and benefits) Viability
 Technical (can it be built)
A feasibility study involves these steps:
1. Stating the purpose and the scope of the study.
2. Gathering and checking information.
3. Analyzing data.
4. Reaching conclusions
5. Arriving at decision or recommendation.
Reasons to do Feasibility Study
 Gives focus to the project and outline
alternatives.
 Narrows business alternatives.
 Identifies new opportunities through the
investigate process.
 Identifies reasons not to proceed.
 Enhances the probability of success by
addressing and mitigating factors early on that
could affect the project.
 Provides quality information for decision
making.
 Provides documentation that the business
venture was thoroughly investigated.
 Helps in securing funding from ending
institutions and other monetary sources.
 Helps to attract equity investment.
DIMENSIONS OF FEASIBILITY STUDY
 Market Analysis
 Technical Analysis
 Financial Analysis
 Economical Analysis
 Ecological Analysis
 Legal and Administrative
PRODUCT/SERVICE DESIRABILITY
First, ask the following questions to determine the basic
appeal of the product/service.
1. Does it make sense? Is it something consumers
will get excited about?
2. Does it take advantage of an environmental
trend, solve a problem, or take advantage of a
gap in the market?
3. Is this a good time to introduce the
product/service to the market?
4. Are there any fatal flaws on the
product/service’s basic design or concept?
CHAPTER 1 GUIDELINES
INTRODUCTION
Introduction includes the basic concept of the study.
Few things to remember:
 Introduction should be brief and clear.
 Introduction should reflect the insight reasons
of the study of the product/service.
 This is more about the product.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
 Should answer the question: “Why did you
make or choose the product/service?”
 Include health benefits and uniqueness of the
product/service.
 What is it advantage to the community or
customers?
 How idea of project originated?
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Should answer the following question: “What are you
going to research on the following:?”
 Technical Viability – feasibility
 Marketing Viability – feasibility
 Financial Viability – feasibility
 Management Viability – feasibility
 Socio-Economic Viability – feasibility
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
SCOPE AND LIMITATION
The researcher should inform the reader about limits or
coverage of the study. The scope identifies the
boundaries of the study, in terms of subjects,
objectives, facilities, area, timeframe and the issues to
which research focused. The limitations of the study are
those characteristics of design that impacted or
influence the interpretation of the findings from your
research.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
What benefits/significance can you provide to the
following:
 To the customers
 To the researchers
 To the students
 To the teachers
 To the farmers
 To the community
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CHAPTER II
RESEARCH DESIGN – refers to the overall plan and
scheme for conducting the study. Thus, the researcher
may utilize a historical design, descriptive design or an
experimental design.
 DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN – the purpose of this
study is to describe the status of an identified
variable such as events, people or subjects as
they exist. It usually makes some type of
comparison, contrast, correlation and
sometimes, in carefully planned and
orchestrated descriptive researchers, cause and
effect relationships may be established to some
extent.
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN – they are also known
as longitudinal or repeated-measure studies.
They are also referred to as interventions,
because you do more than just observe the
subjects. It uses the scientific method to
establish the cause and effect among a group of
variables that make up a study.
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN – the purpose
of this research is to collect, verify and
synthesize evidence from the past to establish
facts that defend or refute your hypothesis.
METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
1. Questionnaires/Survey
2. Interviews
3. Observation
QUESTIONNAIRES:
 Questionnaires are one of the most effective
ways to collect data.
 They contain fixed-response questions about
various features of an organization.
 These 0nline or paper and pencil measures can
be administered to large numbers of people
simultaneously.
 They can be analyzed quickly.
 Questionnaires can be standard based on
common research or they can be customized to
meet the specific data gathering need.
QUESTIONNAIRES: there are drawbacks;
 Responses are limited to the questions asked in
the instrument.
 They provide little opportunity to probe for
additional data or ask for points of clarification.
 They tend to be impersonal.
 Often elicit response biases – tend to answer in
a socially acceptable manner.
Why data collection instruments must be carefully
designed and administered?
 Must be designed to find the required
information.
 Must engage the responder so she/he takes the
time to read and thoughtfully answer.
 Must be clear as to what is being asked, easy to
understand.
 Easy to answer so there aren’t any transcription
errors.
Challenges in developing effective data-collection
instruments:
 Cultural differences between researcher and
source.
 Resources required for the study.
 Difficulty accessing some sources of
information.
Elements of survey
 A statement to respondents about how
information will be used and why it is valuable;
 Clear instructions, including for any skip
patterns;
 Appealing format;
 Logical sequence of questions;
 Consideration of how answers to previous items
might affect later items.
Describe qualities of a god survey item:
 Clear questions
 Single focus for each question
 Neutral question
 Balanced question
 Appropriate language for the intended
respondent
 Appropriately broad or narrow in scope
Sources of Data
 PRIMARY SOURCES – known as primary
data/raw data. These are data obtained from
your own researches, surveys, observations and
interviews.
 SECONDARY SOURCES – known as secondary
data. These are data obtained from secondary
 sources such as reports, books, journals,
documents, magazines and internet and more.
Data Collection Methods
1. INTERVIEWS
a. KINDS OF INTERVIEWS
i. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW – the
researcher asks a standard set
of questions and nothing more.
The interview follows a specific
format with the same line of
questioning. The aim of this
approach is to ensure that each
interview is presented with
exactly the same questions in
the same order.
ii. FACE TO FACE INTERVIEW –
most frequently used. It can be
conducted in the respondent’s
home or workplace, halls or
even simply on the street.
iii. TELEPHONE INTERVIEW – less
consuming and less expensive.
The researcher has ready access
to anyone who has a telephone.
iv. COMPUTER-ASSISTED
PERSONAL INTERVIEWING – is
a form of personal interview
but instead of completing
questionnaire, the interviewer
brings along a laptop or
handheld computer to enter
the information directly into the
database.
2. QUESTIONNAIRES
a. FIVE SECTIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
i. RESPONDENT’S
IDENTIFICATION DATA – observed and
include respondent’s name,
address, date of the interview
and name of the interviewer.
ii. INTRODUCTION – is the
interviewer’s request for help.
It is normally scripted and lays
out the credentials of the
market research company, the
purpose of the study and any
aspects of confidentiality.
iii. INSTRUCTION – refers to the
interviewer and the
respondent’s directions on how
to move through the
questionnaire such as which
questions to skip and where to
move to if certain answers are
given.
iv. INFROMATION – is the main
body of the document and is
made up of the many questions
and response codes.
v. CLASSIFICATION DATA AND
INFROMATION – establish the
important characteristics of the
respondent, particularly related
to their demographics which
are sometimes at the front of
questionnaire or sometimes at
the end.
b. TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES:
i. PAPER-PENCIL – can be sent to
a large number of people and
saves the researcher time and
money.
ii. WEB-BASED – is a new and
inevitably growing methodology
using the internet based
research.
iii. SELF-ADMINISTERED – are
general distributed through
mail, filled out and
administered by the respondent
themselves which is returned
via email to the researcher.
iv. OBSERVATIONS – is a way of
gathering data by watching
behaviours, events, or noting
physical characteristics in their
natural setting.
1. KINDS OF
OBSERVATIONS:
a. OVERT – when
everyone
knows they are
being observed.
b. COVERT – when
no one knows
they are being
the observes is
concealed.