Chapter 1: SOLID STATE DEVICES

Chapter 1 – Solid State Device

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Introduction

Electronics devices are complex component which mostly used in

electronics systems:
◼ Communication (TV, radio)

◼ Digital system (PC, calculator)

◼ Industrial system (robotic, process control)

◼ Medical system (x-ray, ECG)

◼ Instrumentation (oscilloscope)

Since 1940s, electronics system constructed using solid-state

components.
Solid state components – made from semiconductor elements,
neither conductor nor insulator, has useful characteristics as an
amplifier or rectifier.

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Atomic structure
Atom – All matter is made up of atom. Smallest particle of an element.
Contains 3 basic particles : protons & neutrons (in nucleus/core of
atom), electrons
Protons – positive charge, electrons – negative charge.
Bohr Model – basic model of atom.
Orbital shell/path – K (innermost shell), L, and M (outermost shell)
Outermost shell is called the valence shell and its electrons are called
valence electrons. This shell determine the chemical properties.
M
L
K

Nucleus
Figure 1.1 - Bohr Model of an atom Orbital Shells
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Valence band/shell
Contain 1 up to 8 valence electrons (e-).

Nearly perfect conductor Insulator

Semiconductor – 4 valence e-.
Conductivity depends on the number of electrons in valence band.
Conductivity  1/no. of valence e-. (Conductivity ↑ so valence e- ↓)
Maximum no. of electrons, Ne exist in each shell of atom can be
calculate : Ne=2n2 where nth shell no.
Eg. Shell K is the 1st shell. So Ne=2(1)2=2. (2 e- in the 1st shell)
Eg. Shell L is the 2nd shell. So Ne=2(2)2=8. (8 e- in the 2nd shell)

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Free Electrons
Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distance from the
nucleus.
Electrons near the nucleus have less energy.
Each distance from nucleus corresponds to a certain energy level.
When an electron acquires enough energy, it can leave the valence
band and become a free electron which its exist in conduction band.
Conduction band
e- (free electron)

e-
(valence e-)

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Conduction Band

When an electron acquires enough energy (from heat energy), it can

leave the valence band and become a free electron which its exist in
conduction band.
Conduction band – Band outside valence band which level of energy
of an e- is high enough and capable of being influence by an external
force.

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Energy Level and Energy Gap

Energy level – each shell corresponds to a certain energy level.
e- in outermost shell are less tightly compare to the e- closer to the
nucleus. It due to the attractive force, F, which decrease with distance.
Energy gap – the difference in energy between the valence band and the
conduction band. This is the amount of energy required for a valence e- to
jump from valence band to conduction band. For example, it absorb an
amount of energy 1.8eV-0.7eV=1.1eV (for Si material). *1eV=1.6X10-9J.

Energy levels: (a) discrete levels in isolated atomic structures; (b) conduction and valence bands of
an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor.
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Semiconductor, Conductor & Insulator

Conductor – material that easily conducts electrical current. (1-3
valence e-). Eg. Copper (29 e- which 1 valence e-).
Insulator – material that not conduct electrical current under normal
condition. (5-8 valence e-).
Semiconductor – material that between conductor and insulator. Can
conduct electrical current. (4 valence e-). Eg Silicon (Si), Germanium
(Ge), Carbon (C).
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor is neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator

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Semiconductor
Semiconductor materials are an atom that contain 4 valence e-.
Most commonly use
◼ Silicon (Si) – 14 e- , (2, 8, 4) Eg. diode, transistor
◼ Germanium (Ge) - 32 e- , (2, 8, 18, 4)

◼ Carbon (C) – 6 e-, (2, 4) Eg. Resistor, potentiometer.

Si – valence e- in 3rd shell. Ge – valence e- in 4th shell. Thus valence e-

for Ge has higher energy level than Si. It means Ge required smaller
amount of energy to escape from their atom and become free e-.

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Ionization

A process of an atom either loosing or gaining a valence electron to

become positive ions or negative ions.
When a neutral atom loses its valence electron (valence e-), its
become positive ion.
The escape valence electron is called free electron.
When free electron loses energy and falls back into the outermost
shell, its become negative ion.

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Covalent Bonding
Is a method by which atoms complete their valence shells by sharing
valence e- with other atoms.
It strong bonding between atoms.
Eg. Si atom has 4 valence e- and it create 8 shared valence e- of each
atom. When Si atoms combined by covalent bonding it form a solid
material.

Covalent bonding of the silicon atom.

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Covalent Bonding (Contd)

Results of covalent bonding:

1. Atoms are held together, forming a solid substance.
2. Atoms are all electrically stable because their valence shells
are complete.
3. The complete valence shells cause the Si to act as insulator.
Thus pure (intrinsic) Si is very poor conductor. (The same
principle also for Ge)

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Electron Hole Pair (EHP)

When a valence e- absorbs enough energy (thermal energy), it jump
from valence band to the conduction band and become free e-.
When an e- jump to the conduction band, a vacancy left in the valence
band is called hole.
For every conduction band e- and valence band hole is called Electron
Hole Pair (EHP).

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Recombination & EHP Life Time

Within a very short time (µSec) becoming a free e- in conduction
band, this e- will loses energy and falls back into a hole in valence
band. This process is called Recombination.
The time taken from an e- jump into conduction band to become a
free e- until it falls back to a hole (recombination occurs) is called
Life Time of the EHP.
Electron Current
When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Si, the
thermally generated free e- in conduction band are easily attracted
toward the positive terminal of the supply and its called Electron
Current.

Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement of

thermally generated free electrons.
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Hole Current
A valence e- can move into a nearby hole with a little changes in its
energy level, thus leaving another hole where it come from. Effectively
the hole moved from one place to another in the crystal structure and
its called Hole Current.

Hole current in intrinsic silicon

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Conduction Versus Temperature

At room temperature pure Si has no free e-.
Semiconductor have some no of free e- when no voltage applied.
As temperature increase, e- will absorb enough energy to break
their covalent bonds and number of free e- will increase.
As temperature decrease, less thermal energy to release the e-
from their covalence band and number of e- will decrease.
Conductivity of semiconductor  temperature. When circuit is
warm up, current will increase.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic – semiconductor which has a very low level of impurities.
Intrinsic Si & Ge – poor conductor (relatively large energy gap)
Extrinsic – semiconductor that has been subjected to a dopping
process. Not longer as pure/intrinsic material.

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Semiconductor Type and Dopping Process

2 types of semiconductor material that are subjected to dopping
process
1. n-type – negative charge of e-. Created by adding impurity
element with 5 valence e- into pure Si or Ge. Electrons are
majority carriers. Holes created by EHP are minority carrier.
2. p-type – positive charge of hole. Holes are mojority carrier.
Electrons are minority carrier.
Dopping is a process of adding impurities atoms to intrinsic Si or
Ge to improve the conductivity of a semiconductor.
Two types of element are using in dopping process:
1. Trivalent – has 3 valence e-. Known as acceptor (accept e-) or
p-type material. Eg. Aluminium (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron (B),
Indium (In).
2. Pentavalent – has 5 valence e-. Known as donor (donate e-) or
n-type material. Eg. Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb), Bismuth (Bi).
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Dopping Process of Semiconductor (Contd)

Eg Trivalent Si dopped with Boron (B),

Eg Pentavalent Si dopped with Antimony (Sb)

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal
structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is structure. An antimony (Sb) impurity atom is
shown in the center. shown in the center. The extra electron from the S
atom becomes a free electron.

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N-Type material

Negative charge of e-
Created by adding impurity element with pentavalent impurities (5
valence e-) into intrinsic (pure) Si or Ge.
Eg. Bismuth (Bi) dopped with intrinsic Si it has 4 valence e- to form
the covalent bond and 1 free e- which produce current flow.

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P-Type Material
positive charge of holes
Created by adding impurity element with trivalent impurities (3
valence e-) into intrinsic (pure) Si or Ge.
Eg. Boron (B) dopped with intrinsic Si it has 3 valence e- to form the
covalent bond and cause existence of 1 hole in covalent bonding.

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P-N Junction

P-N junction – formed by p-type region jointed with n-type region.

The basic diode structure at the instant of junction formation showing only the
majority and minority carriers.

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Depletion Layer
Area around a p-n junction called depletion layer or region which is
depleted of free carriers.
When no external voltage, conduction e- in the n-region are aimlessly
drifting in all directions. Some the conduction e- near the junction
diffuse across into p-region and recombine with a hole. So the
pentavalent atom is left the positive charge in n-region.

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Depletion Layer (Contd)

When equilibrium – the depletion region widened, no e- can across
the p-n junction.
Barrier potential, VB
◼ Act as a small single-cell battery.

◼ Creates electrical field that will stop the movement of e- to

across the junction

◼ At 25oC → VB(Si)=0.7V, VB(Ge)=0.3V.

◼ VB  1/ Junction Temperature (Temp ↑, VB ↓)

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Diode
Diode is a 2-terminal device that make from p-type and n-type
materials.
Ideally conducts current in only one direction.
3 operating conditions:
◼ No bias - No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V, No current is

flowing: ID = 0A, only a modest depletion layer exists

◼ Forward bias - External voltage is applied across the p-n

junction in the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.

◼ Reverse bias - External voltage is applied across the p-n junction

in the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.

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Forward Bias
Condition that allows current through the p-n junction
p- region : +VBIAS, n-region : -VBIAS
VBIAS > VB (barrier potential)
Positive terminal of VBIAS will push the holes in the p-region towards
the p-n junction. Recombination occurs and number of negative ions
(acceptors) in the p-region near the junction decreases.
Negative terminal of VBIAS will push the free e- in n-region towards the
junction. Recombination with positive ion and number of positive ion
decreases.
As a result, the number of positive and negative ions decrease so the
width of depletion layer become narrow. e- in n-region easily move to
the p-type. So large number of majority carrier flow across the
junction.
The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons and in p-type
materials are holes.
If the external voltage bias, VB is increased to a value called the
breakdown voltage and theKEE112
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Forward Bias (Contd)

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Reverse Bias
Condition that prevents current through the p-n junction
p- region : -VBIAS, n-region : +VBIAS
VBIAS < VB (barrier potential)
Positive terminal of VBIAS will pulls the free e- away from p-n
junction and positive ions (donors) in n-region increase.
Negative terminal of VBIAS will pulls the free holes from p-region and
number of negative ions (acceptor) in p-region increase.
As a result, the number of positive and negative ions increases so
the width of depletion layer become widen.
Due to widening depletion region, the p-n junction act like a very
poor conductor and allow minority carrier flows (µA). It called
reverse current or leakage current.
The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes and in p-type
materials are electrons.

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Reverse Bias (contd)

Diode connection b) Reverse-bias.

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Reverse Saturation Current

Also called leakage current
Current in reverse biased condition
The extremely small current, Is that exist in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out. It caused by the minority carriers in the n-
region and p-regions that produced by thermally generated EHP.

Breakdown Voltage
If the external voltage bias, VBIAS is increased to a value called the
breakdown voltage and the reverse current will drastically increase.
Also called zener voltage or zener breakdown.

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Breakdown Voltage (contd)

Is about -5V if doping levels in the p-type and n-type material
increased and caused value of reverse bias voltage is decrease.
It occurs due to the strong electric field in the breakdown region,
which breaks the bonding force within the atoms.
The maximum reverse-bias potential can be applied before entering
this region called Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse
Voltage (PRV) or Breakdown Voltage (VBR).
Diode that operating in this region is called Zener Diode which
normally used as a voltage regulator.

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Avalanche Breakdown

When reverse potential voltage increase, free minority carriers

developed sufficient velocity to produce additional carriers through
collision.
They collide with the valence e- and will release additional carriers
from the parent atom.
As reverse bias potential increases, additional carriers increase their
velocity and more collision occurs.
Therefore more free e- generated until the minority carriers
increase significantly and avalanche breakdown occurs.

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Ideal Diode
Has 2 terminal – Anode, Cathode

A diode ideally conducts current in only one direction.

The ideal diode in the conduction region (ON State)

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Ideal Diode (contd)

The ideal diode in the non-conduction region (OFF State)

Resistance Levels
Semiconductors act differently to DC and AC currents.
There are three types of resistances:
• DC, or static resistance
• AC, or dynamic resistance
• Average AC resistance

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1. DC or Static Resistance, RD
For a specific applied DC voltage VD, the diode has a specific current
ID, and a specific resistance RD.

VD
RD =
ID

2. AC, or Dynamic, Resistance

In the forward bias region:
◼ The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.

◼ The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26mV for 25C).

◼ rB ranges from a typical 0.1 for high power devices to 2 for low

power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.

26 mV
rd = + rB
ID
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2. AC or Dynamic, Resistance (contd)

In the reverse bias region:
◼ The resistance is essentially infinite. The diode acts like an

open. rd = 

3. Average AC Resistance
AC resistance can be determined by selecting two points on the
characteristic curve developed for a particular circuit.

Vd
rav = (point to point)
I d

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Diode Equivalent Circuit

1) Piecewise Linear Equivalent Circuit
Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must be greater than VT
before the ideal diode in the equivalent circuit will forward bias.

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Diode Equivalent Circuit (contd)

2.Simplified Equivalent Circuit (Approximate)

Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must be greater than VT
before the ideal diode in the equivalent circuit will forward bias.

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Diode Equivalent Circuit (contd)

3. Ideal Device
◼ The barrier potential is negligible, hence once the circuit ON or

short at zero potential current will flow significantly and VD=0V.

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