Polarization and

Birefringence

Prof. S. Habraken

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 Refresh: Elm Wave Propagation
• The wave equation and the phase
– Transversal waves are solutions of the Ψ ( x, t ) = A sin( kx − ϖt )
Maxwell equations
– The phase is characterized by the arg
of the sinus (ϕ) ϕ = kx − ϖt
– Temporal variation (x=cst) ⎡ ∂ϕ ⎤
⎢⎣ ∂t ⎥⎦ = ω
x

– Spatial variation (t=cst) ⎡ ∂ϕ ⎤

⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ = k
t
– Phase velocity: travelling speed of the
wavefront ⎡ ∂x ⎤ ϖ
⎢ ∂t ⎥ = ± = ±v
⎣ ⎦ ϕ =cte k

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Refresh: Elm Wave Propagation
• The plane wave
– Wave Vector (direction)
k
– Perpendicular plane:

!! !
(r − r0 )• k = 0
!!
⇒ k mathematical
– Wave • r = cst
expression:
! !!
Ψ (r ) = A exp(ik • r )

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 Refresh: Elm Wave Propagation

– Wavefronts are defined by:

!!
k • r = cstλ
– With the periodicity
respecting the condition:
k=2π/λ

– A wavefront is a surface
joining the points with
identical phase value

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 Refresh: Elm Wave Propagation
– Principle and construction by
Huygens
• Wavefront Σ travels towards
wavefront Σ’ by the
superimposition of spherical
wavelets

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 Refresh: Elm Wave Propagation
Huygens Construction : Refraction

II1 = IK sin i1 et II 2 = IK sin i2

sin θ i vi t vi c nt nt
= = = = II1 n2 sin i1
sin θ t vt t vt ni c ni = =
II 2 n1 sin i2 6
 Polarization
• Linear Polarization
– Light: transversal wave: E et k are perpendicular
– Superimposition of two perpendicular fields E

– The resulting polarization state depends on the phase difference ε

– Linear Polarization if ε = +-kπ

– Plane of incidence: plane including the normal vector w.r.t. the interface
and k
– TE or s-pol: E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (Transv. Electric)
– TM or p-pol: E is in the plane of incidence (Transv. Magnetic)

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 Polarization
• Linear Polarization

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 Polarization
• Circular Polarization
– Special case: Eo,x= Eo,y = Eo

– When ε=−π/2 (+2mπ)

Right-handed circular polarization:
The resulting E field is clock-wise
rotating when the observer faces the
travelling wave
– When ε=π/2 (+2mπ)
Left-handed circular polarization

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 Polarization
• Elliptical Polarization
– When ε has any value

Equation of an ellipse with the

grand axis rotated by an angle
α w.r.t. Ex following:

Lissajous figures:

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 Polarization
• Natural light:
– Very high number of oscillators emitting polarized waves. Each wave has
a very limited length related to a very short oscillation duration (cf.
temporal coherence) ~10-14 s.
Individual polarization state and phase ε are determined only during
~10-14 s
– The detected light comes from the superimposition of billions of those
individual fields persisting only 10-14 s
– At our time scale, the polarization state is completely randomized
and so, undetermined:
No polarization is assigned to natural light due to the random
process governing the light sources.

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 How to Polarize light?
• The Malus law
– Projection of the field amplitude on the passing direction of the analyzer:
E cosθ
– As a consequence: I(θ)=I cos²θ

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 How to Polarize light?
• Polarization by reflection
– Brewster angle : when reflected and refracted
rays are perpendicular:

n1 sin iB = n2 sin i2 = n2 sin(π − iB ) = n2 cos iB

2
n
⇒ tan iB = 2
n1

• Polarization by refraction: birefringence…

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 How to Polarize light?
• Polarization by scattering
– Principle:
• The photons interact with the electronic clouds of atoms
• Out of a resonant frequency ν : oscillation of an electric dipol
• A wave is reemitted at the same ν, mainly in a plane perpendicular to
the dipol: scattering of light

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 How to Polarize light?

– Blue sky: Rayleigh scattering following λ-4

– Partial polarization: visible only on parts of the
sky oriented ~perpendicular to the direction of the
sun rays

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 How to Polarize light?
• Selective absorption
• A grid of thin metallic wires

• The E component when oriented parallel to the wires (y-axis)

generates a displacement of e- along the metal wires.
– Heat generated by Joule effect
– The energy is absorbed (transformed) and never reemitted
(as expected by scattering).
• The E component when oriented perpendicular to the wires(x-
axis) is unaltered since the e- are not free to travel along the x-
axis
• Firstly used with micro-waves; now available for Ir or even visible
light thanks to nano technology advances (period < λ)

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 How to Polarize light?
• Polaroid

Poly-Vinylic Alcohol (PVA) foils heated and stretched

• Defines a preferential direction of the polymeric chains

Immersed in a solution enriched with iodine

• The iodine hangs on the chains
• The conduction e- of iodine are free to travel along the
chains where iodine is attached

If an E field, parallel to the chains excites the iodine e- :

• absorption by joule effect in a similar way as for metallic
wires!

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 How to Polarize light?
• Dichroïsme
– Forme particulière de biréfringence:
• Les ondes o et e générées dans le cristal
subissent des coefficients d’absorption α
différents

α dépend de la direction de polarisation

• Les indices no et ne dépendent de λ

(dispersion de la biréfringence)

Dichroïsme = la couleur résultant de la

traversée du cristal dépend de l’orientation
de E par rapport à (aux) axe(s) du cristal.
En général, il y a 2 directions
préférentielles résultant à la visualisation
de 2 couleurs.

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 Birefringence
• Propagation of wave inside an
anisotropic medium

– Displacement Vector D: ! ! !
D = ε0E + P
! !
where P = χ eε 0 E in an isotropic medium
! !
and P = [χ e ]ε 0 E in an anisotropic medium
[χ e ]is a tensor of electric susceptibility
– Consequently:

! !
D = [ε ]E by analogy with the isotropic case
D and E are no more parallel!
but tensorial law !

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 Birefringence
• Solving the Maxwell equation:
– We guess a solution in the form of a plane wave with an electric field
following:
! ! !!
[(
E = Em exp i k • r − ϖt )]
– Maxwell equations can be re written in the form:

!! ! !! !! ! ! !
– Itkresults
× E =that
µ0the
ϖHvectors:
k •D,DH =et 0k are kperpendicular
• H = 0 et k × H = −ϖD
• (D,k) is the plane of polarization
• (D,H) is the wave plane (with a wavefront perpendicular to k)
– The energy is propagating in the direction of the Poynting vector R:
R and k are no more coplanar! ! ! !
R = E×H

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 Birefringence
• Surface of indices:
– The vector of indices is defined following:

k ϖ
n= where k0 =
k0 c
– Based on solving the Maxwell equation,
the surface of indices is defined by the
analytic form:

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 Birefringence
• Surface of indices: projection in a plane
(2D view):
– Method:
• Intersection with the plane ny=0
• If n²-n2²<>0: it describes an ellipse with
semi-axes n1 et n3
• If n²-n2² =0: it describes a circle with
radius n2: nx²+nz² =n2²
• We retrieve two families of solutions (two
surfaces):
for a single direction of incidence, there
will coexist 2 waves with 2 indices as
being 2 solutions Maxwell equations:
Bi-refringence
• Optical axis: defined at the intersection of
the 2 surfaces: when the wave travels
along the OA, degeneration into a single
indice

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 Birefringence
• Surface of indices in 3D view:

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 Birefringence
• Properties of the 2 waves travelling through the crystal:
2 Indices will imply the existence of 2 displacement vectors : D’ and D’’
– Perpendicular to k (it defines 2 planes of polarization)
– D’ and D’’ are perpendicular
– R and k are no more coplanar: how is evolving R when k defines the surface
of indices?
– It describes another surface called wavelet or radial surface
Geometry:
– R is normal to the tangential plane to the surface of indices
– k is normal to the tangential plane to the wavelet surface.

s.n = 1

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 Birefringence
• Radial or wavelet surface:
understanding
Simulation of a wave generated inside the
crystal:
1 wavefront is elongated due to velocity
difference: extraordinary wave

2 wavefronts are travelling with their own

velocity: ordinary and extraordinary waves

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 Birefringence
• Field orientations:

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 Birefringence
• Uniaxial crystal
– By crystal symmetry: n1= n2= no (ordinary)
and n3= ne (extraordinary)
– Ordinary wave: E//D and k//R
– Extraordinary wave : unparallel unless…
• k along the O.A.: ne = no (degeneration: no more birefringence)
• k normal to the O.A.: Ee//De but ne <> no (velocities <>, inducing out of
phase…)
– Positive and negative crystal:

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 Birefringence
• Huygens Construction (Radial or wavelet surface)
Radial surfaces follow a relation to 1/n (s.n = 1)
J point is built based on the tangent to the surface 1/n1
Radial surface tangents from J: rays are builts following the Poynting vector
R (or S):

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 Birefringence
• Polarizing beam splitter: crystal with 2 // sides
O.A. has any direction but incident wave is normal to interfaces

A single k (!) for both waves

Do is perpendicular to De and k is perpend to Do andDe
E is perpend. to the “rays”: R (= Poynting = energy)

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 Birefringence
• Birefringent Polarizer
Wollaston Prism
k perpendicular to O.A.
O.A. rotated by 90° in the second
prism
The first prism does not angularly separate
the o and e wavefronts (normal incidence
with k perpend to O.A.)
Second prism: oblique incidence

J is defined using the o wavefront of the first

prism. It allows to built the e wavefront of
the second prism
K is defined using the e wavefront of the first
prism. It allows to built the o wavefront of
the second prism
Extraction of 2 crossed polarized beams
with an angular splitting

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 Birefringence
• Birefringent Polarizer
Glan-Taylor and Glan-Thomson prism (calcite)
– Normal incidence and O.A. perpend to k (no splitting)
– Oblique interface between both components
– ne < no (1.486 < 1.658)
– Total internal reflection at the interface for the o wave
– Glan-Taylor interface: air (critical angles : o 37° and e 42.3°)
– Glan-Thomson interface: “Canada” balsam with n=1.55 (critical angles o 69°)

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