Question 1

What is informational memorandum report? Explain with the help of example?

Answer:
Informational Memos
An informational memo is an in-house communication addressed to one or more individuals.
The objective is to convey one or more pieces of information that relate specifically to the topic
in the subject line. Besides the actual information, the scope of a memo must provide a reason
for why the information contained in it is relevant to the reader.
Identify Your Reader
Informational memos are often, though not always, intended for multiple readers. Regardless
of whether you have one, several, or many, you know who they are because they work with
you.
In most cases they are people from within your organization that share a need for the same
information. On occasion, however, they will be from outside your organization and have
strong internal ties, a subcontractor for instance, whose involvement in a joint project requires
that you regularly communicate.
The degree, or closeness of your working relationship, combined with the nature of the
information you are giving, will determine the level of formality that you should use in your
heading.
Fill in the heading of your memo. Decide what level of formality you are going to use and fill in
the TO field. While you are at it fill in the FROM and DATE fields. The SUBJECT field can be left
alone for now.
Establish Your Objective
The objective of an informational memo is to reveal new or refresh old information in a manner
that benefits or brings the reader up to date. It should be presented in a crisp and clear manner
within a contextual framework that is easy to understand.
For an informational memo to be most effective, present the most important items in the
opening paragraphs. People are busy; respect their time. Your readers may only have time to
scan the highlights and headlines of your memo, let alone get to the end, but they will read
your first paragraph.
Establish your objective. Below the heading, make a detailed list of the information you are
providing. Be sure to think about how it is relevant to the reader. Answer the "W" questions.
Fragments are O.K. Eventually this list will become part of your opening.
On completion your objective will be clearly outlined. Later, while drafting your memo, this list
will be turned into complete sentences and a paragraph.
Determine Your Scope
The scope of an informational memo should stick closely to the subject line of the heading,
making its objective clearly comprehensible to its readers while alerting them to the relevance
of the information it is delivering.
The subject line should define the specific topic that your information relates to and the
opening paragraph should remove any question from the reader's mind regarding the built in
who, what, where, when and why's of that topic.
If required, a summary and discussion following the opening should flesh out the need-to-know
details and close any "so what" doors that may have been left open. Think of it this way: the
"ignore this memo" room is right through those "so what" doors. Shut them.
Determine the scope of your memo. First, write down a clear description of your topic in the
subject line. Be specific. Next, review your list of answers to the "W" questions. Beef it up with
new lines containing need-to-know information that helps your reader understand the memo's
relevance.
Again, sentence fragments are fine. On completion you will have determined your scope. Later,
while drafting your memo this list will be turned into complete sentences and paragraphs.
Organize Your Letter
Before drafting an informational memo, pick out an organizational method that best suits the logical or
sequential order in which you would like the details to appear.

A simple outline will help organize your thoughts. In the editing boxes of Steps 2 and 3 you have already
begun this task by creating lists that helped you establish your objective and determine your scope.
Refer back to them. Together they include much of the content that will become the body of your
memo.

Begin to organize your memo. Review the work you did and organize your lists with an eye toward
building a framework in which your reader will clearly understand the relevance of your information.

If your outline seems disorganized, you probably have something out of order. Feel free to move things
around. On completion you will have a simple outline that you can use as a reference guide when you
begin drafting your memo.

Draft Your Memo

The best way to draft an informational memo is to write quickly; you should work from an outline. You
have already organized yourself with a sequentially ordered list, consequently you already have an
outline. This list is all you need. Refer back to it and turn each fragment into a full and complete
sentence expressing a single thought or idea.
Your voice needs to be natural and strong, clear and cohesive, as if you were speaking to someone in
person. Write quickly and concentrate on communicating your objective. When you are through, read
the draft out loud. Listen as if you were the reader. Does the scope of your memo contain everything on
your organizational list? Does it include everything the reader needs to know.

Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For the moment you can ignore spelling and grammar,
sentence and paragraph structure. Those are technical details that will be ironed out when you review
and revise your work.

Begin to draft your memo. Start with the point that you feel the strongest or most confident about and
then do the others. Remember to do this quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be
saved and edited.

Close Your Memo

An informational memo should close as crisply as it opens. Your last paragraph is a final opportunity to
draw conclusions or make recommendations and it should clearly indicate that you mean business;
however, it should also be treated as a good will building opportunity.

A personable and helpful tone is very much in order. Whenever you can, whenever it is appropriate,
offer to be of further assistance. This seemingly small thing is actually anything but small; it reminds
your readers that you are on their side, that you are a team player.

Close your memo. Add a final remark at the end of your draft and remember; this is an administrative
tool used to convey important information. Be as personable as the relationship with your reader allows
while respecting the hierarchical strata within your company. Upon completion you will have a finished
draft that you can review and revise.

Review and Revise Memo

Reviewing and revising your draft is the last step in writing an informational memo. It is a final
inspection time. Now is when you hone your memo's textual content, checking to see that your
objective is clearly stated and that your scope is sufficiently inclusive for the reader to understand your
directive.

Look for obvious errors. Check for misspelled words, poor sentence structure, and grammar mistakes.
Make sure that you have been direct and to the point. Use a strong active voice.

Keep in mind the overall cohesiveness of your memo. Look for accuracy, clarity, and a sense of
completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and if your point of view,
tone, and style are consistent throughout the text.

Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to confusion. Jargon and abstract terms
may not be understood at all and affectations, cliches, and trite language tend to diminish the substance
of your message. Review and revise your memo. On completion you will have a fully formed
informational memo you should give yourself a break and then review it once again.
 Question 2
Write down the Prefatory Section of a long report and briefly explain each of
them
Answer:
A) A LONG REPORT

A long report is simply an expansion of a short report. A short report needs less detailed introductions
and visual aids. Short reports may be formal or informal. Long reports are usually formal. A long report
involves a deeper discussion and is more complex in nature than a short report. A short report includes
introduction, body and terminal section, whereas, a long (formal) report includes preliminary section, a
body and supplementary material. Planning is the first step towards writing a long report. Planning
would comprise the following:

1) AUDIENCE RECOGNITION

What is the target audience? What action needs to be taken? Who is going to read?
my report? Categorize different types of document readers.

2) WRITING PURPOSE

Why am I writing? What was the situation that led to the need for this document?
What was the purpose of writing the report? What I want to achieve with my writing?

3) ORGANIZATION OF REPORT

What is the central idea that I am focusing upon? How I am going to present my
Ideas? What are the things I want to include?

4) USE OF VISUAL AIDS

What visual aids will be used? To what extent these visual aids will be used? Will
These help in making message more precise and clear? Will the document reader
Be able to understand the visual aids?

5) WRITING STYLE

What is the writing diction that will be followed? Which writing style will be the
Most effective?

B) THE PREFATORY SECTION OF A LONG REPORT

The prefatory section of a long report comes before the body of the report. A prefatory section comes
first in a long report but may be designed in the last. It has four parts:
1) THE TITLE PAGE
The title page includes the title, the name of the person writing the report, his rank or position,
and the date of submission. The title should be appropriate, clear, specific and concise. It should
be eight to ten words long. A report title covers briefly what the report covers. A five W’s (who,
when, where, what, why) approach should be followed while writing the cover page. In case of
highly technical reports, the contact details of author and his project members are also included.

2) THE COVER LETTER

The cover letter or letter of transmittal is used when the report is being sent outside the
organization. A cover memorandum is used when the report is being sent inside the
organization. In a cover letter, the receiver of the report is addressed. A cover letter discusses
the authorization for the report, or the occasion for writing the report. It also covers the scope
of the report. In the end, courteous close and any acknowledgements can be added.

3) THE ABSTRACT OR EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

An executive summary is a summarized version of a report. It is a very quick and accurate
overview of what is contained in the report. It is usually written in the end. It should not be
more than one or two pages. An abstract is helpful for top level executives who have to read
hundreds of pages daily. Most of the business executives do not read the complete report. They
go for the abstract in order to save their time. A synopsis helps out in managerial decision
making. An abstract should be very clear, precise, to-the-point, and catchy, as it is a condensed
version of a long report.

4) THE TABLE OF CONTENTS

A table of contents shows where the report contents are in the report. It is preferred to prepare
table of contents in the end. It comes in the preliminary section of a report but is prepared in
the end. After all the document has been considered and revised, all the page insertions are
done and the document is well formatted. A table of contents lists the sections in a report. Some
report formats allow table of contents to come before the executive summary. The numbering
starts with the chapter one. The pages before that are numbered using Roman numerals like I,
II, III, and so forth. English alphabet letters are used for appendices. For example, Appendix A,
Appendix B, and so forth. Appendices, cover letter, executive summary, bibliography, references
and acknowledgements are made italicized (sometimes) in table of contents. A table of
illustrations includes an overview of illustrations, images, visuals or appendices within the
report.

OPTIONAL PREFATORY PARTS OF A LONG REPORT

5) RELIGIOUS LOGO
Many Muslims start their projects with a religious wording

like . Hindu writers usually write “Om” or use

in the beginning.

6) AN APPROVAL PAGE

An approval page contains names and signatures of project supervisors, and

Examiners along with the date.
 7) DEDICATION

Most of the projects include a dedication page. It includes names of those to

Whom the project is being dedicated.

8) SPONSORSHIP LETTERS

If the project is sponsored, then it contains the name of the organization that sponsored the
project, location and sponsorship date.

EXAMPLES OF SOME PARTS TAKEN FROM A LONG REPORT

The following are examples of a title page, acknowledgements, executive summary and a partial table of
contents.

The title page looks like: (A logo of the organization/university may be inserted)

Entrepreneur Accounts Management Software:

Developed For Accounts Maintenance Purpose

Submitted To:

Department of Social Science

Preston University Islamabad

Acknowledgements page looks like:

 ACKNOWLEDEMENTS

All my heartiest thanks to Almighty Allah, whose mercy and blessings helped me to complete
this report. I express my deepest gratitude to my project supervisor, Mr. for his help and
guidance. I would also like to thank to my Head of Department for helping me in my project.

An Executive Summary looks like:

ABSTRACT
ENTREPRENEUR ACCOUNTS MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

This project is designed for accounts maintenance purposes. It was sponsored by XYZ
Corporation. It is a modern inventory system which makes manual system computerized. The
project took almost six months to complete. It was designed using SQL server 2000 and VB.net.
Day-to- day transactions are performed. Voucher entries are made, processed and saved in a
back-end database. Any person having a good knowledge of accounts is eligible to use it. It is
following the format of “PEACHTREE SOFWARE”. Different statements like income statement,
cash flow statement and balance sheet are generated. Further reports include Trial balance
sheet, Chart of Accounts report, General Journal and General ledger. The system provides
security and authentication as well. Multiple users’ access is not allowed.
For an authorized user, transaction processing can be done. For other unauthorized users, it is
read-only.
The project analysis, prototyping and design were a difficult task. A flexible prototype model
was developed.
Finally, the XYZ Corporation will start using it after three months.

A partial table of contents looks like:

CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….i

Executive Summary…………………………………………………………ii

Introduction…………………………………………………………………iii

Chapter 1 Present System…………………………………………………...

1.1 Working of the present system ……………………………….

1.2 Problems in the current system……………………………….
1.3 How to overcome the problems……………………………….
1.3.1 By ensuring data security………………………..
1.3.2 By making system computerized………………..

Chapter 2 System Modeling…………………………………………………

2.1 Entity Relationship Diagrams…………………………………

2.1 Decompositioning……………………………………………..

2.3 Data Flow Diagrams…………………………………………..

.
 Question 3
Define and Explain the following term in the context of proposal writing?
A) Appendix
B) Draft contract
C) Procedures

THE APPENDIX
The word appendix comes from the Latin "appendere," meaning "hang upon." An appendix is a
collection of supplementary materials, usually appearing at the end of a report, academic
paper, proposal (such as a bid or a grant), or book. It typically includes data and supporting
documents the writer has used to develop the written work.
Some writers are prone to append peripheral documents of various kinds to their proposals on
the theory that the bulk will buttress their case. Most sponsors restrict what can be appended,
if anything. If not restricted, remember that reviewers almost never read such appendices, and
may resent “the padding.” The best rule of thumb is: When in doubt, leave it out.
Appendices are occasionally used for letters of endorsement or collaboration, and reprints of
relevant articles if they are not available electronically. Other uses may be data tables, surveys,
questionnaires, data collection instruments, clinical protocols, and informed consent
documents, as allowed by the sponsor.
If two or more appendices are included in a proposal, they should be designated Appendix A,
Appendix B, etc.
As a form of persuasive writing, a proposal attempts to convince the recipient to act in
accordance with the writer's intent and at the same time, it outlines the writer's goals and
methods. There are multiple types of business proposals and one type of academic proposal
the research proposal. As different as these may be, they all follow a certain set of guidelines.
Examples of Supporting Materials
Not every report, proposal, or book requires an appendix. Including one, however, allows a
writer to point to additional information that may be relevant to readers but would be out of
place in the main body of the text. An appendix can give the reader more depth regarding the
topic, supply resources for further reading or contact lists, or provide documentation to make
the case for a grant or bid proposal. That said, an appendix should not be treated as an
opportunity for padding.
Appendix information may include tables, figures, charts, letters, memos, detailed technical
specs, maps, drawings, diagrams, photos, or other materials. In the case of research papers,
supporting materials may include surveys, questionnaires, or schematics and the like that were
used to produce the results included in the paper.
Supplemental vs. Elemental
Because of its supplementary nature, it's important that material in an appendix not be left to
speak for itself. "This means that you must not put vital information only in an appendix
without any indication in the main text that it is there," notes Eamon Fulcher, author of "A
Guide to Coursework in Psychology."
An appendix is an ideal place to include information and other data that are simply too long or
detailed to incorporate into the main body text. If these materials were used in the work's
development, readers may want to reference them to double-check or locate additional
information. Including the materials in an appendix is often the most organized way to make
them available.
The appendix material should be streamlined, relevant to your topic or thesis, and useful to the
reader but it's not a place to put all of your research materials. The citations in the references,
bibliography, works cited, or end notes will take care of citing your sources. An appendix is a
place for items that help the reader's understanding of your work and research and the topic at
hand. If the material is not important enough to refer to in your text, then don't include it in an
appendix.
Include an Appendix?

 Whether you include an appendix depends on your topic and what will benefit the
reader. If you answer yes to one or more of these questions, create an appendix.
 Will supplemental materials aid the reader's understanding of your topic?
 Will they provide resources for further reading or exploration?
 Will they supply additional depth to the data presented in your report, article, book, or
proposal?
 Will the materials provide additional backup for your thesis or message?
 Do you have items that would be unwieldy to present in a footnote?
Formatting an Appendix
The way in which you format your appendix depends on the style guide you have chosen to
follow for your work. In general, each item referred to in your text (table, figure, chart, or other
information) should be included as its own appendix. However, if there are many data sets
under one grouping, keep them together in their appendix and label each piece appropriately.
If you have more than one appendix, label the appendices "Appendix A," "Appendix B," an so
forth, so that you can easily cite them in the body of the report, and start each on a separate
page. For the ease of the readers, put your appendices in the order that you refer to them in
the paper and don't forget to note them in the table of contents—if your work has one.
Research papers, including academic and medical studies, usually follow APA style guidelines
for the formatting of appendices. They can also follow the Chicago Manual of Style. For each of
these styles, format the appendix as follows:

 APA: Center the title, and use upper and lowercase letters. The text of the appendix
should be flush left, and you should indent your paragraphs.
 Chicago: The Chicago style manual also allows for numbered appendices (1, 2, 3, not just
A, B, C). As far as location, they appear before any end notes sections so that any
information in the appendices that needs a note can refer to the notes section. If there
are many tables in the appendices, though, it might be best to keep the notes with the
tables.

Draft Contract
Knowing how to draft a contract is an important skill to have, whether you are a small-business
owner or a senior manager of a company. This knowledge will help you craft a contract that will
be of the greatest benefit to you and be legally defensible in court, while also preventing you
from signing contracts that are not in your best interest. The drafting process itself will vary in
the specifics from contract to contract, but follow the same basic process for most contracts.
Steps in Drafting a Contract
Drafting an effective contract is a multi-step process, the main steps of which are:
Determining if all parties can participate in a contract. In most cases, contracting parties must
be over the age of 18. In all cases, contracting parties must be judged mentally fit to sign a
contract. This includes not being under the influence of alcohol or other drugs at the time of
signing. Coercion and duress may not be used to induce a contract signing.
Determining the consideration of the contract. The consideration is the exchange of some
form of goods, services, intellectual property, or a promise of exchange for some form of
compensation, without which a contract cannot exist. The elements of the consideration must
be stated clearly for the contract to be effective.
Determining the contract’s terms. The terms should allow both parties to receive their desired
end from the deal and be arrived at in good faith, meaning no attempt at deception was made.
Such terms are also preferably expressed in written rather than oral form, as having a record of
the contract will make enforcing it much easier.
Considering using a confidentiality clause. If trade secrets or other confidential information is
involved in your contract, then a confidentiality agreement is highly recommended. Such an
agreement will ensure your sensitive information remains secure; if not, a breach of contract
will have occurred.
Adding a dispute resolution clause. This will detail how a breach of contract is to be handled,
including who will pay attorney fees, whether arbitration or litigation will be used, and (in the
case of litigation) what legal jurisdiction the breach will be resolved in.
Including a termination of contract clause. The length of the contract should be specified, as
well as what actions by either party may bring about a premature termination of the contract. If
the contract concerns ongoing services, a provision may be included to allow for prior notice
(usually 30 days) to terminate the contract without cause.
Making sure the contract adheres to the law. Whatever your contract concerns, certainty
should be made that it has been established within the bounds of any applicable laws. If not,
the contract in part or in whole will not be enforceable. What jurisdiction a contract is to be
interpreted in can be stipulated in the contract.
Reserving the last page for signatures and dates. If a contract is not signed and dated by both
parties, it will not be considered to have been put into effect. All details of the contract should
be understood by both parties before the contract is signed; if a party does not understand any
element of it, legal counsel should be consulted.
Offering the contract for acceptance. Once a contract is drawn up, it should be offered to the
other party concerned for consideration. If they accept it as is, then it will be signed, but a
counteroffer will often be made instead.
Negotiating the terms of the contract. If a counteroffer is made, it is then up to you to accept
the counteroffer or counter it with another offer. Often, such an exchange of offers will occur
until a final offer that both parties agree upon has been negotiated. With every counteroffer
the entire contract should be reviewed so as to be certain that all changes made to it are
understood.
Signing the contract. Once a final offer is agreed upon, both parties will sign and date the
contract. Once this occurs, the contract will be legally binding. Both parties should keep a copy
of the contract for their records.
Each of the above steps may require sub-details to be considered for the effective drafting of a
contract, and many contracts will require additional clauses depending on the business the
contract pertains to. If you need further advice relating to how to draft a contract, you can post
your legal need on UpCounsel’s marketplace. UpCounsel accepts only the top 5 percent of
lawyers. Lawyers on UpCounsel come from law schools such as Harvard Law and Yale and
average 14 years of legal experience, including work with or on behalf of companies like
Google, Menlo Ventures, and Airbnb.

Procedures
A well organized and planned proposal process can eliminate much of the chaos and last
minute panic that so often haunts proposal development. Well thought-out proposal
procedures will also help you coordinate efforts and help you win more proposals.
Procedures can have an important effect on an organization. When written clearly and
properly, they can help systems and people function better. If your people know what to do,
when to do it, how to do it, and how not to get it wrong, you can reduce frustration and save a
tremendous amount of time and effort.
Writing a procedure that is accurate, brief, and readable isn't always easy. But, with a bit of
knowledge and practice, you can learn effective procedure-writing skills, and identify great
opportunities to improve the quality of the things you do.
A proposal generally consists of
Introduction: A brief overview of the problem, solution, costs, and benefits.
Issue: The main definition of the issue, including subject, purpose, main argument, background
information and importance.
Solution: The main definition of the solution, including your step-by-step plan, the benefits, and
how potential obstacles will be overcame.
Qualifications: Overview of the personnel required, experience.
Conclusion of the costs and benefits, and wrap-up: Balance the cost against the benefit,
reinforce your point one last time.
1. Identify and define your reader
Just like with any kind of persuasion, it helps if you understand how to appeal to your audience.
Who will be reading your proposal and deciding if it’s accepted or rejected? What do they care
about? What kind of language and benefits would resonate with them? This is the first step
because it’s an important thing to keep in mind as you go along and as information that informs
the way you write from here on.
2. Define the problem your proposal will solve
Who: Who will the proposal affect?
What: What’s the reason for you to write the proposal in the first place? Explain the current
situation and the problems that come with it.
3. Define the solution
How: How are you going to solve the problem? Explain step-by-step in detail.
Who: Identify the personnel you need, along with their prior experience to add persuasion to
the proposal
4. Conclusion: costs, benefits and wrap-up
Reiterate: The purpose and main argument
Costs: Break down the projected costs involved for different elements of the project
Benefits: Break down the benefits to the organization, monetary and non-monetary, to
persuade the reader there’ll be a return on investment
Thanks: Thank the reader for their time.
Contact information: Where can the reader get in touch with you? Make sure to be crystal
clear to make the details easily discoverable.
Last steps before submitting the proposal
Clear writing is your best friend when you’re trying to write persuasively. For that reason, there
are a few checks to run before you submit your proposal.
Remember, what’s clear to you might not always be clear to other people.
 Question 4
What are the steps for preparing effective oral presentation briefly explain?
Answer:
The Steps to prepare effective oral Presentation
Determine the Purpose
We communicate to produce a result on the macro level. These overall goals are to inform, to
persuade to entertain. The basic goals are to clarify and secure understanding.
Briefly, at the end of your message, you must hope that your listeners have a better
understanding of an idea, issue or a process.
Going, willing acceptance of an idea is core to persuasion. Here your purpose is that after you
have finished your presentation listener may accept your proposal your claim or idea. You must
hope that they will do as you asked them to do.
Analyze the Audience and Occasion
Whether you speak or write the message must be adapted keeping the audience in your view.
You must have some idea of the calibre and quality of your audience to whom you are going to
communicate.
But it becomes difficult when you are going to speak to the people outside the organization.
Even then you must think about the factors of age, group, goals, occupation and other things
that and you can perceive at the occasion.
Select the Main Ideas for the Message
First of all, you must finalize the core idea of the message. You must be clear on which topic you
are going to speak. All supporting material must be relevant to the core idea.
There should be no confusion about the topic and theme should be unified. Your message
should be a complete whole not a disorganized and scattered matter. You can achieve it with 7
C of communication.
Research the Topic
It is understood that you have not all the necessary information related to the topic. As in
writing you collect. As in writing, you collect ideas, facts, data, information then you finalize and
drop some of your initial ideas.
You may add fresh ideas in your topic. Briefly speaking you must research your topic before
delivering it.
Organize the Data and Write the Draft
After collecting the necessary information about the topic you must give some sequence to
your ideas.
Create the Visual Aid
Sometimes presentation requires visual aids. But one should not prepare visual aids without
requirement.
For example, it would not be odd to visual when speaking about the structure of an
organization. Your visual aid must support your core message.
Good Speech has Three Parts
Introduction
The core motive of all presentations is to be heard by the audience. This can only be achieved if
they hear something of their interest or something they can easily understand. Once, you
observed the audience. You would have clearer idea.
Three Things “PAL” (Porch, Aim, Layout)
Porch
Porch means your opening remarks. These are your throat-clearing remarks or shortcut.
Aim
Your purpose, Why are giving the talk? How do you clearly express the aim of your speech?
Layout
Your agenda, It is a road map of your speech in which you tell the audience about your purpose
of the speech.
The Body
Some people call it the heart of your message. It is the text or discussion you are going to
deliver. It shows the central theme or data of your speech.
Briefly, the body explains the main purpose of your presentation.
 Question 5
What are the kind of information and persuasive speaking?
Answer:
Informative Speaking
Communicative messages surround us. Most try to teach us something and or influence our
thoughts or behaviors. As with any type of communication, some messages are more engaging
and effective than others. I’m sure you have experienced the displeasure of sitting through a
boring class lecture that didn’t seem to relate to your interests or a lecture so packed with
information that your brain felt overloaded. Likewise, you have probably been persuaded by a
message only to find out later that the argument that persuaded you was faulty or the speaker
misleading. As senders and receivers of messages, it’s important that we be able to distinguish
between informative and persuasive messages and know how to create and deliver them.

 Informative Speeches
 Identify common topic categories for informative speeches.
 Identify strategies for researching and supporting informative speeches.
 Explain the different methods of informing.
 Employ strategies for effective informative speaking, including avoiding persuasion,
avoiding information overload, and engaging the audience.
Many people would rather go see an impassioned political speech or a comedic monologue
than a lecture. Although informative speaking may not be the most exciting form of public
speaking, it is the most common. Reports, lectures, training seminars, and demonstrations are
all examples of informative speaking. That means you are more likely to give and listen to
informative speeches in a variety of contexts. Some organizations, like consulting firms, and
career fields, like training and development, are solely aimed at conveying information. College
alumni have reported that out of many different speech skills, informative speaking is most
important., Essentials of Informative Speaking: Theory and Contexts Since your exposure to
informative speaking is inevitable.

 Getting integrated: Informative speaking is likely the type of public speaking we will
most often deliver and be audience to in our lives. Informative speaking is an important
part of academic, professional, personal, and civic contexts.
 Informative speeches teach an audience through objective factual information and can
emerge from one or more of the following categories: objects, people, concepts, events,
processes, and issues.
  Effective informative speaking requires good research skills, as speakers must include
novel information, relevant and proxemic examples, and “take-away” information that
audience members will find engaging and useful.
 The four primary methods of informing are through definition, description,
demonstration, or explanation.

 Informing through definition entails defining concepts clearly and concisely using
synonyms and antonyms, use or function, example, or etymology.
 Informing through description entails creating detailed verbal pictures for your
audience.
 Informing through demonstration entails sharing verbal directions about how to do
something while also physically demonstrating the steps.
 Informing through explanation entails sharing how something works, how something
came to be, or why something happened.
 An effective informative speaker should avoid persuasion by reviewing the language
used in the specific purpose and thesis statements, using objective supporting material,
and appearing trustworthy to the audience.
 An effective informative speaker should avoid information overload by repackaging
information and building in repetition and orienting material like reviews and previews.
 An effective informative speaker engages the audience by translating information into
relevant and concrete examples that appeal to different learning styles.
Persuasive Speaking
Persuasive speakers should be concerned with what strengthens and weakens an argument.
Earlier we discussed the process of building an argument with claims and evidence and how
warrants are the underlying justifications that connect the two. We also discussed the
importance of evaluating the strength of a warrant, because strong warrants are usually more
persuasive. Knowing different types of reasoning can help you put claims and evidence together
in persuasive ways and help you evaluate the quality of arguments that you encounter. Further,
being able to identify common fallacies of reasoning can help you be a more critical consumer
of persuasive messages.

 Persuasive speeches can come in many forms, such as sales pitches, debates, and legal
proceedings.
 Persuasive speeches may utilize the three modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos and
logos.
 Ethos is the most important appeal in a persuasive speech.
 Factors such as body language, the willingness of the audience, and the environment in
which the speech is given, all affect the success of a persuasive speech.
  Audience Analysis is important in a persuasive speech, as the audience will be convinced
for their own reasons, not for the speaker’s reasons.
A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of convincing
the audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such a way as to
hopefully cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view. Though the
overarching goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept a perspective, not
all audiences can be convinced by a single speech and not all perspectives can persuade the
audience. The success of a persuasive speech is often measured by the audience’s willingness
to consider the speaker’s argument.
Components of a Persuasive Speech
While ethos is an essential part of a persuasive speech, pathos and logos are usually combined
to form the best possible argument.
While a speaker can attempt to establish ethos, or credibility, with an audience, it is ultimately
assigned to them based on the audience’s perception. If the audience does not perceive the
speaker as a credible source on the topic about which they are speaking, they will ultimately
have a hard time considering the speaker’s argument.
The logos in a speech, or logical appeals, are arguments that present a set of information and
show why a conclusion must rationally be true. For example, arguments heard in court are
logical arguments.
Pathos, emotional appeals, are appeals that seek to make the audience feel a certain way so
that they will accept a conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate
emotional appeals by juxtaposing an opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.

 Convincing speeches aim to get the audience to change their mind to accept the view
put forth in the speech.
 Actuation speeches seek to incite a certain action in the audience.
 Stimulation speeches are designed to get an audience to believe more enthusiastically in
a view

Question 6
Define dyadic communication and discuss how self-perception affect the
communication?
Answer:
Dyadic Communication
A person shares his thoughts with another person. The communicator can also use charts,
graphs, animations, slides, music, sounds, video clips, his own voice, gestures, body language,
facial expressions, written reports, and still images to tell what he wants to. People working in
firms, government departments as well as people discussing things in the groups of two.
They cannot afford to be impersonal with each other because they addressing each other by
being physically present in a room, office, and garden or at any other place. If they are talking
over telephone, or cellular phone, they are again personal (to some extent) as voice of one
person delivers many meanings and cues to the other person.
They are communicating with each other in an air of confidence and both the persons are
confident that they are understanding each other. They want results from each other. They
want these results in a short time frame. This is called Dyadic Communication. It is an example
of two-way communication because every person would respond to the statements,
documents, tables, and data provided by the other person. Example Two persons can exchange
information and discuss topics that are of mutual interest. The topics could be politics, societal
values, neighborhood, environment, sports, etc.
A person can talk to another person, or he can send a letter or document to him. He can also
show him a visual clip, slide, diagram, chart, etc. Further, he can talk to him over telephone too.
Now-a-days, cellular phones are a popular form of communication for personal tete-a-tete. All
these techniques are a part of Dyadic Communication.
Even if two persons are talking over telephone, their expressions, sights, disgruntled
acknowledgements, and whispers can communicate a lot to each other. When they are
engaged in a face-to-face meeting their body language tells the real tale.
Words also help them communicate so do documents. Handshakes, products, charts, diagrams,
samples of products, and live demonstrations. There are eight media vehicles through which
dyadic communication can be regulated. These media vehicles are:
Oral communication

 Communication through gestures

 Communication through body language
 Documentary communication
 Pictorial communication
 Communication through available data
 Communication through numerical data
 Communication through products.
People influence our self-concept and self-esteem. While interactions we have with individuals
and groups are definitely important to consider, we must also note the influence that larger,
more systemic forces have on our self-perception. Social and family influences, culture, and the
media all play a role in shaping who we think we are and how we feel about ourselves.
Although these are powerful socializing forces, there are ways to maintain some control over
our self-perception.
SELF-PERCEPTION
Take a look at any magazine, television show, or movie and you will most likely see very
beautiful people. When you look around you in your daily life, there are likely not as many
glamorous and gorgeous people. Scholars and media critics have critiqued this discrepancy for
decades because it has contributed to many social issues and public health issues ranging from
body dysmorphic disorder, to eating disorders, to lowered self-esteem.
Much of the media is driven by advertising, and the business of media has been to perpetuate a
“culture of lack.” This means that we are constantly told, via mediated images, that we lack
something. In short, advertisements often tell us we don’t have enough money, enough beauty,
or enough material possessions. Over the past few decades, women’s bodies in the media have
gotten smaller and thinner, while men’s bodies have gotten bigger and more muscular. At the
same time, the US population has become dramatically more obese. As research shows that
men and women are becoming more and more dissatisfied with their bodies, which ultimately
affects their self-concept and self-esteem, health and beauty product lines proliferate and
cosmetic surgeries and other types of enhancements become more and more popular. From
young children to older adults, people are becoming more aware of and oftentimes unhappy
with their bodies, which results in a variety of self-perception problems.
As we go through our daily lives we perceive all sorts of people and objects, and we often make
sense of these perceptions by using previous experiences to help filter and organize the
information we take in. Sometimes we encounter new or contradictory information that
changes the way we think about a person, group, or object. The perceptions that we make of
others and that others make of us affect how we communicate and act. In this chapter, we will
learn about the perception process, how we perceive others, how we perceive and present
ourselves, and how we can improve our perceptions.

 Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information. This

process affects our communication because we respond to stimuli differently, whether
they are objects or persons, based on how we perceive them.
 Given the massive amounts of stimuli taken in by our senses, we only select a portion of
the incoming information to organize and interpret. We select information based on
salience. We tend to find salient things that are visually or aurally stimulating and things
that meet our needs and interests. Expectations also influence what information we
select.
 We organize information that we select into patterns based on proximity, similarity, and
difference.
  We interpret information using schemata, which allow us to assign meaning to
information based on accumulated knowledge and previous experience.
Selecting Information
We take in information through all five of our senses, but our perceptual field (the world
around us) includes so many stimuli that it is impossible for our brains to process and make
sense of it all. So, as information comes in through our senses, various factors influence what
actually continues on through the perception process
Visual and Aural Stimulation
It is probably not surprising to learn that visually and/or aurally stimulating things become
salient in our perceptual field and get our attention. Creatures ranging from fish to
hummingbirds are attracted to things like silver spinners on fishing poles or red and yellow bird
feeders. Having our senses stimulated isn’t always a positive thing though. Think about the
couple that won’t stop talking during the movie or the upstairs neighbor whose subwoofer
shakes your ceiling at night. In short, stimuli can be attention-getting in a productive or
distracting way. As communicators, we can use this knowledge to our benefit by minimizing
distractions when we have something important to say. It’s probably better to have a serious
conversation with a significant other in a quiet place rather than a crowded food court.
Needs and Interests
We tend to pay attention to information that we perceive to meet our needs or interests in
some way. This type of selective attention can help us meet instrumental needs and get things
done. When you need to speak with a financial aid officer about your scholarships and loans,
you sit in the waiting room and listen for your name to be called. Paying close attention to
whose name is called means you can be ready to start your meeting and hopefully get your
business handled. When we don’t think certain messages meet our needs, stimuli that would
normally get our attention may be completely lost
Expectations
The relationship between salience and expectations is a little more complex. Basically, we can
find expected things salient and find things that are unexpected salient. While this may sound
confusing, a couple examples should illustrate this point. If you are expecting a package to be
delivered, you might pick up on the slightest noise of a truck engine or someone’s footsteps
approaching your front door. Since we expect something to happen, we may be extra tuned in
to clues that it is coming. In terms of the unexpected, if you have a shy and soft-spoken friend
who you overhear raising the volume and pitch of his voice while talking to another friend, you
may pick up on that and assume that something out of the ordinary is going on. For something
unexpected to become salient, it has to reach a certain threshold of difference.
Impressions and Interpretation
As we perceive others, we make impressions about their personality, likeability, attractiveness,
and other characteristics. Although much of our impressions are personal, what forms them is
sometimes based more on circumstances than personal characteristics. All the information we
take in isn’t treated equally. How important are first impressions? Does the last thing you
notice about a person stick with you longer because it’s more recent? Do we tend to remember
the positive or negative things we notice about a person? This section will help answer these
questions, as we explore how the timing of information and the content of the messages we
receive can influence our perception.
First and Last Impressions
The old saying “You never get a second chance to make a good impression” points to the fact
that first impressions matter. The brain is a predictive organ in that it wants to know, based on
previous experiences and patterns, what to expect next, and first impressions function to fill
this need, allowing us to determine how we will proceed with an interaction after only a quick
assessment of the person with whom we are interacting.

Question 7
What are the purpose and kind of meetings?
Answer:
A meeting is a coming together of generally three or more people to exchange information in a
planned manner and discuss issues set out before them to arrive at decisions, solve problems,
etc.
A meeting can be formal or informal. As regards a formal meeting there is set rules for
convening it and conducting it, with a written record of its proceedings. It requires a notice
which is a call, an invitation to attend it.
It has an agenda or list of things to deal with, and the outcome is systematically written in the
form of minutes. An informal meeting can be without any written notice, for instance a staff
union meeting in the lunch room to discuss a picnic.
Purpose of a meeting:

 To reach a common decision/agreement

 To solve a problem
 To understand a situation, exchange ideas and experiences
 To inform, explain, present ideas
 To give and get feedback on new ideas
 To give training
  To plan and prepare for action
 To resolve differences and misunderstandings
 To generate enthusiasm and seek cooperation
 To review past performance and evaluate it
 To create a feeling of continuity and solidarity in a body’s working.
In this mechanical age, union is strength, and united work is done by means of meetings. It is
estimated that worldwide, millions of meetings are conducted every day, and their number and
usefulness is on the rise.
That is why although many negative remarks are made about the use of meetings, on the whole
we find that meeting is a useful device of collective decision-taking and action.
Kinds of Meetings
The first step towards planning a meeting is defining what type of meeting it is. While every
meeting is unique, being familiar with the six most common types of meetings will help you
better identify the goals, structure, and activities best suited for your meetings.
The six general types of meetings:

 Status Update Meetings

 Information Sharing Meetings
 Decision Making Meetings
 Problem Solving Meetings
 Innovation Meetings
 Team Building Meetings
Status Update meetings
Status update meetings is status update meetings one of the most common meeting types. This
category includes regular team and project meetings, where the primary goal is to align the
team via updates on progress, challenges, and next steps. Commonly found group activities in
these kinds of meetings are problem solving, decision making, prioritization, and task
assignment.
Presentations, information sharing meetings panel debates, keynotes, and lectures are all
examples of information sharing meetings. The primary goal of these meeting is for the
speakers to share information with the attendees. This could be information about things like
upcoming changes, new products and techniques, or in depth knowledge of a domain. Visual
communication tools, like slides and videos, are powerful tools for making the shared
information more memorable.
Information sharing meetings
At information sharing meetings the attendees have historically been passive listeners. With
new technologies like Meeting Sift they can use their smart devices to go from passive
spectators to active participants, making the meeting more engaging and productive for all.
Decision making Meetings
The vast majority of business decisions are made by groups in meetings. While decision making
meeting mall decisions are made in all kinds of meetings, the more important decisions often
get their own dedicated meetings. There are different types of group decision making
processes, and care should be taken to choose a process that best matches the situation. A
decision making process can include group processes like information gathering and sharing,
brainstorming solutions, evaluating options, ranking preferences, and voting.
Problem Solving Meetings
Problem solving meetings are perhaps the most complex and varied type of meetings. Whether
the meeting is addressing an identified problem, or it is focusing on creating strategies and
plans to navigate the future, there are a rich arsenal of group processes that can be used.
Scopes and priorities need to be defined, opportunities and threats need to be identified, and
possible solutions should be brainstormed, evaluated, and agreed upon.
Innovative Meetings
Innovation meetings and creative meetings often start with thinking outside the box, by
brainstorming, associating, and sharing ideas in a broad scope. Meeting participants can then
use various techniques and processes to reduce the diverse pool of ideas to a more focused
short list. Through ranking, evaluations, and decision making the most suitable idea, or ideas,
are identified, and recommendations and tasks can be assigned based on this.
Team Building Meetings
All meetings should team building meeting contribute to team building, strengthening
relationships and corporate culture. However, now and then team building activities should be
the main focus for a meeting. This category include meetings like include all-hands meetings,
kick-off meetings, team building outings, and corporate events. Have participants feel like
essential parts of their unit, team, department, branch, and company has all kinds of positive
impact on their engagement, performance, and satisfaction.

Question 8
Make your own Resume?
 Question 9
What are the guidelines for the interview preparation from the interviewee
point of view?
Answer:
Interview Preparation from Interviewee Perspective
Interviewers should be ready to evaluate candidates properly and promote their employer
brand. Good preparation takes time but it pays off: you’ll evaluate candidate skills more
effectively and create a positive candidate experience. In addition, you’re more likely to win
over the candidate you’ll eventually want to hire.
Nine guidelines for Interviewers
Remember that during the interview process, candidates are deciding whether they want to
work for you just as much as you are trying to decide whether to hire them. You have only
about an hour to make a good impression on the candidate. Follow these steps
1. Write down a list of questions that directly relate to the job's responsibilities. "If you don't
have a job description, list the key responsibilities of the position, and then draw up a list of
questions that relate to those responsibilities," says John Dooney, manager of strategic
resource for the Society for Human Resources Management, a nonprofit association for human
resources professionals.
2. Ask behavioural questions, as in "tell me about a time when you…" Ask for specific examples
of past performance and behaviour, says Dooney. Previous successes are a good indicator of
future performance.
3. Review the candidate's resume before the interview. This may seem obvious, but by
preparing your interview questions and reviewing the resume, you are showing the candidate
you have taken the time to ensure a productive interview.
4. Outline the interview structure for the candidate. First, give a brief description of the
company, and then outline the job duties. Finally, ask the applicant questions. After that, the
candidate will have the opportunity to ask you questions. This sets up the parameters of the
interview, keeps you both focused, and gives the candidate an idea of what to expect.
5. Don't talk too much during the interview process. Dooney suggests hiring managers should
talk only about 30 percent of the time. Allow candidates time to describe their skills and
qualifications during the interview. "Make sure you've covered all your questions and you
haven't missed anything," Dooney adds.
6. Extend professional courtesies, says Dooney. Offer candidates a glass of water, and ask if
they had difficulty finding the place. Be on time. Consider giving them a tour of the office. Give
them an opportunity to speak with other team members or prospective coworkers, if
appropriate.
7. Watch nonverbal signals. Just as you are looking for eye contact and appropriate dress, the
candidate is looking for those unspoken signals from you. Be sure your tone of voice is
appropriate and professional. Clearly articulate the job's duties and the company's mission.
Dress as you normally would, and pay attention to manners. You are a representative of your
company and department, so make sure your actions reflect this.
8. While being polite and professional, don't get too chummy. "Keep all your questions job-
related," says Dooney. If you spend the interview chatting, you may make a hiring decision
because you liked the candidate versus whether the person is truly qualified for the job, he
explains.
9. Whether it's by email or phone, follow up to let candidates know whether they got the job.
This is one more way of extending a professional courtesy and gives the interview process
closure.

Question 10
“Be careful in headling questions that you feel border on being discriminatory or
confrontational” Comment
Answer:
Issues of discrimination can be complex. A written question and answer process can be
particularly helpful in establishing what has happened and can help in trying to resolve
concerns, avoiding claims and disputes. This good practice guidance explains how people, such
as jobseekers and employees who think they may have been discriminated against under the
Equality Act 2010, can ask questions about what may have happened to them and how people
or organizations such as employers that receive an information request can respond
appropriately.
Confronting Prejudice or Discrimination the Changing Minds and Behaviors focuses on
confrontation as a strategy for reducing bias and discrimination. The volume tackles questions
that people face when they wish to confront bias great strides in the scientific study of
confrontation in the past 20 years has yielded valuable insights and answers. This volume is an
essential resource for students and researchers with an interest in prejudice and prejudice
reduction, and will also be valuable to non-academics who wish to stand up to bias through
confrontation.
An interdisciplinary group on discrimination. Contributing fields include but are not limited to
(labor) economics, psychology, social psychology, and sociology. Definitions of discrimination
differ between and within these fields. Usually, definitions of discrimination involve some sort
of interpersonal treatment that is based on group membership rather than on individual
characteristics. Usually, we study forms of discrimination that are considered unfair in a certain
context

 Addresses factors that determine individuals’ decisions to confront stereotyping,

prejudice and discrimination
 Analyzes how personal and collective motives shape responses in confrontation-
relevant situations
 Examines the consequences of confrontation from the perspectives of targets,
perpetrators and bystanders
 Provides a roadmap for how to prepare for and engage in successful confrontations at
the individual level
 Covers confronting bias in various settings including in schools, health care, the
workplace and on the internet
 Discusses confrontation in the context of racism, sexism, sexual harassment and other
forms of bias, including intersectional forms of bias
Receiving questions doesn’t mean a responder will have to appear before a county court (or a
sheriff court in Scotland). Although these questions need to be treated seriously and promptly,
the responder should consider what implications there may be for them and their organisation
by answering the questions or not and consider how to do so most appropriately. If a responder
chooses not to answer, a claim may be lodged at the county court which may have been
avoided by discussion between them and the questioner.
The responder should talk to the questioner or their representative about ways to resolve the
dispute. Many disputes can be resolved before civil proceedings are commenced so the
responder should seek to deal with questions as quickly as reasonably practicable.
The following steps set out the main issues for a responder to consider when deciding on.
Step 1 Agree/disagree with questioner’s statement
The responder should consider if they agree, agree in part or disagree with the description of
the treatment the questioner alleges they received. The responder should investigate then set
out their version of the events. If a responder doesn’t wish to answer all the questions raised,
they should note paragraph 14 below.
Step 2 Consider whether the treatment was justified
The questioner is suggesting the behaviour they experienced was unlawful in that it amounted
to discrimination. Although under the Equality Act 2010 direct discrimination is not justifiable
unless it is because of age, it is possible to justify indirect discrimination, if a responder
considers their actions were justified and proportionate. Some indicators of what could amount
to objective justification are set out in paragraph 16 below.
Step 3 Responding to other questions
If a responder thinks some questions are not relevant or unclear, they should clarify their
purpose with the questioner to help them to reply appropriately or explain why they will not
respond to specific questions.