Del Mundo, Bryan - Chap3

College Of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department

2nd Semester, S.Y. 2020 - 2021
CHAPTER 3: THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
3.1 What is the difference between atomic structure and crystal structure?
 Atomic structure relates to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
as well as the number and probability distributions of the constituent electrons.
 Crystal structure pertains to the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solid material.
UNIT CELLS
METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
3.2 If the atomic radius of lead is 0.175 nm, calculate the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters.
𝑉𝑐 = 16𝑅3√2
= 16(0.175𝑥10−9𝑚)3(√2)
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟖𝒎𝟑
3.3 Show for the body-centered cubic crystal structure that the unit cell edge length ɑ and the
atomic radius Rare related through ɑ =4R/√𝟑.
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑂𝑃:
(𝑁𝑃)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑄:
(𝑁𝑄) = (𝑄𝑃) + (𝑁𝑃)2
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑁𝑄 = 4𝑅, 𝑅 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠. 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑎.
(4𝑅)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2
𝟒𝑹
𝒂=
√𝟑
3.4 For the HCP crystal structure, show that the ideal c/ 𝒂 ratio is 1.633.
3
𝑎√ = ℎ
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒 = 3(𝑎)(ℎ)
3
𝐴𝑟𝑒 = 3𝑎2 √
2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝑐)
4𝑅 = 2𝑎
2 =𝑎
= 1.633𝑎
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
4
6 (3 ) (𝑅)2
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
3𝑐
3𝑎2√
2
4 3
32(3)𝑎9
3𝑎2(1.633)√3
= 0.7405 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑅.
𝒄
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐.
𝒂

3.5 Show that the atomic packing factor for BCC is 0.6𝟖.
𝑽𝒔
𝐴𝑷𝑭 =
𝑽𝒄
𝑉𝑠 = 2(𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
4𝜋𝑅3
=2( )
3
8𝜋𝑅3
𝑉𝑠 =
3
𝑉𝑐 = (4𝑅/√3)3
64𝑅3
=
3√3
𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑐
8𝜋𝑅3/3
=
64𝑅3/3√3
𝑨𝑷𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖
3.6 Show that the atomic packing factor for HCP is 0.74.
4𝜋𝑅3
𝑉𝑠 = 6( )
3
𝑉𝑠 = 8𝜋𝑅3
𝑉𝑐 = (𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴)(𝑐)
= 6𝑅2𝑐√3
= (6𝑅2√3)(2)(1.633)𝑅
= 12√3(1.633)𝑅2
𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑐

8𝜋𝑅3
=
12√3(1.633)𝑅3
𝑨𝑷𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒
DENSITY COMPUTATION
3.7 Molybdenum (Mo) has a BCC crystal structure, n atomic radius of 0.1363 nm, and an atomic
weight of 95.94 g/mol. Compute and compare its theoretical density with the experimental value
found inside the front cover of the book.
𝑛𝐴𝑀𝑜
𝜌=
𝑉𝐶𝑁𝐴
4𝑅 3
𝑉𝑐 = ( )
√3
𝑛𝐴𝑀𝑜
𝜌=
4𝑅 3
( ) 𝑁𝐴
√3)
(2 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)(95.94
= 3
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
4(0.1363 × 10−7)
[ ] /(𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)(6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
√3
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
3.𝟖 Strontium (Sr) has an FCC crystal structure, an atomic radius of 0.215 nm, and an atomic weight
of 𝟖𝟕. 𝟔𝟐 𝒈 . Calculate the theoretical density for Sr.

𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
(16𝑅3√2)𝐴
4𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
( ) (87.62 )
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(16(. 215 × 10−9𝑚)3√2(6.023 × 1023
𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
= 2.60 × 106 𝑔/𝑚3
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟎 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
3.9 Calculate the radius of a palladium (Pd) atom, given that Pd has an FCC crystal structure, a density
of 12.0 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 106.4 g/mol.

3
𝑉 = 16𝑅 √2
1
𝑉𝑐 3
= ( )
16√2
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜌:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝑉𝑐 =
𝜌𝑁𝐴
(4 )(106.40 )
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙
3 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(120𝑔/𝑐𝑚 )(6.023)( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉 = 5.888 × 10−23𝑐𝑚3
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅:
1
𝑉𝑐 3
= ( )
16√2
1
5.88 × 10−23𝑐𝑚3 3
=( )
16√2
= 1.39 × 10−8𝑐𝑚
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗 𝒏𝒎
3.10 Calculate the radius of a tantalum (Ta) atom, given that the Ta has a BCC crystal structure, a
density of 16.6 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 10.9 g/mol.
𝑉 = 𝑎3
4𝑅 3
𝑉𝑐 = ( )
√3
√3
= (√𝑉 )
𝑐
4

𝑛𝐴
𝑉𝑐 =
𝜌𝑁𝐴
2𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(108.9
𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
16.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3(6.023 × 1023
𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
−𝟐𝟑
𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒎𝒐𝒍
√3 3
𝑅= ( √𝑉𝑐)
4
√3 3
= ( √2.17 × 10−23 𝑐𝑚 3 )
4
= 0.121 × 10−7𝑐𝑚
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝒏𝒎
3.11 A hypothetical metal has the simple cubic crystal structure shown in Figure 3.3. If its atomic
weight is 74.5 g/mol and the atomic radius is 0.145 nm, compute its density.
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑉𝑐 = (2𝑅)3
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
=
(2𝑅)3𝑁𝐴
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑔
1 (74.5
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(2 × 0.145 × 10−7𝑐𝑚)3(6.023 × 1023
𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝝆 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟕𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑

3.12 Titanium (Ti) has an HCP crystal structure and a density of 4.51 g/cm3.
a. What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters?
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝑉𝑐 =
𝜌𝑁𝐴
6 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 (47.87 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝑉𝑐 =
4.51 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3(6.023 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟖𝒎𝟑
b. If the c/a ratio is 1.5𝟖, compute the values of c and a.
𝑉 = 6𝑅2𝑐√3
𝑎 2
𝑉𝑐 = 6 ( ) 𝑐√3
2
3√3
𝑉𝑐 = ( ) 1.58𝑎3
2
𝑉𝑐 3
1
=(
)
4.105
1.06 × 10−28𝑚3 1
=( )3
4.105
= 2.96 × 10−10𝑚
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟔 𝒏𝒎
= 1.58𝑎
= 1.58(0.296)
𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝒏𝒎
3.13 Magnesium (Mg) has an HCP crystal structure and a density of 1.74 g/cm3
(a) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic centimeters?

𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝑉𝑐 =
𝜌𝑁𝐴
(6 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)(24.31 𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝑉𝑐 =
1.74 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3(6.023 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑𝒄𝒎𝟑
(b). If the c/a ratio is 1.624, compute the values of c and a.
𝑉 = 6𝑅2𝑐√3
𝑎 2
𝑉𝑐 = 6 ( ) 𝑐√3
2
3√3
𝑉 =( ) 1.624𝑎3
2
𝑉𝑐 3
1
=(
)
4.219
14.0 × 10−23𝑚3 1
=( )3
4.219
3𝑥10−𝟖𝑚
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒏𝒎
= 1.58𝑎
= 1.58(0.3)
𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟒 𝒏𝒎
3.14 Using atomic weight, crystal structure, and atomic radius data tabulated inside the front cover
of the book, compute the theoretical densities of aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), magnesium (Mg), and
tungsten (W), and then compare these values with the measured densities listed in this same table.
The c/a ratio for Mg is 1.624. *
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(4 ) (26.98 )
𝜌= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(16𝑅 √2 /𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙)(6.02 × 1023
3
𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(4 ) (26.98 )
𝜌= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
(16 × √2 × (0.143 × 10−7𝑐𝑚)3) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(6.02 × 1023 )
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟎𝟗 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑

3.15 Niobium (Nb) has an atomic radius of 0.1430 and a density of 𝟖. 𝟓𝟕 g/cm3. Determine whether
it has an FCC or a BCC crystal structure.
𝑛𝐴
𝜌𝑜 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝜌𝑜 =
(16𝑅3√2)𝑁𝐴
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
(4 ) (92.91 )
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(16(0.1430 × 10−9𝑚)3√2)(6.023 × 1023 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝜌𝑜 = 9.325 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
4𝑅 3 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝐶𝐶, 𝑉𝑐 = ( 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ;
√
𝑛𝐴
𝜌𝑜 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑜 𝑛𝐴
𝜌 = 4 3
( ) 𝑁𝐴
√3
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
(2 )(92.91
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
−9
4 × 0.1430 × 10 𝑚 3
23 𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)
( ) (6.023 × 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙
√3
𝜌 = 8.565 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
∴ 𝑵𝒃 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝑩𝑪𝑪 𝒄𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
3.16 The atomic weight, density, and atomic radius for three hypothetical alloys are listed in the
following table. For each, determine whether its crystal structure is FCC, BCC, or simple cubic and
then justify your determination.
ALLOY ATOMIC WEIGHT DENSITY (g/cm3 ) ATOMIC RADIUS (nm)

(g/mol)
A 43.1 6.40 0.122
B 1𝟖4.4 12.30 0.146
C 91.6 9.60 0.137
𝒏𝑨
𝝆=
𝑽𝒄𝑵𝑨

Formula for a a for A, B and C n

FCC 2𝑅√2 𝐴 = 3.45 × 108 4
𝐵 = 4.13 × 108
𝐶 = 3.87 × 108
BCC 4𝑅 𝐴 = 2.82 × 108 2
√3 𝐵 = 3.37 × 108
𝐶 = 3.16 × 108
SC 2𝑅 𝐴 = 2.44 × 108 1
𝐵 = 2.92 × 108
𝐶 = 2.74 × 108
(A)
4.31(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 × 1023 )
4.31(4)
=
(3.45 × 108 )((6.022 × 1023)
𝝆 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟔 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝑪𝑪
4.31(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 × 1023 )
4.31(2)
=
(2.82 × 108 )((6.022 × 1023)
𝝆 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 𝒈
→ 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑩𝑪𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑
(B)
184.4(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 × 1023 )
184.4(4)
=
(4.13 × 108)(6.022 × 1023)
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝑪𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑
184.4(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 × 1023 )
184.4(2)
=
(3.37 × 108)(6.022 × 1023)
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑩𝑪𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑

184.4(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 ×1023 )
184.4(1)
=
(2.92 × 108)(6.022 × 1023)
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑
(C)
91.6(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 ×1023 )
91.6(4)
=
(3.87 × 108)(6.022 × 1023 )
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝟔 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝑪𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑
91.6(𝑛)
𝜌=
𝑎3(6.022 ×1023 )
91.6(2)
=
(3.16 × 108)(6.022 × 1023 )
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟏 → 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑩𝑪𝑪
𝒄𝒎𝟑
∴ 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝑩𝑪𝑪, 𝑩𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪 𝒊𝒔 𝑩𝑪𝑪
3.17 The unit cell for uranium (U) has orthorhombic symmetry, with a, b, and c lattice parameters of
0.286, 0.587, and 0.495 nm, respectively. If its density, atomic weight, and atomic radius are 19.05
g/𝒄𝒎 , 238.03 g/mol, and 0.1385 nm, respectively, compute the atomic packing factor.
𝑛𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑐
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛=
𝐴
𝜌(𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐)𝑁𝐴
𝑛=
𝐴
19.05𝑔 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
( )(0.286 𝑐𝑚 × 0.587 𝑐𝑚 × 0.495 × 10−21𝑐𝑚)(6.023 × )
𝑐𝑚 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛=
238.03 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝑉𝑠
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑐
4
𝑛 ( 𝜋𝑅3)
= 3
(𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐)
4𝜋 𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
× 4.01 (0.1385𝑛𝑚)3
= 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
(0.286𝑛𝑚 × 0.587 𝑛𝑚 × 0.495 𝑛𝑚)
𝑨𝑷𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒

3.1𝟖 Indium (In) has a tetragonal unit cell for which the 𝒂 and 𝒄 lattice parameters are 0.459 and
0.495 nm, respectively.
(a) If the atomic packing factor and atomic radius are 0.693 and 0.1625 nm, respectively,
determine the number of atoms in each cell unit.
4
𝑛 ( 3 𝜋𝑅3)
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑎2𝑐
𝑎2(𝐴𝑃𝐹)
𝑛=
4 3
3 𝜋𝑅
4. 592(4.95)(0.693)
=
4(1.625 × 10−8)3
3
𝑨𝑷𝑭 = 𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔/𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕
(b) The atomic weight of In is 114. 𝟖𝟐 g/mol; compute its theoretical density
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑎2𝑐𝑁 𝐴
4(114.82)
=
(4.59 × 10−8)2(4.95 × 10−8)(6.022 × 1023 )
𝝆 = 𝟕. 𝟑 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
3.19 Beryllium (Be) has an HCP unit cell for which the ratio of the lattice parameters c/a is 1.568. If
the radius of the Be atom is 0.1143 nm, (a) determine the unit cell volume, and (b) calculate the
theoretical density of Be and compare it with the literature value.
(A)
𝑉𝑐 = 6𝑅2𝑐√3
𝑐 = 1.568(2𝑅)
= 3.13𝑅
𝑉𝑐 = 6(3.13)3√3
= 6(3.13)(0.11 × 10−7)3√3
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟒. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑/𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
(B)
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁
6(9.01)
𝜌=
(4.3 × 10−23)(6.022 × 1023 )
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟕 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑

3.20 Magnesium (Mg) has an HCP crystal structure, a c/a ratio of 1.624, and a density of 1.74 g/𝒄𝒎𝟑
Compute the atomic radius for Mg.
𝑛𝐴
𝜌 =
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝐴
𝑉𝑐 =
𝜌𝑁𝐴
𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑔
6 (24.31 )
= 𝑔
1.74 (6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑐 = 14.0 × 10−23 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑐 = 6𝑅2𝑐√3
𝑉𝑐 = 6√3𝑅2(1.624)𝑎
𝑉𝑐 = 6√3𝑅2(1.624)2𝑅
𝑉𝑐 = 12√3𝑅3(1.624)
𝑉𝑐 1
𝑅=( )3
12√3(1.624)
14 × 10−23𝑐𝑚3 1
=( )3
12√3(1.624)
= 1.60 × 10−8
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒏𝒎
3.21 Cobalt (Co) has an HCP crystal structure, an atomic radius of 0.1253 nm, and a c/a ratio of
1.623. Compute the volume of the unit cell for Co.
𝑉𝑐 = 6𝑅2𝑐√3
= 6𝑅2(3.16)𝑅√3
= 6𝑅3(3.16)√3
= 6(0.1253𝑛𝑚)3(3.16)√3
𝑽𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟓 𝒏𝒎𝟑
POLYMORPHISM ND ALLOTROPY
3.22 Iron (Fe) undergoes an allotropic transformation at 912℃ : upon heating from a BCC
(𝜶 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆) to an FCC (𝜸 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆) Accompanying this transformation is a change in the atomic radius
of Fe—from 𝑹𝑩𝑪𝑪 = 0.12584 nm to 𝑹𝑭𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟒 nm – and in addition. a change in density (and
volume). Compute the per-centage volume change associated with this reaction.
Does the volume increase or decrease?
𝑅𝐵𝐶𝐶 = 0.12584
𝑅𝐹𝐶𝐶 = 0.12894
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,

1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 1 + (8)
8

=1+1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,
1 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = (6) + ( )(8)
2 8
=3+1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 4
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,

4𝑅
=
√3
4(0.12584)
𝑎=
√3
𝑎 = 0.291 𝑛𝑚
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚,

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎3
=
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 2
(0.291)3
=
2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 0.01227𝑛𝑚3
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,
4𝑅
=
√2
4(0.12894)
𝑎=
√2
𝑎 = 0.361 𝑛𝑚
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚,

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎3
=
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 4
(0.361)3
=
4
= 0.01176𝑛𝑚3
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
× 100
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
0.01176 − 0.01227
= × 100
0.01227
= −4.16%
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟒. 𝟏𝟔%

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
3.23 The accompanying figure shows unit cell for a hypothetical metal.
(a) To which crystal system does this unit cell belong?

The unit cell shown in the problem statement belongs to the tetragonal crystal system since 𝑎 =
𝑏 = 0.30 𝑛𝑚, 𝑐 = 0.40 𝑛𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90°
(b) What would this crystal structure be called?

The crystal structure would be called body centered tetragonal.
(c) Calculate the density of the material, given that its atomic weight is 141 g/mol.
As with BCC, 𝑛 = 2 .
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑐 = (3 × 10−8𝑐𝑚)2(4 × 10−8)
𝑉𝑐 = 3.60 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚3/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜌,
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
(2
= 10−23𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑐𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(3.60 × )(141 )(6.022 × 1023 )
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟑 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
3.24 Sketch a unit cell for the face-centered orthorhombic crystal structure.
(a) As with BCC, 𝑛 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙.
𝑉𝑐 = (3 × 10−8𝑐𝑚)2(4 × 10−8)
𝑉𝑐 = 3.60 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚3/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜌,
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴

(2
= 10−23 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑐𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(3.60 × )(141 )(6.022 × 1023 )
𝜌 = 13 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
POINT COORDINATES
3.25 List the point coordinates for all atoms that are associated with the FCC unit cell (Figure 3.1).
𝐴 (0,0,1)
𝐵 (0,1,1)
𝐶 (1,1,1)
𝐷 (1,0,1)
𝐸 (1,0,0)
𝐹 (1,1,0)
𝐺 (0,1,0)
𝐻 (0,0,0)
𝐼 (0.5,0.5,0)
𝐽 (0.5,0.5,0)
𝐾 (0.5,0,0.5)
𝐿 (0,5,1,0.5)
𝑀 (0,0.5,0.5)
𝑁 (1,0.5,0.5)
𝟑. 𝟐6 List the point coordinates of both the sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) ions for a unit cell of the
NaCl crystal structure (Figure 12.2).
𝑁𝑎 𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟; q r s
A ½ 0 0
B 1 ½ 0
C ½ 1 0
D 0 ½ 0
E 1 0 ½
F 1 0 ½
G 1 1 ½

H 0 1 ½
I ½ ½ ½
J ½ 0 1
K 1 ½ 1
L ½ 1 1
M 0 ½ 1
3.27 List the point coordinates of both the zinc (Zn) and sulfur (S) atoms for a unit cell of the zinc
blende (ZnS) crystal structure (Figure 12.4).
S atoms
a (0,0,1)
b (0,1,1)
c (1,1,1)
d (1,0,1)
e (1,0,0)
f (1,1,0)
g (0,1,0)
h (0,0,0)
I (0.5, 0.5, 1)
J (0.5,0.5,0)
k (0.5,0,0.5)
l (0.5,1,0.5)
m (0,0.5,0)
n (1,0.5,0.5)
Zn atoms
1 (0.25,0.25,0.75)
2 (0.75,0.75,0.75)
3 (0.75,0.25,0.25)
4 (0.25,0.75,0.25)
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏
3.28 Sketch a tetragonal unit cell, and within that cell indicate locations of the 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 and 𝟐𝟒𝟐
point
coordinates.
 The dimensions of the tetragonal unit cell are 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 and all the angles equal 90°
 Point 1 ½ ½, where we move all the distance in the x-direction, then move half of y direction and
finally move a half z direction, where the point is located.

 Point ½ ¼ ½, where we move the half distance in the x direction, then move a quarter distance in
the y direction and finally move a half in the z direction.
3.29 Sketch an orthorhombic unit cell, and within that cell indicate locations of the 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 and 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟑𝟒𝟒
points coordinates.
 The dimensions of the orthorhombic unit cell are 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 and all the angles equal 90°
 Point 0 ½ 1, where there is no distance in the x direction and we can move a half distance in the y
direction and finally move one distance in the z direction till reach the required point, where the
point is located in the upper plane.
 Point 1/3 ¼ 1/4, where we move 1/3 distance in the x direction, then move a quarter distance in
the y direction and finally move a quarter distance in the z direction.

3.30 Using the Molecule Definition Utility found in the “Metallic Crystal Structures and
Crystallography” and “Ceramic Crystal Structures” modules of VMSE located on the book’s web site.
Generate a three-dimensional unit cell for β tin (Sn), given the following: (1) the unit cell is
tetragonal with ɑ= 0.5𝟖3 nm and c= 0.31𝟖 nm, and (2) Sn atoms are located at the following point
coordinates:
000 011
100 𝟏 0𝟑
𝟐 𝟒
110 1 𝟑
𝟐 𝟒
010 1 𝟏
𝟐𝟒
001 0 𝟏𝟏
𝟐 𝟒
𝟏
101
𝟐 𝟐𝟐
111
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS
3.31 Draw an orthorhombic unit cell, and within that cell, a [2 1 1] direction.
 The dimensions of the orthorhombic unit cell are 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 and all the angles equal 90°
 To the direction 211, take the reciprocal of these numbers to get the intercept points
3.32 Sketch a monoclinic unit cell, and within that cell, a [1 0 1] direction.
3.33 What are the indices for the directions indicated by the two vectors in the following sketch?

Direction 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
=
𝑎
−𝑦2
𝑣 = 𝑛 ( 2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑏
−𝑧2−𝑧1
=𝑛( )
𝑐
0.4 − 0
𝑢=2( )=2
0.4
−0.5
−0
𝑣=2( 2 ) = −1
0.5
−0.3 − 0
𝑤=2( ) = −2
0.3
Direction 2
𝑥2
− 𝑥1
𝑢=𝑛( 2 )
𝑎
𝑦2(0)−𝑦1
𝑣=𝑛( )
𝑐
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑤=𝑛( )
𝑐
0.4
−0
𝑢 = 2( 2 ) =1
0.4
0−0
=2( )=0
0.5
0.3 − 0
𝑤=2( )=2
0.3
∴ [𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟐]
3.34 Within a cubic unit cell, sketch the following directions:

(a) The direction is (1 0 1), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal 1 0 1

(b) The direction is (2 1 1), and the intercept points will be reciprocal ½ 1 1
(c) The direction is (1 0 2), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal 1 0 -1/2
(d) The direction is (3 1 3), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal 1/3 -1 1/3
(e) The direction is (1 1 1), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal -1 1 -1

(f) The direction is (2 1 1), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal -1/2 1 ½
(g) the direction is (3 1 2), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal 1/3 -1 ½
(h) The direction is (3 0 1), and the intercept points will be the reciprocal 1/3 0 1

3.35 Determine the indices for the directions shown in the following cubic unit cell:
a.) Let’s take first the direction shown as A. Shift the origin at the tail of these direction vector and
get the values of direction coordinates of head of the vector.
𝒙 = −𝟏, 𝒚 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 = 𝟎
Since all these are integers no need to further reduce. Hence the direction for vector A is [1 1 0].
b.) Let’s take first direction shown as B. Shift the origin at the tail of this direction vector and get the
values of the direction coordinates of head of the vector.
x y z
½ 1 ½
1 2 1
The direction for vector B is [1 2 1].

c.) after positioning origin at the tail we have the following coordinates for head.
X y z
0 -½ -1
0 -1 -2
Hence the direction for vector C is [0 1 2]
d.) coordinates for head

x y z
½ -1 ½
1 -2 -1
Then the direction for vector D is [1 2 1]
𝒂) [𝟏𝟏𝟎]
𝒃) [𝟏𝟐𝟏]
𝒄) [𝟎𝟏𝟐]
𝒅) [𝟏𝟐𝟏]
3.36 Determine the indices for the directions shown in the following cubic unit cell:

a.) Let’s take the first direction shown as A. first we need to shift the origin at the tail of this
direction vector and get the values of direction coordinates of head of the vector. After positioning
origin at the tail we have following coordinates for head with respect to the new origin.
x y z
1 1 -1/3
3 3 -1
All of these are not integers we have reduced them to integers. Hence the direction for vector A is [331].
b.) After positioning origin at the tail we have following coordinates for head with respect to the
new origin.
x y z
-2/3 0 -½
4 0 -3
All these are not integers we have to reduced them to integers. Hence the direction for B is [403].

c.) After positioning origin at the tail we have following coordinates for head with respect to the
new origin.
x y z
-½ 1 (1 − 1)
2 3
1 1
1
2 6
-3 6 1
Direction for vector C is [361].
d.) After positioning origin at the tail we have following coordinates for head with respect to the
new origin.
x y z
-½ ½ -½
-1 1 -1
Direction for vector D

a.) [331]
b.) [403]
c.) [361]
d.) [111]
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑𝟏𝟏
3.37 (a) What are the direction indices for a vector that passes from point 𝟒 𝟎 𝟐 to point 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 in a
cubic unit cell?
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥1, 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1
𝑎
𝑋1 =
4
𝑦1 = 0𝑏 = 0
𝑐
𝑧1 =
2
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥1, 𝑦2𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2
3𝑎
𝑥2 =
4
𝑏
𝑦2 =
2
𝑐
𝑧2 =
2
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑢=𝑛( )
𝑎
3𝑎 𝑎
−
= 4 ( 4 4)
𝑎
=2
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑣=𝑛( )
𝑏
𝑏
−0
= 4 (2 )
𝑏
=2
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑤=𝑛( )
𝑐

𝑐 𝑐
−
= 4 (2 2)
𝑐
=0
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡. [1, 1, 0]
(b) Repeat part (a) for a monoclinic unit cell.

The lattice position coordinates will be the same for the monoclinic cell. Since theses coordinates are the
same, the direction indices will also the same. [1, 1, 0]
3.38 (a)What are the direction indices for a vector that passes from point 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 to point 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 in a
𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟒𝟐
tetragonal unit cell?
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥1, 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1
𝑎
𝑋1 =
3
𝑏
𝑦1 =
2
𝑧1 = 0𝑐 = 0
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥1, 𝑦2𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2
2𝑎
𝑥2 =
3
3𝑏
𝑦2 =
4
𝑐
𝑧2 =
2
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑢=𝑛( )
𝑎
2𝑎 𝑎
−
= 12 ( 3 3)
𝑎
=4
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑣=𝑛( )
𝑏
3𝑏 𝑏
−
= 12 ( 4 2)
𝑏
=3
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑤=𝑛( )
𝑐
𝑐
−0
= 12 (2 )
𝑐
=6

∴ [4, 3, 6]
(b) Repeat part (a) for a rhombohedral unit cell.
The lattice position coordinates will be the same for the rhombohedral cell. Since theses
coordinates are the same, the direction indices will also the same. [4, 3, 6]
3.39 For tetragonal crystals, cite the indices of directions that are equivalent to each of the
following directions:
(a) [011]
Assume that the tail starts at the origin and therefore 𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 𝑧1 = 0.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐.
𝑥2 = 0𝑎 = 0
𝑦2 = 𝑏 = 𝑎
𝑧2 = 𝑐
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,
𝑉 = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑐2
2 2 2
∴
[1, 0, 1]
[−1, 0, −1]
[0, −1, −1]

[0, −1, 1]
[0, 1, −1]
[1, 0, −1]
[−1, 0, 1]
(b)[100]
Assume that the tail starts at the origin and therefore 𝑥1 = 𝑦1 = 𝑧1 = 0.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐.
𝑥2 = 𝑎
𝑦2 = 0𝑏 = 0
𝑧2 = 0 = 0
𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,
𝑉 = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = √𝑎2
2 2 2
∴
[−1, 0, 1]
[0, 1, 0]
[0, −1, 0]

3.40 Convert the [110] and [001] directions into the four-index Miller–Bravais scheme for
hexagonal unit cells.
(a)
1
𝑢 = (2𝑈 − 𝑉)
3
1
𝑣 = (2𝑉 − 𝑈)
3
𝑡 = −(𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑤 =𝑊
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 [110], 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈 = 1, 𝑉 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 0

1
= (2(1) − 1)
3
1
=
3
1
𝑣 = (2(1) − 1)
3
1
=
3
1 1
𝑡=−( + )
3 3
2
=−
3
=0
𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟,
1
= (3) = 1
3
1
= (3) = 1
3
2
𝑡 = − (3) = −2
3
𝑤 = 0(3) = 0
̅ 𝟎]
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 [𝟏𝟏𝟐
(b)
̅ ], 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈 = 0, 𝑉 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 [001
1
= (2(0) − 0)
3
=0
1
𝑣 = (2(0) − 0)
3
=0
𝑡 = −(0 + 0)

=0
= −1
̅]
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒊𝒔 [𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏
3.41 Determine the indices for the directions shown in the following hexagonal unit cells:
a.) we have to determine (four- indices system)
First determine the values of U, V and W considering the three-axis system for the reference vector.
The vector passes through the origin.
𝑎1 = 0
𝑎2 = 0
𝑧 =0
And the coordinates for the vector heads are:
𝑎′1 = 0
𝑎′2 = −𝑎
𝑧′ = 𝑐
Calculate the values of U, V and W:
𝑎′ − 𝑎1𝑛
𝑈 = 𝑛( 1 )
𝑎
0−0
𝑈 =𝑛( )
𝑎
=0
𝑎′ − 𝑎2′′
𝑉 = 𝑛( 2 )
𝑎
−𝑎 − 0
𝑉 = 𝑛( )
𝑎

𝑉 = −𝑛
𝑐−0
𝑊 =𝑛( )=𝑛
𝑐
Put the value of n=1 to get the integer values for U, V and W. so U=0, V=-1 and W=1. This can be
represented in the indices form as [011].
= 1 (2𝑈 − 𝑉)
3
= 1 (2𝑉 − 𝑈)
3
𝑡 = −(𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑤=𝑊
So now let’s calculate the values of u, v, t and w by putting U, V and W in the above questions (1-4).
1 1
( ) ( )
= (2 0 − −1 ) =
13 32
( ) ( )
= (2 −1 − 0 ) = −
3 3
1 2 1
𝑡=−( +− ) =
3 3 3
=1
the integer values multiply all these values with 3, so we will get u=1, v=-2, t=1, and w=3. Hence the
direction indices in four axis system is [1213].
b.) determine the value of U, V and W

𝑎1′′ = 0
𝑎2′′ = 0
And the coordinates vector heads are:

𝑎1′ = −𝑎
𝑎2′ = 0
𝑧1 = 0
𝑎1′ − 𝑎1′′
𝑈 = 𝑛( )
𝑎

𝑎−0
𝑈=𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑈 = −𝑛
𝑎′ − 𝑎2′′
𝑉 = 𝑛( 2 )
𝑎
0−0
𝑉=𝑛( )
𝑎
=0
0−0
=𝑛( )=0
𝑐
Put the value of n=1 get the integer value for U, V and W. so U=-1, V=0 and W=0
So now let’s calculate the values of u, v, t and w by putting U, V and W
1 2
( ) ( )
𝑢 = (2 −1 − 0 0 = −
3 3
1 1
( )
= (2(00 − −1 ) =
3 3
2 1 1
= − (− + ) =
3 3 3
=0
integer values multiply all these values with 3, so we will get u=-2, v=-1, t=1, and w=0. Hence the
direction indices in four axis system is [2110].
c.) determine the value of U, V and W
𝑎1′′ = 0
𝑎2′′ = 0
𝑧′′ = 0
And the coordinates for the head vector are:
𝑎1′ = 𝑎
𝑎
𝑎2′′ =
2
𝑧′ = 0
𝑎′1 − 𝑎1′′
𝑈 = 𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑎−0
𝑈=𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑈 =𝑛

𝑎′ − 𝑎2′′
𝑉 = 𝑛( 2 )
𝑎
𝑎
−0
𝑉 = 𝑛 (2 )
𝑎
𝑛
𝑉 =
2
0−0
=𝑛( )=0
𝑐
Put the value of n=2 get the integer value for U, V and W. so U=2, V=1 and W=0.
1
( )−1( ))= 1
𝑢 = (2 2
3 ()
1
𝑣 = (2(1) − 2 ) = 0
3
= −(1 + 0) = −1
=0
No reduction is necessary as we already have the integer values, so we will get 𝑢 = 1, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑡 = −1
and 𝑤 = 0. Hence, the direction indices in four-axis system is[1010]
d.) determine the value of U, V and W

𝑎1′′ = 0
𝑎2′′ = 0
𝒛′′ = 𝟎
And the coordinates for vector heads are:
𝑎1′ = 𝑎
𝑎1′ = 0
𝑐
𝑧′ =
2
𝑎1′ − 𝑎1′′
𝑈 = 𝑛( )
𝑎

𝑎−0
𝑈=𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑈 =𝑛
𝑎′ − 𝑎2′′
𝑉 = 𝑛( 2 )
𝑎
0−0
𝑉=𝑛( )
𝑎
=0
𝑐
−0 𝑛
𝑊 = 𝑛 (2 )=
𝑐 2
Put the value of n=2 get the integer value for U, V and W. so U=2, V=0 and W=1.
1 4
( ) ( )
𝑢 = (2 2 − 0 ) =
3 3
1 2
( )
𝑣 = (2(0) − 2 ) = −
3 3
4 2 2
𝑡=−( − )=−
3 3 3
=1
the integer values multiply all these values with 3, so we will get u=4, v=-2, t=-2, and w=3.
Hence the direction indices in four axis system is [4223].
3.43 Using the Equations 3.11a-3.11-d, derive expressions for each of the three U,V and W
indices in terms of the four u, v, t, and w indices.
𝑢 = 1 (2𝑈 − 𝑉)
3
𝑣 = 1 (2𝑉 − 𝑈)
3
𝑡 = −(𝑢 + 𝑣)
𝑤=𝑊
1 1
𝑢= (2𝑈 − 𝑉)2 (𝑣 = (2𝑉 − 𝑈))
3 3
𝑉 4𝑉
𝑢 + 2𝑣 = +
3 3
𝑢 + 2𝑣 = 𝑉
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢:
1
𝑢 = (2𝑈 − 𝑉)
3
1
= (2𝑈 − (𝑢 + 2𝑣))
3
3𝑢 = 2𝑈 − 𝑢 − 2𝑣
2 = 4𝑢 + 2𝑣

= 2𝑢 + 𝑣
∴
𝑼 = 𝟐𝒖 + 𝒗
𝑽 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒗
𝑾 =𝒘
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES
3.44 (a) Draw an orthorhombic unit cell, and within that cell, a (021) plane
In orthorhombic unit cell all edge distances and angle between axes are unequal, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 and 𝛼 ≠
𝛽 ≠ 𝛾. Where a, b and c are edge distances and 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are angle between axes.
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑛
ℎ
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
(a)
̅)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (021
ℎ =0
=2
= −1
𝑛=1
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑛
ℎ
𝑎
= 1 = 𝑎∞
0
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑏 𝑏
= 1 =
2 2
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
𝑐
= 1 = −𝑐
−1

∴ 𝒘𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔. 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 =

𝒂∞(𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔), 𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 = 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 = −𝒄
𝟐
In monoclinic unit cell all edge distances are unequal, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 but angles are 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90° ≠ 𝛾
Where a, b and c are edge distances and 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾are angle between axes.
(b) Draw a monoclinic unit cell, and within that cell a (200) plane.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (200):

ℎ =2
=0
=0
𝒏 = 𝟏;
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑛
ℎ
𝑎 𝑎
=1 = ∞
2 2
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑏
= 1 = ∞𝑏
0
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙

𝑐
= 1 = ∞𝑐
0
𝒂
∴ 𝒘𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔. 𝒙 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 = , 𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕
𝟐
= 𝒃∞ (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔)𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 = 𝒄∞ (𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔)
3.45 What are the indices for the two planes drawn in the following sketch?
For plane 1
The plane intercepts with x-axis at (1) and with y-axis at (1) and z-axis at (1) 𝟏 1 1
2 𝟐
To get the Miller indices take the reciprocal for these intercept point where Miller indices
will be:
(𝟐𝟏𝟏)
For plane 2
The plane is parallel to the x-axis so the intercept point will be ∞, with y-axis at (− 1 ) also
2
the plane is parallel to the z-axis so the intercept point will be ∞ ∞ −𝟏 ∞
𝟐
To get the Miller indices, take the reciprocal for these intercept points, where the Miller
indices will be;
̅𝟎)
(𝟎𝟐

3.47 Determine the Miller indices for the planes shown in the following unit cell:
For plane A:
The plane intercepts with x-axis at 1 but the negative direction, also with y- axis at 1 but in
the negative direction and intercept with z-axis at 1 in the positive direction so the intercept
points will be.
(-1 -1 1)
will be:
̅𝟏 )
(𝟏
For plane B:
The plane intercepts with x-axis at 1 , with y-axis at 1 and it is parallel to the z-axis therefore,
2 3
the intercept points will be:
11
∞
23
will be:
(𝟐𝟑𝟎)
For plane A:
The plane intercept with x-axis at 1, with y-axis at 1 but in the negative direction of y-axis and it is
2 2
parallel to the z-axis so the intercept point with z-axis will be ∞, and the intercept points will be:
𝟏 −𝟏
s ∞
𝟐 𝟐

To get the Miller indices take the reciprocal for these intercept point where Miller indices will be:
̅𝟎)
(𝟐𝟐
For plane B:
The plane intercept with x-axis at 1, with y-axis at 1 and the intercept with the z-axis at 1, so the
2 2
intercept will be:
𝟏𝟏
𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
(𝟏𝟐𝟐)
For plane A:
The plane intercepts with x-axis at 1, with y-axis at 1 and intercepts with the z-axis at 1 but
2
in the negative direction of z-axis (Note the intercept point with z-axis in the figure is not zero), so
the point intercept will be:
𝟏
𝟏−𝟏
𝟐
will be:
̅)
(𝟐𝟏𝟏
For plane B:
The plane is parallel to the x-axis and the intercept point with x-axis will be ∞, also the
plane intercept with y-axis at 1 and with the x-axis at (1) but in the negative direction of z-axis. The
2
intercept points will be
𝟏
∞ −𝟏
𝟐
̅)
(𝟎𝟐𝟏
3.50 Cite the indices of the direction that results from the intersection of each of the following
pairs of planes within a cubic crystal:
(a) The (110) and (111) planes
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑛
ℎ

𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
ℎ1 = 1 ; ℎ2 = 1
𝑘1 = 1 ; 𝑘2 = 1
𝑙1 = 0 ; 𝑙2 = 1
𝑎
𝐴= 𝑛
ℎ
𝑎
𝐴1 = 1 =
1
𝑎
𝐴2 = 1 = 𝑎
1
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑏
𝐵1 = 1 = 𝑏
1
𝑏
𝐵2 = 1 = 𝑏
1
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
𝑐
𝐶1 = 1 = ∞
0
𝑐
𝐶2 = 1 = 𝑐
1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 1;
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑎
𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑏
𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = ∞
𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑐
̅𝟎] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 [𝟏
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 [𝟏𝟏 ̅𝟏𝟎]
(b) The (110) and (110) plane
ℎ1 = 1 ; ℎ2 = 0
𝑘1 = 1 ; 𝑘2 = 0 − 1

𝑙1 = 0 ; 𝑙2 = 0
𝑎
𝐴=𝑛
ℎ
𝑎
𝐴1 = 1 =
1
𝑎
𝐴2 = 1 = 𝑎
1
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘
𝑏
𝐵1 = 1 = 𝑏
1
𝑏
𝐵2 = 1 = −𝑏
−1
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
𝑐
𝐶1 = 1 = ∞
0
𝑐
𝐶2 = 1 = ∞
0
̅]
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 [𝟎𝟎𝟏] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 [𝟎𝟎𝟏
(c) The (111) and (001) planes

ℎ1 = 1 ; ℎ2 = 0
𝑘1 = 1 ; 𝑘2 = 0
𝑙1 = −1 ; 𝑙2 = 1
𝑎
𝐴=𝑛
ℎ
𝑎
𝐴1 = 1 =
1
𝑎
𝐴2 = 1 = ∞
0
𝑏
𝐵=𝑛
𝑘

𝑏
𝐵1 = 1 = 𝑏
1
𝑏
𝐵2 = 1 = ∞
0
𝑐
𝐶 =𝑛
𝑙
𝑐
𝐶1 = 1 = −𝑐
−1
𝑐
𝐶2 = 1 = 𝑐
1
𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = −𝑐
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = ∞
𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = ∞
𝑧 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑐
̅𝟎] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 [𝟏
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 [𝟏𝟏 ̅𝟏𝟎]
3.51 Sketch the atomic packing of the following:

(a) The (100) plane for the FCC crystal structure.
(b) The (111) plane for the BCC crystal structure.

3.52 Consider the reduced-sphere unit cell shown in Problem 3.23, having an origin of the
coordinate system positioned at the atom labeled O. For the following sets of planes,
determine which are equivalent:
(a) (100), (010), and (001)
(b) (110), (101), (011) and (101)
(c) (111), (111), and (111)
We have the following Body centered tetragonal structure as two edges are same and one of the edges are
same and one of the edges is greater than others two. The three planes are shown in the unit cell.
(a) The three planes are shown in the unit cell.

The atomic packaging is shown below for the planes shown. Now we can see that planes (100) and
̅ 0) are equivalent.
(01
(b) the four planes are shown in the unit cell.
The atomic packaging is shown below for the planes shown. Now we can see that planes (101),
̅(101) and (011) are equivalent. We can get the diagonal dimensions using the Pythagoras theorem:
𝑎 = √0.352 + 0.352 → (𝑓𝑜𝑟 (110) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)

= 0.495 𝑛𝑚
𝑐 = √0.452 + 0.352 → (𝑓𝑜𝑟 (011)𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)

= 0.57𝑛𝑚

(c)
The atomic packaging is shown below for the planes shown. Now we can see that planes (111),
̅ 1) and (111
(11 ̅ ) are equivalent. We can get the diagonal dimensions using the Pythagoras theorem:
𝑎 = √0.352 + 0.352 → (𝑓𝑜𝑟 (110) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)

= 0.495 𝑛𝑚
𝑐 = √0.452 + 0.352 → (𝑓𝑜𝑟 (011)𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)
= 0.57 𝑛𝑚
3.53 The accompanying figure shows three different crystallographic planes for a unit cell of a
hypothetical metal. The circles represent atoms.
(a) To what crystal system does the unit cell belong?

It belongs to Tetragonal crystal system
This crystal structure is called body centered tetragonal
3.54 The accompanying figure shows three different crystallographic planes for a unit cell of
some hypothetical metal. The circles represent atoms.

(a) To what system does the unit cell belong?

Since 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 the unit cell is an orthorhombic crystal.
Since the system has orthorhombic symmetry the system would be called face centered because
there is an atom at all the corners and centers of each one of the faces.
(c) If the density of this metal is 18.91 g/cm3, determine its atomic weight.
We can compute the atomic weight from:

𝜌𝑉𝑁
𝐴 =
𝑛
Where 𝜌 = 19.91 , = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 2(2.5)(3)(10−24), N is Avogadro’s number and 𝑛 = 4 since there are
four atoms per a unit.
18.91(2)(2.5)(3)(10−23)(6.022 × 1023)
𝐴=
4
𝒈
𝑨 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟕
𝒎𝒐𝒍
3.55 Convert the (111) and (012) planes into the four-index Miller–Bravais scheme for hexagonal
unit cells.
𝑖 = −(ℎ + 𝑘)
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 [1,1,1]𝑖𝑠,
𝑖 = −(1 +) = −2
𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 [ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑙] = [𝟏, 𝟏, −𝟐, 𝟏]
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 [0, −1,2] 𝑖𝑠,
𝑖 = −(0 − 1) = 1
𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 [ℎ𝑘𝑖𝑙] = [𝟎, −𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟐]
3.56 Determine the indices for the planes shown in the following hexagonal unit cells.

𝑛𝑎
ℎ=
𝐴
𝑛𝑏
𝑘 =
𝐵
𝑖 = −(ℎ + 𝑘)
𝑛𝑐
𝑙=
𝐶
(a)
𝐴 = ∞𝑎
𝐵 = −𝑏
𝐶 = ∞𝑐
𝑛𝑎
ℎ= =0
∞𝑎
𝑛𝑏
𝑘= = −𝑛
−𝑏
𝑖 = −(0 + (−𝑛)) = 𝑛
𝑛𝑐
= =0
∞𝑐
̅𝟏𝟎)
𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = (𝟎𝟏
(b)
𝐴 = −𝑎
𝐵 = −𝑏
1
= 𝑐
2
𝑛𝑎
ℎ= = −𝑛
−𝑎
𝑛𝑏
𝑘= = −𝑛
−𝑏
𝑖 = −((−𝑛) + (−𝑛)) = 2𝑛
𝑐
𝑙 = = 2𝑛
1
𝑐
2
𝑛 = 1, ̅1
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = (1̅ 22)
(c)
1
𝐴= 𝑎
2
𝐵 = −𝑏
𝐶 = ∞𝑐
𝑎
ℎ= = 2𝑛
1
𝑎
2

𝑛𝑏
𝑘= = −𝑛
−𝑏
= −((2𝑛) + (−𝑛)) = −𝑛
𝑛𝑐
= =0
∞𝑐
̅1
𝑛 = 1, 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = (21̅ 0)
(d)
𝐴 = −𝑎
𝐵 =𝑏
1
𝐶= 𝑐
2
𝑛𝑎
ℎ= = −𝑛
−𝑎
𝑛𝑏
𝑘= =𝑛
𝑏
𝑖 = −((−𝑛) + (𝑛)) = 0
𝑛𝑐
𝑙 = = 2𝑛
1
𝑐
2
𝒏 = 𝟏, ̅𝟏
𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 = (𝟏𝟎𝟐)
3.57 Sketch the (0111) and (2110) planes in a hexagonal unit cell.
(a)
We have given the plane (011 ̅ 1), for which ℎ = 0, 𝑘 = 1, 𝑖 = −1 and 𝑙 = 1. Let’s back calculate the
value of intercepts on the respective axes by taking the reciprocal of the Miller indices.
ℎ 𝑘 𝑖 𝑙
0 1 −1 1
1 1 1 1
0̅ 1̅ ̅−̅1̅ 1̅
∞ 1 −1 1
So plane is parallel to 𝑎1axis having intercepts of 𝑎, −𝑎 and 𝑐 on axes 𝑎2, 𝑎3 and 𝑧 respectively.

(b)
We have given the plane (21 ̅1
̅ 0), for which ℎ = 2, 𝑘 = −1, 𝑖 = −1 and 𝑙 = 0. Let’s back calculate the
value of intercepts on the respective axes by taking the reciprocal of the Miller indices.
ℎ 𝑘 𝑖 𝑙
2 −1 −1 0
1 1 1 1
2̅ ̅−̅1̅ ̅−̅1̅ 0̅
1
−1−1 ∞
2
So plane is parallel to 𝑧 axis having intercepts of , −𝑎 and −𝑎 on axes 𝑎1, 𝑎2 and 𝑎3 respectively.
2
LINEAR AND PLANAR DENSITIES

3.58 (a) Derive the linear density expressions for FCC [100] and [111] directions in terms of the
atomic radius R.

𝐴 [100] 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑈 = 1, 𝑉 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 0, 𝑛 = 1.

𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑈=𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑈𝑎
𝑥 = +𝑥
2 1
𝑛
1(𝑎)
= +0
1
𝑥2 = 𝑎
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑉=𝑛( )
𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑦 = +𝑦
2 1
𝑛
0(𝑏)
= +0
1
𝑦2 = 0
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑊=𝑛( )
𝑐
𝑊𝑐
𝑧 = +𝑧
2 1
𝑛
0(𝑐)
= +0
1
𝑧2 = 0
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦,

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜 = 2√2𝑅

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1
1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 2 ( ) = 1
2
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 [100],
𝟏
𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝟐√𝟐𝑹
𝐴 [111] 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑈 = 1, 𝑉 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 1, 𝑛 = 1.
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑈=𝑛( )
𝑎
𝑈𝑎
𝑥 = +𝑥
2 1
𝑛
1(𝑎)
= +0
1
𝑥2 = 𝑎
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑉=𝑛( )
𝑏
𝑉𝑏
𝑦 = +𝑦
2 1
𝑛
1(𝑏)
= +0
1
𝑦2 = 𝑏
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑊=𝑛( )
𝑐
𝑊𝑐
𝑧 = +𝑧
2 1
𝑛
1(𝑐)
= +0
1
𝑧2 = 𝑐
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦,


𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝐶 = 4𝑅
𝐴𝐶2 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶2
𝐴𝐶2 = 4𝑅2 + (2√2𝑅)2

𝐴𝐶2 = 24𝑅2
𝐴 = 2√6𝑅
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1
1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 2 ( ) = 1
2
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 [100],
𝟏
𝟐√𝟔𝑹
(b)Compute and compare linear density values for these same two directions for copper
(Cu).
1
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦[100] =
2√2𝑅
1
=
2√2(0.128𝑛𝑚)
𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚[𝟏𝟎𝟎] = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝒎−𝟏
1
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦[111] =
2√6𝑅
1
=
2√6(0.128𝑛𝑚)
𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚[𝟏𝟏𝟏] = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝒎−𝟏
3.59 (a) Derive linear density expressions for BCC [110] and [111] directions in terms of the atomic
radius R.
4𝑅
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 =
√3
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 4𝑅
4𝑅
√(4𝑅)2 + ( )2 = 4𝑅√2(3)
√3
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 1;
√𝟑
𝟒𝑹√𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏𝟏,


2
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡 =
4𝑅
𝟏
𝟐𝑹
(b)Compute and compare linear density values for these same two directions for iron (Fe)
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 0.124 𝑛𝑚,
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏𝟎,
√3
𝐿(110) =
4(0.124)√2
𝑳𝑫(𝟏𝟏𝟎) = 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝟏𝟏,
1
𝐿(111) =
2(0.124)
𝑳𝑫(𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗
3.60 (a) Derive planar density expressions for FCC (100) and (111) planes in terms of the atomic
radius R.
(a)
𝐴 100) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 1, 𝑘 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 0,

𝑎 𝑎
𝐴=𝑛 =1 =
ℎ 1
𝑏 𝑏
= 𝑛 = 1 = 𝑏∞
𝑘 0
𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑛 = 1 = 𝑐∞
1 0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ∞ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑃𝐷 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2√2𝑅,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = (2√2𝑅)2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 8𝑅2
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 1,

4
1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 4 ( ) + 1 = 2
4
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (100),

𝑃(100) =
2
𝑃(100) =
8𝑅2
𝟏
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟎𝟎) =
𝟒𝑹𝟐
𝐴 (111) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 1, 𝑘 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 1,

𝑎 𝑎
𝐴=𝑛 =1 =
ℎ 1
𝑏 𝑏
=𝑛 =1 =𝑏
𝑘 1
𝑐 𝑐
=𝑛 =1 =𝑐
1 1


𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2√2𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4𝑅;
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = (4𝑅)(4𝑅 sin 60°)
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 4√3𝑅2

6
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 1 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

2
1 1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 3 ( ) + 3 ( ) = 2
6 2
𝑃(111) =
2
𝑃(111) =
4√3𝑅2
𝟏
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟏𝟏) =
𝟐√𝟑𝑹𝟐
(b) Compute and compare planar density values for these same two planes for aluminum (Al)
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = 0.143𝑛𝑚;
1
𝑃(100) =
4𝑅2
1
=
4(0.143𝑛𝑚)2
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒎−𝟐
1
𝑃(111) =
2√3𝑅2
1
=
2√3(0.143𝑛𝑚)2
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒎−𝟐
3.61 (a) Derive planar density expressions for BCC (100) and (110) planes in terms of the atomic radius
R.
(b) Compute and compare planar density values for these same two planes for molybdenum (Mo).
1
𝐴 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟.
8

𝐴 100) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 1, 𝑘 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 0,

𝑎 𝑎
𝐴=𝑛 =1 =
ℎ 1
𝑏 𝑏
= 𝑛 = 1 = 𝑏∞
𝑘 0
𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑛 = 1 = 𝑐∞
1 0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ∞ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑃𝐷 =
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4𝑅,

√3
4𝑅 4𝑅
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = ×
√3 √3
16𝑅2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 =
3
4
1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 4 ( ) = 1
4

𝑃(100) =

1
𝑃(100) =
16𝑅2
3
𝟑
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟎𝟎) =
𝟏𝟔𝑹𝟐
𝐴 (110) 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ = 1, 𝑘 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 0,

𝑎 𝑎
𝐴=𝑛 =1 =
ℎ 1
𝑏 𝑏
=𝑛 =1 =𝑏
𝑘 1
𝑐 𝑐
=𝑛 =1 =∞
1 0

𝑃𝐷 =
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 4𝑅;
√3
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ;

𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙2 − 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ²
4𝑅 2
= (4𝑅)2 − ( )
√3
2
= 16𝑅2 ( )
3
2
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = √ 4𝑅
3
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 × 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒
2 4𝑅
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = √ 4𝑅 ×
3 √3
16𝑅2√2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 =
3

4

1
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 1 + 4 ( ) = 2
4
𝑃(110) =
2
𝑃(110) =
16𝑅2√2
3
𝑷𝑫 𝟏
(𝟏𝟏𝟎) =
𝟖𝑹𝟐√𝟑
(b)
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑏𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑚 (𝑀𝑜) = 0.136𝑛𝑚;

3
𝑃(100) =
16𝑅2
3
=
16(0.136𝑛𝑚)2
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟎𝟎) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒎−𝟐
3
𝑃(110) =
8𝑅2√3
3
=
8(0.136𝑛𝑚)2√3
𝑷𝑫(𝟏𝟏𝟎) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒎−𝟐
POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
3.63 Explain why the properties of polycrystalline materials are most often isentropic.
 For polycrystalline materials, the crystallographic orientations of the individual grains are
totally random. Even though each grain may be anisotropic, a specimen composed of the
grain aggregate behaves isotropic. The magnitude of a measured property represents some
average of the directional values.
X-RAY DIFFRACTION: DETERMINATION OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

3.64 The interplanar spacing 𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 for planes in a unit cell having orthorhombic geometry is given
by
𝟏 𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒍𝟐
= + +
𝒅𝟐𝒉𝒌𝒍 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Where a, b, and c, are the lattice parameters

(a) To what equation does this expression reduce for crystals having cubic symmetry?

𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
2 2 2 2
1 ℎ𝑘2 𝑙2 ℎ + 𝑘 + 𝑙
2 = 2+ 2+ 2 =
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2
𝑎
→ 𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
(b) For crystals having tetragonal symmetry?

𝑎 =𝑏≠𝑐
𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
1 ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑙2
2 = + +
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐 2
1 ℎ2 2
𝑘2 𝑙2 ℎ + 𝑘 + 𝑙
2 2
2 = 2+ 2+ 2 =
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎2
1
𝑑𝑑𝑘𝑙 = ℎ2 + 𝑘2
𝑙2
√ +
𝑎2 𝑐2
3.65 Using the data for aluminum in Table 3.1, compute the interplanar spacing for the (110) set
of planes.
Al (Aluminum) is having FCC structure with radius 0.1431 nm. For the FCC
structure edge length and atomic radius is related.
= 2√2R
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑑 2√2𝑅
110 =
√12 + 12 + 02
= 2 × 0.1413 𝑛𝑚
= .2862 𝑛𝑚
∴the interplanar distance for plane (110) will be 0.2862 nm
3.66 Using the data for a-iron in Table 3.1, compute the interplanar spacings for the (111) and
(211) sets of planes.
Iron-(Fe) is having BCC structure with radius 0.1241 nm. For the BCC
structure edge length and atomic radius is related:
4𝑅
=
√3
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
4𝑅
𝑑111 = √3
√12 + 12 + 12
4
= × 0.1241 𝑛𝑚
3
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟓 𝒏𝒎

3.67 Determine the expected diffraction angle for the first-order reflection from the (310) set of
planes for BCC chromium (Cr) when monochromatic radiation of wavelength 0.0711 nm is used.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎:
4𝑅
=
√3
4(0.1249)
=
√3
𝑎 = 0.288𝑛𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑎
𝑑 =
310
√32 + 12 + 02
0.288
=
√10
= 0.0911𝑛𝑚
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒:
𝑛𝜆 1(0.0711)
sin 𝜃 = = = 0.390
2𝑑310 2(0.0911)
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(0.390)
= 22.95°
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒:
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜃
= 2(22.95)
𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗°
3.68 Determine the expected diffraction angle for the first-order reflection from the (111) set of
planes for FCC nickel (Ni) when monochromatic radiation of wavelength 0.1937 nm is used.
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎:
= 2𝑅√2
= 2(0.1246)√2
= 0.352𝑛𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑎
𝑑111 =
√12 + 12 + 12
0.352
=
√3
𝑑111 = 0.203𝑛𝑚

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒:
𝑛𝜆 1(0.1937)
sin 𝜃 = = = 0.476
2𝑑111 2(0.2035)
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(0.476)
= 28°
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒:
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜃
= 2(28°)
𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝟓𝟔°
3.69 The metal rhodium (Rh) has an FCC crystal structure. If the angle of diffraction for the (311)
set of planes occurs at 36.12_ (first-order reflection) when monochromatic x-radiation having a
wavelength of 0.0711 nm is used, compute the following:
(a) The interplanar spacing for this set of planes
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 2𝜃 = 36.12°
𝜆 = 0.0711 𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin 𝜃
36.12
1 × 0.0711 𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin (
2
0.0711𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
36.12
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )
𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒏𝒎
(c) The atomic radius for a Rh atom
ℎ = 3, = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 1
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.115 =
√32 + 12 + 12
𝑎 = 0.115(√11)
𝑎 = 0.3814𝑛𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑:
= 2√2𝑅
𝑎
𝑅=
2√2

0.3814𝑛𝑚
=
2√2
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝒏𝒎
3.70 The metal niobium (Nb) has a BCC crystal structure. If the angle of diffraction for the (211)
set of planes occurs at 75.99_ (first-order reflection) when monochromatic x-radiation having a
wavelength of 0.1659 nm is used, compute the following:
(a) The interplanar spacing for this set of planes

𝜆 = 0.1659 𝑛𝑚
75.99
1 × 0.1659𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin (
2
0.1659𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 75.99
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )
𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝒏𝒎
(b) The atomic radius for the Nb atom
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎:
ℎ = 2, 𝑘 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 1
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.115 =
√22 + 12 + 12
= 0.135(√6)
= 0.331𝑛𝑚
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑:
4𝑅
=
√3
𝑎√3
=
4
0.331𝑛𝑚√3
=
4
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒏𝒎
3.71 For which set of crystallographic planes will a first order diffraction peak occur at a
diffraction angle of 44.53° for FCC nickel (Ni) when monochromatic radiation having a wavelength
of 0.1542 nm is used?
𝜆 = 0.1542 𝑛𝑚
44.53
1 × 0.1542𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin (
2

0.1542𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
44.53
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )
𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟒𝒏𝒎
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑:
𝑎 = 2√2𝑅
= 2√2 (0.125)
= 0.3535𝑛𝑚
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒:

𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
0.3535
0.2034 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
0.3535
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 =
0.2034
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙 2 = 1.738
ℎ 2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙 2 = 3.02
12 + 12 + 12 ≈ 3
∴ 𝒉 = 𝟏, 𝒌 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍 = 𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 (𝟏𝟏𝟏)
3.72 For which set of crystallographic planes will a first-order diffraction peak occur at a
diffraction angle of 44.53°for BCC tantalum (Ta) when monochromatic radiation having a
wavelength of 0.1937 nm is used?
𝜆 = 0.1937 𝑛𝑚
44.53
1 × 0.1937 = 2𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin (
2
0.1937𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
44.53
2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )
𝒅𝒉𝒌𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟔𝒏𝒎
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑:

4𝑅
=
√3
4(0.1430)
=
√3
= 0.3302𝑛𝑚
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒:

𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
0.3302
0.2556 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
0.3302
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 =
0.2556
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙 2 = 1.2918
ℎ 2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙 2 = 1.67
12 + 12 + 02 ≈ 1.67
∴ 𝒉 = 𝟏, 𝒌 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍 = 𝟎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 (𝟏𝟏𝟎)

3.73 Figure 3.26 shows the first five peaks of the x-ray diffraction pattern for tungsten (W), which
has a BCC crystal structure; monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength of 0.1542 nm was
used.
(a) Index (i.e., give h, k, and l indices) each of these peaks.
Tungsten has a BBC structure, in the image there are five peaks shown. The answer is the indices
for the first five peaks shown. The answer in the indices for the first five peaks come from the BBC row,
which are 110, 200, 211, 220, 310.
(b) Determine the interplanar spacing for each of the peaks.
𝑛𝜆
𝑑=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1(0.1542)
𝑑110 = 40
= 0.225 𝑛𝑚
2 sin ( )
2
1 0.1542)
(
𝑑200 = = 0.156 𝑛𝑚
59
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.1542)
𝑑211 = 72
= 0.131 𝑛𝑚
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.1542)
𝑑220 = 86
= 0.113 𝑛𝑚
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.1542)
𝑑310 = 86 = 0.101
2 sin ( )
2
(c) For each peak, determine the atomic radius for W, and compare these with the value presented
in Table 3.1.
𝑑 √3√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑅=
4
0.225√3√12 + 12 + 02
𝑅110 = = 0.138 𝑛𝑚
4
0.156√3√22 + 02 + 02
𝑅200 = 4
= 0.135 𝑛𝑚
0.131√3√22 + 12 + 12
𝑅211 = 4
= 0.138 𝑛𝑚
0.113√3√22 + 22 + 02
𝑅220 = = 0.318 𝑛𝑚
4

0.101√3√32+= 12 + 02
𝑅310 = = 0.138 𝑛𝑚
4
3.74 The following table lists diffraction angles for the first four peaks (first-order) of the x-ray
diffraction pattern for platinum (Pt), which has an FCC crystal structure; monochromatic x-
radiation having a wavelength of 0.0711 nm was used.
Plane Indices Diffraction Angle (2Ө)
(111) 18.06°
(200) 20.88°
(220) 26.66°
(311) 31.37°
(a) Determine the interplanar spacing for each of the peaks.

𝑛𝜆
𝑑=
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1(0.0711)
𝑑111 = = 0.226 𝑛𝑚
1 8.06
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.0711)
𝑑200 = = 0.196 𝑛𝑚
20.88
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.0711)
𝑑220 = 26.66 = 0.154 𝑛𝑚
2 sin ( )
2
1(0.0711)
𝑑311 = 31.72 = 0.131 𝑛𝑚
2 sin ( )
2
(b) For each peak, determine the atomic radius for Pt, and compare these with the value
presented in Table 3.1.
𝑑 √ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑅=
2√2
0.226√12 + 12 + 12
𝑅111 = = 0.138 𝑛𝑚
2√2
0.196√22 + 02 + 02
𝑅200 = = 0.139 𝑛𝑚
2√2
0.154√22 + 22 + 02
𝑅220 = = 0.154 𝑛𝑚
4
0.131√32 + 12 + 12
𝑅311 = = 0.154 𝑛𝑚
2√2
∴The value from 3.1 is 0.138 nm
3.75 The following table lists diffraction angles for the first three peaks (first-order) of the x-ray
diffraction pattern for some metal. Monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength of 0.1397 nm
was used.
Peak Number Diffraction Angle (2Ө)
1 34.51°
2 40.06°
3 57.95°
(a) Determine whether this metal’s crystal structure is FCC, BCC, or neither FCC or BCC, and explain
the reason for your choice.

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
34.51
1 × 0.1397 𝑛𝑚 = 1𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin (
2
0.1397 𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
34.51
2 × sin ( )
2
= 0.2355 𝑛𝑚
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
BCC, ℎ = 1, 𝑘 = 1, 𝑙 = 0
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.2355 =
√12 + 12 + 02
= 0.2355 × √2
= 0.333 𝑛𝑚
Similarly look for the peak number two and three we will have the reflection indices (200) and (211).
Similarly calculating lattice parameter a.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 2𝜃 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙(𝑛𝑚) 𝑎(𝑛𝑚)
2200 40.06° .204 0.408
3211 57.95° .144 0.353
Assume it as FCC. For peak number one, two and three we will have reflection indices (111), (200), and
(220).
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 2𝜃 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙(𝑛𝑚) 𝑎(𝑛𝑚)
1111 34.51° 0.236 0.408
2200 40.06° .204 0.408
3220 57.95° .144 0.408
Since the value of a is consistent for the three peaks it will be a FCC structure.
(b) If the crystal structure is either BCC or FCC, identify which of the metals in Table 3.1 gives this
diffraction pattern. Justify your decision.
Now for a FCC structure edge length and radius:
= 2√2R
𝑎
𝑅=
2√2
0.408 𝑛𝑚
=
2√2
= 0.1443 𝑛𝑚
∴the radius matches with the metal Gold

3.76 The following table lists diffraction angles for the first three peaks (first-order) of the x-ray
diffraction pattern for some metal. Monochromatic x-radiation having a wavelength of 0.0711 nm was
used.
Peak Number Diffraction Angle (2Ө)
1 18.27°
2 25.96°
3 31.92°
(a) Determine whether this metal’s crystal structure is FCC, BCC, or neither FCC or BCC, and explain
the reason for your choice.
𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑃𝐸𝐴𝐾 110:
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒:

34.51
1 × 0.0711 𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
ℎ𝑘𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (
2
0.0711 𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 18.27
2 × sin( )
2
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 0.224 𝑛𝑚
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟:
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.224 =
√12 + 12 + 02
= 0.224(√2)
= 0.317 𝑛𝑚

34.51
1 × 0.0711 𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
2
0.0711 𝑛𝑚
=
25.96
2 × sin( )
2
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 0.158 𝑛𝑚
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2

𝑎
0.15827 =
√22 + 02 + 02
= 0.15827(2)
= 0.317 𝑛𝑚

34.51
1 × 0.0711 𝑛𝑚 = 2𝑑 )
2
0.0711 𝑛𝑚
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 31.92
2 × sin( )
2
𝑑ℎ𝑘 = 0.129 𝑛𝑚
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.12929 =
√22 + 12 + 12
= 0.12929(√6)
= 0.317 𝑛𝑚
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑩𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆.
(b) If the crystal structure is either BCC or FCC, identify which of the metals in Table 3.1 gives this
diffraction pattern. Justify your decision.
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.224 =
√12 + 12 + 12
= 0.224(√3)
= 0.388 𝑛𝑚

𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.15827 =
√22 + 02 + 02
= 0.15827(2)
= 0.317 𝑛𝑚
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎
0.12929 =
√22 + 22 + 02
= 0.12929(2√2)
= 0.366 𝑛𝑚
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑩𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑒𝑔𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ:

4𝑅
=
√3
√3𝑎
𝑅=
4
√3 × 0.317𝑛𝑚
𝑅=
4
= 0.1371 𝑛𝑚 → 𝒕𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏
NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
3.77 Would you expect a material in which the atomic bonding is predominantly ionic in nature
to be more likely or less likely to form a non-crystalline solid upon solidification than a covalent
material? Why? (See Section 2.6.)
 It will be less likely to form a non-crystalline solid upon solidification. Because ionic bonds
are formed by atoms of opposite charges arranged in a regular fashion that forms ionic
lattices. These crystal lattices are highly stable due to lattice enthalpy.
SPREADSHEET PROBLEM
3.1SS For an x-ray diffraction pattern (having all peaks a plane-indexed) of a metal that has a unit
cell of cubic symmetry, generate a spreadsheet that allows the user to input the x-ray wavelength,
and then determine, for each plane, the following
(a) 𝐝𝐡𝐤𝐥

(b) the lattice parameter, a
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
3.1 FE A hypothetical metal has the BCC crystal structure, a density of 7.24 g/cm3, and an atomic
weight of 48.9 g/mol. The atomic radius of this metal is
(A) 0.122 nm
(B) 1.22 nm
(C) 0.0997 nm
(D) 0.154 nm
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑔 −23
7.24 = 16.24 × 10 𝑔
𝑐𝑚3 64𝑅3
3√3
64𝑅3 16.24 × 10−23𝑔
=
3√3 7.24 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
16.24 × 10−23 × 3√3
𝑅3 = 𝑐𝑚 3
7.24 × 64
𝑅3 = 1.821 × 10−24𝑐𝑚3
= 1.22 × 10−8𝑐𝑚
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒎
3.2 FE In the following unit cell, which vector represents the [121] direction?

−𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1

𝑛 (2 ) 𝑛( ) 𝑛( )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑐
−0 −0
(𝑩) 𝑛 (2 ) 𝑏−0
𝑛( ) 𝑛 (2 )
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
2 2
𝑛=2
1 2 1
3.3 FE What are the Miller indicea for the plane shown in the following cubic unit cell?
(A) (201)
(B) (1∞ 1)
2
(C) (101)
2
(D) (102)
𝑛𝑎
ℎ= = 𝑛
𝑎
𝑘 = 𝑛𝑏 = 0
∞𝑏
𝑙 = 𝑛𝑐𝑐 = 2𝑛
2
𝑛=1;
ℎ =1
=0
𝑙=2
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟐.


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College Of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

CHAPTER 3: THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

as well as the number and probability distributions of the constituent electrons.

METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

atomic radius Rare related through ɑ =4R/√𝟑.

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑂𝑃:

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑃𝑄:

(𝑁𝑄) = (𝑄𝑃) + (𝑁𝑃)2

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑁𝑄 = 4𝑅, 𝑅 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠. 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑃 = 𝑎.

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

found inside the front cover of the book.

of 𝟖𝟕. 𝟔𝟐 𝒈 . Calculate the theoretical density for Sr.

= 2.60 × 106 𝑔/𝑚3

of 12.0 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 106.4 g/mol.

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑐𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜌:

density of 16.6 g/cm3, and an atomic weight of 10.9 g/mol.

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

a. What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters?

b. If the c/a ratio is 1.5𝟖, compute the values of c and a.

(a) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic centimeters?

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

(b). If the c/a ratio is 1.624, compute the values of c and a.

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

ALLOY ATOMIC WEIGHT DENSITY (g/cm3 ) ATOMIC RADIUS (nm)

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

Formula for a a for A, B and C n

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒,

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚,

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚,

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

(a) To which crystal system does this unit cell belong?

(b) What would this crystal structure be called?

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

3.34 Within a cubic unit cell, sketch the following directions:

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

The direction for vector B is [1 2 1].

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

d.) coordinates for head

Then the direction for vector D is [1 2 1]

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

Direction for vector D

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO

(b) Repeat part (a) for a monoclinic unit cell.

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BRYAN DEL MUNDO