Waste B

WASTE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
WASTE MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH

ADVANCES TO CONVERT WASTE
TO WEALTH
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WASTE MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH

ADVANCES TO CONVERT WASTE
TO WEALTH
A. K. HAGHI
EDITOR
Nova
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Converting Waste to Energy via Thermal, Biological
and Mechanical Processing in Developing Western Settings:
An Analysis Based on Cases from England, Greece
and the United States 1
Avraam Karagiannidis, Nicolas Themelis, John Barton,
Stratos Kalogirou, Petros Samaras and Asterios Papageorgiou
Chapter 2 Municipal Solid Waste: Character and Composition 33
Libuše Benešová, Markéta Doležalová, Petra Hnaťuková
and Bohumil Černík
Chapter 3 Waste Biomass Supply Chains for Energy Production:
A Hierarchical Decision-Making Framework 81
E. Iakov, D. Vlachos and A. Toka
Chapter 4 Waste Picking at Landfills: A Source of Livelihood or Interference
with Waste Disposal Processes? 121
Benjamin Bolaane
Chapter 5 Simultaneous Solution for Solid Waste Management and Waste
Water Treatment: Cr(VI) Removal as a Case Study 137
Suresh Gupta and B. V. Babu
Chapter 6 Can Waste-to-Energy of as-Received or Pre-Processed (RDF/SRF)
Municipal Solid Wastes Support the Electricity Generation Sector?
EU Experience and a Case Study with Two Different Senarios
for Greece 161
C. S. Psomopoulos
Chapter 7 The Use of Industrial Waste for the Production of New
Blended Cement 191
M. C. Bignozzi
Chapter 8 Olive Mill Wastewater: Treatments and Valorisation 203
Manuela Taccari and Maurizio Ciani
vi Contents
Chapter 9 Methodological Approaches for Assessing Human Health Risks of

Waste Management Plants. Experiences from Catalonia (Spain) 223
Martí Nadal and José L. Domingo
Index 235
PREFACE
Waste has always been associated with human activity and is a necessary evil in any
developmental process. Today, the sheer quantity and diversity of wastes generated by
industries and municipalities pose serious risks to both human health and the environment. It
is imperative therefore to create awareness among entrepreneurs, manufacturers, local
authorities etc. of the varied technologies evolved to treat and recycle wastes and convert it to
wealth.
The arbitrary exploitation of natural resources and ignorance of the deleterious effects
have resulted in the alarming increase of environmental pollution alongside the urbanization,
industrialization and changing agricultural practices. Contrary to popular belief, the
environmental pollution particularly in the developing countries, is not as much caused by
industrial emissions or nuclear wastes as is caused by day-to-day living of human beings
because industrial pollution is concentrated in certain towns and cities and can be ordered to
close but no such measure can be taken for the sudden prohibition of human-derived pollution
occurring at all places. The resulting solid waste, sewage and night soil pose the most
daunting and widespread of all environmental problems. The disposal of the incessant piling
of such waste requires proper Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
The present book is an attempt to put together the various options available to meet the
twin goals of environmental conservation and sustainable development. The main aim of this
new book is to bring to light the various ways of converting waste to wealth. The text
throughout the book is supplemented with diagrams and tables which would facilitate quick
grasping of the concepts. The book is of reference value and is intended for practicing
engineers, entrepreneurs, consultants, financial institutions, researchers, and voluntary
agencies. Besides, it will prove equally useful to environmentalist, development practitioners,
and waste management experts.
Professor A. K. HAGHI
Montréal, CANADA
In: Waste Management: Research Advances… ISBN: 978-1-61668-414-3
Editor: A. K. Haghi pp. 1-32 © 2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
CONVERTING WASTE TO ENERGY VIA THERMAL,

BIOLOGICAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSING IN
DEVELOPING WESTERN SETTINGS:
AN ANALYSIS BASED ON CASES FROM ENGLAND,
GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES
Avraam Karagiannidis, Nicolas Themelis,
John Barton, Stratos Kalogirou, Petros Samaras
and Asterios Papageorgiou
1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management is a significant contributor of Greenhouse
Gas (GHG) emissions and especially the disposal of waste in landfills generates methane
(CH4) that has high global warming potential. Waste management activities and especially
disposal of waste in landfills contribute to global GHG emissions approximately by 4%
(Bogner et al, 2007). The most common methods used for MSW, beside landfilling, include
composting, recycling, mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) and waste-to-energy (WTE).
The European waste policy force diversion from landfill and WTE is a waste management
option that could provide diversion from landfill and at the same time save a significant
amount of GHG emissions, since it recovers energy from waste which usually replaces an
equivalent amount of energy generated from fossil fuels. However, disposal of MSW in
sanitary landfills is still the main waste management method in many countries, both in the
EU and internationally, although diversion from landfilling is generally promoted and the
perspectives of new waste treatment technologies also evaluated. Thus, there are quite a few
‘developed’ countries which are really still in a developing stage in terms of sustainable
MSW management and the balanced integration of WTE in their overall system. The
following sections address 3 such cases from England, Greece and the US.
First, in section 2, a recent study is presented which assessed the GHG emission impacts
of three technologies that could be used for the treatment of MSW in order to recover energy
from it in the UK. These are Mass-Burn Incineration (MBI) with energy recovery, MBT via
2 Avraam Karagiannidis, Nicolas Themelis, John Barton et al.
bio-drying and Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT), which is a relatively new and
uninvestigated method, compared to the other two. MBT and MHT can turn MSW into Solid
Recovered Fuel (SRF) that could be combusted for energy production or replace other fuels in
various industrial processes. Moreover the study estimated the climate change impact of the
expected increase on the amount of MSW treated for energy recovery in the UK by 2020.
Next, in section 3, another recent study is presented which aims to assess GHG emissions
impact of different MSW treatment technologies currently under assessment in the new
Attica’s Regional Plan in Greece. These technologies are MBT, MBI and Mechanical
Treatment and are assessed in the context of different scenarios. This study utilized existing
methodologies and emission factors for the quantification of GHG emissions from waste
management process and found that all technologies under assessment could provide GHG
emission savings. However, the performance and ranking of these technologies, is strongly
dependent on the existence of end markets for the waste derived fuels produced by the MBT
processes. In the absence of these markets, the disposal of these fuels would be necessary and
thus significant GHG savings would be lost.
Finally, section 4 focuses in the current status of WTE in the US and especially the
environmental benefits that this method offers over landfilling, in terms of GHG emissions,
electricity production, land use and cost savings. Another important parameter presented here
provides details in public health issues as these can be evaluated from the experience of the
operating installations. The experience from the operating WTE power plants shows that the
environmental impacts and important parameters regarding public health issues, such us
dioxins and mercury emissions were reduced. Furthermore, the energy produced by this
MSW management method enhances the benefits of the method due to the reduction of the
demand in fossil fuels. In addition to this, the ongoing compatibility successful results of
WTE and recycling are presented. Between 1996 and 2007, there were no new WTE facilities
in the US because of environmental and political pressure. The major concern has been the
perceived release of hazardous toxic substances into the environment. In the past, the primary
focus of environmental groups has been on air emissions, especially of dioxins/furans and
heavy metals. However, after the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) required the
implementation of the Maximum Available Control Technology (MACT) regulations in the
1990s, WTE emissions have been reduced to a point that in 2003 the US EPA named WTE
one of the cleanest sources of energy.
It is aspired that, in each of the 3 presented cases, the drawn conclusions could be of
further use and applicability also in other ‘developing’ MSW management systems of both
‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries.
2. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF WTE

TECHNOLOGIES IN ENGLAND
WTE is not widespread for the moment in England, by contrast to other European
countries where it is an important element of their national waste strategies. In 2005 only 9%
of MSW in England was treated in WTE plants, the majority of which are MBI with energy
recovery. MBI enable moving grate technology for the combustion of waste and they are
designed to handle large volumes of MSW with no pre-treatment (Williams, 2005). Usually
Converting Waste to Energy via Thermal, Biological and Mechanical… 3
the heat from the incineration of waste is used in turbines to generate electricity, while the
remaining heat of the process is discarded. In Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants, the
residual heat is recovered and exported to adjacent industrial premises or districts for space
heating and hot water supply.
Another technology used for energy recovery from MSW is MBT that partially processes
mixed MSW by mechanically removing some parts of the waste and by biologically treating
others. There are numerous possible permutations of MBT with different outputs, such as
metals, low-grade conditioner, stabilised waste for landfill or SRF (Juniper, 2005). In the case
of SRF production, the most common configuration incorporates bio-drying prior to
mechanical treatment. Bio-drying drives-off moisture from the waste using the biological
activity in an aerobic in-vessel system but does not fully bio-stabilise the waste. The
reduction of moisture and the degradation of a part of the more volatile biodegradable fraction
of the waste, increase the calorific value of the produced SRF rendering it like this a very
attractive option for thermal treatment with energy recovery or co-incineration in industrial
processes (Juniper 2005, p.A-48).
A relatively new technology for the treatment of MSW is MHT. This technology uses a
thermal or steam-based pre-treatment process prior to mechanical treatment of MSW. A
commonly used steam based technique to treat the waste is via autoclave technology that has
been used to sterilise medical waste for many years (DEFRA, 2004). In this plant, saturated
steam at 160°C is first injected into the rotating vessel containing the waste over a period of
15 minutes, which may vary depending on the specific heat capacities of the waste materials
being processed and the amount of waste in the autoclave. The vessel will be maintained at
high pressure for a period of up to 45 minutes to allow the process to break the waste down
into its organic and inorganic constituents. Processed waste is then treated by a series of
screens and recovery systems to achieve secondary recycling and separation of the
predominantly cellulose fibre, with residue left for landfilling. The resulting fibre comprises
the putrescible, cellulose and lignin elements of the waste stream, could be used as SRF
(Environment Agency [online], 2006).
2.1. Energy from Waste and Climate Change
Many studies assessed the GHG emission impacts of MBI and found that not only it can
offer significant reduction of CH4 emissions compared to landfilling, but at the same time it
can provide additional net GHG emission savings due to the recovery of energy (Porteous,
2005). Despite these benefits of this technology in terms of climate change, there is a strong
opposition against MBI, as it is considered hazardous for the human health and it is claimed
to undermine recycling of valuable resources. Nevertheless, even with the most optimistic
estimations on waste minimization, reuse, recycling and composting, England will have a
significant amount of residual MSW that will either have to be disposed or it could be treated
for recovering energy from it. DEFRA in a review of England’s Waste Strategy (DEFRA,
2006) suggested that about 27% of the MSW stream will be treated for energy recovery by
2020, compared to 9% in 2005. MBI with energy recovery could be a potential treatment for
this amount of waste, as well as MBT and MHT configured for SRF production. However,
MHT is a relatively new technology and its climate change impact has not been assessed yet.
On the other hand, there are studies that have assessed the GHG impact of MBT plants that
use aerobic biological treatment or composting for the stabilization of waste or production of
compost. However, the most commonly used biological treatment method in MBT plants
configured for production of SRF, is bio-drying and as this configuration has not been
examined in detail in previous studies, it should be assessed as well.
2.2. Methodology
2.2.1. MSW Treatment Options

A model was developed in order to assess the GHG emissions of the waste treatment
options under consideration in this study. The MSW management system for each of these
options is presented in figure 2.1. MSW is transferred after a kerbside collection scheme,
from households to the treatment facilities via a transfer station.
In Option 1, a part of the bottom ash from the MBI facility, as well as the metals in the
bottom ash are sent to a reprocessor for recycling. The rest of the bottom ash and the ash from
the Air Pollution Control (APC) system are landfilled. The examined MBI process in this
study was based on the technology used in the SITA Kirklees plant and is described in the
Waste Technology Data Centre (WTDC) (WTDC [online], 2006). Three different cases for
the recovery of energy from waste were examined. In the first case, there is no recovery of
energy whereas in the second case, the incinerator was assumed to generate electricity only,
with a 25,4% efficiency. In the third case, the plant was assumed to be a CHP MBI with a
65% overall efficiency and a 0.4 average power-to-heat ratio.
In Option 2 the outputs of the MBT process are metals, residues and SRF. The metals are
recovered for recycling and the residues are landfilled. Three different cases for the use of
SRF have been examined, namely that it is either combusted in a CHP Fluidised Bed
Incinerator (FBI), or it replaces coal in a power plant or in a cement kiln. The bottom and the
APC ash from the FBI are landfilled. The ash from the combustion of SRF in the cement kiln
is used for the production of clinker and the ash from the combustion of SRF in the power
plant disposed with the rest of the produced ash. The examined MBT process is based on the
MBT plant in Dresden, Germany that incorporates the Herhof bio-drying process. The
process was sourced from the report MBT: A Guide for Decision Makers-Processes, Policies
& Markets (Juniper, 2005).
In Option 3 the outputs of the MHT plant are recyclables, residues and SRF. The
recyclables are metals and inert residue (mainly glass) that is used as secondary aggregate,
while the residues are landfilled. Similarly with the MBT-option, the SRF is treated thermally
either in a CHP FBI, or in a power plant or in a cement kiln. The examined process in the
study is based on the proposed process of Thermsave that incoporates autoclaving of MSW
and mechanical treatment and is presented in the WTDC (WTDC [online], 2006).
Mass balances for each of the examined processes were compiled, based on the residual
MSW composition and a number of key assumptions on sorting fractions and efficiencies in
the plants. The residual MSW composition was calculated from the MSW composition
presented in the study Analysis of household waste composition and factors driving waste
increases (Parfitt, 2002) and for a kerbside collection scheme with 60% paper recovery, 40%
glass recovery, 10% textile recovery and 10% ferrous and non-ferrous metals recovery.
Figure 2.1. MSW management systems in the examined options.
2.2.2. Quantification of Emissions

A model was developed which aimed to quantify the emissions of Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), which are the GHGs of interest under the Kyoto Protocol. In
order to quantify the GHG emissions, Emission Factors (EFs) for the activities that are
associated with the management of waste in each of the three options, were sourced from
previous studies. When EFs could not be found in the literature, methodologies for the
estimation of GHG emissions proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) in the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, were
used. The calculated emissions of the activities were converted to CO2 equivalents using
global warming potentials for a 100-year time frame (IPCC, 1996).
Figure 2.2. Model boundary.
In general, the model included both direct and indirect GHG emissions from the waste
management system. Direct emissions result from waste treatment within the waste
management system, i.e. material and energy flows within the system. Indirect emissions take
place in systems outside the waste management system as results of activities within the latter
and occur when material and energy flow to and from the waste management system
(Soderman, 2003). Direct GHG emissions derive from the incineration and disposal of MSW
or SRF and the consumption of fossil fuels inside the waste management system. Indirect
emissions are generated by the consumption of electricity and indirect emission savings
derive from materials recycling and energy recovery from waste. The model boundary is
summarised in figure 2.2.
2.2.3. Scenarios
The assessment of the climate change impact of the expected increase of MSW treated
for energy recovery in England, from 9% in 2005 to 27% in 2020, was made in the context of
five different scenarios. For the development of scenarios, it was assumed that the waste
growth will be 1,5% per year, nationally and until 2020, as DEFRA suggests in the Review of
England’s Waste Strategy (DEFRA 2006, p.17). The starting date for the scenarios was taken
to be 2008 and it was assumed that the amount of residual MSW treated in WTE plants would
increase gradually, from 2008 to 2020. By taking into account these assumptions, it was
found that 3,8 million t of residual MSW in 2008, 7,7 million t in 2015 and 10,2 million t in
2020, would be treated for energy recovery. The developed scenarios are presented in table
2.1. The rationale behind the development of scenarios 4 and 5 is that the assumption in
scenarios 2 and 3 that there will be an end market for the SRF is very optimistic. Recent
studies have found that co-incineration of SRF in power plants is rather unlike, mainly due to
technical, economical and regulatory constraints and only 346.000 t of SRF in 2008 and
439.000 t in 2020 are estimated to be co-incinerated in cement kilns (Juniper, 2005).
Therefore, in scenarios 4 and 5 it was assumed that only a limited amount of MSW would be
treated in MBT and MHT plants in order to produce an amount of SRF equivalent to the
‘realistic’ capacity of cement kilns for SRF.
Table 2.1. Presentation of scenarios.
Scenario Description
Scenario 1 3,8 million t of residual MSW and 10,2 million t in 2020, will be incinerated with recovery of heat
and power. The majority of the existing incinerators in England recover only electricity; however
it was assumed that they would change to CHP mode by 2008, whereas all the new incinerators
would be CHP applications.
Scenario 2 The capacity of MBI will increase to 3,7 million t until 2008. From 2008 onwards no new
incinerators will be built and new MBT plants configured for SRF production will treat the
remaining amount of MSW; there will be an end market for the produced SRF with half of it used
in cement kilns and the other half in power plants.
Scenario 3 Like in scenario 2 from 2008 and onwards, no new MBI will be build and the majority of residual
MSW will be treated in MHT for production of SRF that is used in power plants and cement kilns.
Scenario 4 Only a limited amount of residual MSW will be treated in MBT plants and converted to SRF,
according to the ensured end market in cement kilns. The rest of the MSW that is expected to be
treated for energy recovery will be incinerated in CHP MBIs.
Scenario 5 Like in scenario 4, only a limited amount of residual MSW will be treated in MHT plants and
converted to SRF that will be co-incinerated in cement kilns. The rest of the residual MSW will be
incinerated in CHP MBIs.
2.3. Results and Discussion
2.3.1. GHG Emissions for the Treatment Options

The results of the model are presented at this point. The overall emissions EFs (kg CO2-
eq/t of MSW treated) as they were calculated for the MBI, MBT and MHT options are
illustrated in Figure 2.3.
MHT/SRF to cement kiln
Figure 2.3. Overall EFs (kg CO2-eq/t of waste treated) for the MSW treatment options.
From figure 2.3 it can be seen that only the cases of incineration of MSW without energy
recovery and incineration with electricity generation, produce GHG emissions. The treatment
option that performs better is MHT, when the produced SRF is co-incinerated in a cement
kiln and the next best option is MBT when the material is co-incinerated in a cement kiln, as
well. Hence, it can be postulated that the way that the SRF is treated finally, affects the total
EFs. For instance, if an end market can be identified and the SRF is co-incinerated in a
cement kiln or a power plant, then MHT and MBT are great options for the treatment of
MSW, with MHT performing fairly better than the MBT. On the other hand, it can be
deduced from figure 2.3 that MBT with SRF combusted in a FBI performs worst than
combustion of untreated residual MSW in a CHP MBI, whilst MHT with SRF performs
slightly better than CHP MBI. Therefore, it can be concluded that MBT and MHT configured
for SRF could provide significant GHG emission savings, provided that there is an end
market for the SRF from the existing industry and especially power plants or cement kilns.
2.3.2. Sensitivity Analysis on Treatment Options: SRF Landfilling

There are examples of companies that use SRF, like the Castle Cement which is using it
in its kilns (ENDS, June 2006, p.23); however, the market of these fuels is full of uncertainty
and the current demand is not so high. Thus, it is still possible for these materials to end in a
landfill. Apart from the increased cost to the operators due to landfill tax, landfilling of the
SRF could have an adverse climate change impact. In the majority of the studies it is assumed
that SRF is stabilised because of the biological treatment in the MBT and hence, will not
produce significant amounts of CH4. However, the present study examined the case of a MBT
plant incorporating a bio-drying process, that does not reduce the biodegradable content of the
waste or it reduces only a small amount of it, namely about 10% (Juniper 2005, p.D-163).
Therefore, if the SRF was landfilled, it could produce CH4. Regarding SRF from MHT, it is
yet unknown what are the effects of the autoclaving process on the organic fraction of
household waste, but in general it is unlikely that the process will reduce the biodegradable
content of the organic waste fraction (AiIE, 2003). Hence, the landfilling of SRF from MHT
could produce CH4 emissions as well. The new EFs for MBI as well as for MBT and MHT
options when the SRF is landfilled are shown in figure 2.4. This figure demonstrates how
important is for the MBT and MHT options, the existence of an end market for the SRF.
When there is no market and the SRF is landfilled, the total EFs for the MBT and MHT
options are now positive and the performance of these two options is even worst than a MBI
with electricity generation only.
250 210,12 M BI without energy recovery M BI with electricity generation

200 CHP M BI M BT/SRF to landfill
150 M HT/SRF to landfill
Kg CO2 -eq/t of waste
MBT/SRF to landfill
88,13
100
54,21
50
3,96
0
-50
-100
-150 -128,92
-200

Figure 2.4. EFs when SRF is landfilled.
2.3.3. Scenarios
The scenario analysis has demonstrated that in all scenarios the expected increase in the
amount of residual MSW treated in WTE plants, will save a significant amount of GHG
emissions. Thus, in scenario 1, net GHG emission savings in 2020 will be 1.3 million t CO2-
eq. Likewise in scenario 2, emission savings in 2020 will be 2.8 million t CO2-eq and in
scenario 3, 3.1 million t. In the most realistic scenarios 4 and 5, emissions savings in 2020
will be 1.5 million t and 1.6 million t CO2-eq, respectively. Overall results for Scenarios 1-5
are shown in figure 5. Hence scenario 2 and 3 perform much better than the others. For
instance, in scenario 3 the emission savings are twice as much as in scenario 1. Nevertheless,
the good performance of scenarios 2 and 3 depends strongly on the optimistic assumption that
there is a market for the produced SRF.
2.3.4. Sensitivity Analysis on Scenarios with No End-Market for SRF

This section examines the case when there is no market for the SRF and the material
would need disposal in a landfill. As it can be seen from figure 2.6, scenario 1 is not sensitive
in this change and generates the same emission savings, as before. On the other hand
landfilling of SRF affects substantially scenarios 2 and 3 and less 4 and 5. Especially scenario
2, in 2020 produces net GHG emissions. Thus when there is no market for SRF, the
performance of scenarios 2 and 3 is suppressed, while the performance of scenarios 4 and 5 is
not affected significantly, as the majority of MSW in these scenarios is treated in CHP MBI.
Nevertheless, it can be noticed that scenarios 4 and 5 perform worse than scenario 1, in which
all of the residual MSW is treated in CHP MBIs.
Figure 2.5. GHG emissions (kt CO2-eq) for all five scenarios.
Figure 2.6. GHG emissions (kt CO2-eq) for all five scenarios when there is no market for SRF
2.4. Conclusions
The study showed that all WTE options under consideration could save GHG emissions
under certain conditions. MBI saves emissions when it operates in CHP mode, whilst it
produces emissions when it generates electricity only. Both MBT and MHT have significant
GHG benefits, when the SRF output is co-incinerated in cement kilns or power plants,
whereas when it is combusted in a CHP FBI it saves substantially less emissions. However
the performance of MBT and MHT in terms of climate change impacts, depends strongly on
the existence of an end market for the SRF. This approach was confirmed by a sensitivity
analysis with which it was demonstrated that when the SRF is finally disposed to a landfill,
both MBT and MHT generate net GHG emissions.
Furthermore, this study estimated the climate change impact of the increase in the amount
of MSW. Scenario analysis showed that the expected increase of residual MSW treated for
energy recovery, could ensure significant net GHG emission benefits in England,
irrespectively of the used technology. Scenarios 2 and 3 showed great savings, but they were
based on very optimistic estimations. The most realistic scenarios 4 and 5 took into account
the realistic potential capacity for SRF in cement kilns and demonstrated that the GHG
emission benefits in this case are fairly more than scenario 1. Therefore, it could be deduced
that the MHT and then the MBT option, in order of preference, should be used for treatment
of residual MSW in the scale that SRF market could be established, while the rest of the
residual MSW should be treated with CHP incineration. In this way additional GHG benefits
could be achieved than in the case where all the residual MSW is treated in CHP incinerators.
The significance of the study presented in this section is that it has also assessed the GHG
emission impacts of MHT which is a new treatment technology for MSW and has not been
assessed yet. In addition, it has assessed the performance in terms of climate change, of a
configuration of MBT that was not examined in detail in previous studies. Moreover, this
study has carried out a comparative assessment in terms of climate change, for three WTE
technologies, by taking into account the current practice and the policy and legislative
framework of these technologies in England.
3. MSW MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS FOR ATTICA AND THEIR GHG

EMISSION IMPACT
In Greece, the main method of solid waste management remains still landfilling; apart
from this, 22 Material Recovery Facilities (MRF) are in operation for source segregated
‘blue-bin’ recyclables, whereas 5 MBT plants processing residual Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) operate currently in Attica, Chania (Crete), Kefalonia, Herakleion (Crete again) and
Kalamata (Psomopoulos 2008; HSWMA, 2009). Nevertheless increasing environmental
concerns, public pressures and the European and Hellenic waste policy and legislation that
force diversion from landfill through sustainable waste management, necessitate investments
in more new treatment plants for MSW, including biological and thermal treatment of MSW.
In this context, the 13 Regional authorities in Greece have issued Regional Plans, where the
need for new MSW treatment facilities is recognized and operationalised (Hellenic Ministry
for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works, 2007).
In Attica Region (i.e. the Greater Athens area) 2.200 million t MSW (wet weight) were
generated in 2008, of which 12% were recycled and 350,000 t were treated in the existing
MBT plant at the Liossia site (Eurostat, 2009;HSWMA, 2009) (Figure 3.1). Given that the
Hellenic waste management policy only recently started to address waste minimization
measures like home composting and Pay As You Throw (PAYT) schemes, the waste growth
is anticipated to remain in the future at present levels (i.e. 1.1% per annum in 2007 – cf.
Eurostat, 2009) or even to increase. By taking into account the forecasted growth on
population (Eurostat, 2009), if waste growth rates remain at present levels, 2.8 million t of
MSW will be generated annually by 2030. Even if source segregation is enhanced and
consequently recycling rates increase, a significant amount of residual MSW will still have to
be diverted from landfills in order for the targets of the Landfill Directive 99/31/EC to be met
(Figure 3.1).
Therefore, new waste management infrastructure is necessary and in Attica’ s Regional
Plan a new Integrated Waste Management Center (IWMC) in Liossia in Western Attica is
proposed, where new plants with a total annual treatment capacity 1.1 milion t will be
constructed and operated in conjunction with the existing MBT plant, providing a total
capacity of 1.45 million t of MSW. Moreover, two other IWMC are proposed in North-East
and in South-East Attica of a total annual capacity of 250,000 t. For each of these two IWMC
in Eastern Attica, MBT plants incorporating Anaerobic Digestion are proposed, while various
waste management treatment technologies, such as MBI, MT and MBT have also been
evaluated for the IWMC in Western Attica, which when completed is anticipated to become
one of the largest IWMC in the world. The aim of the presented study was to assess the GHG
emission impacts of the proposed technologies for the IWMC in Western Attica in the context
of different scenarios.
Figure 3.1. Foreseen MSW management in Attica until 2030 according to existing facilities.
3.1. Treatment Technologies
The majority of the WTE plants use moving grate technologies and they are designed to
handle large volumes of MSW with or without pre-treatment. As already described in section
3, usually, the steam produced from the incineration of waste is used in turbines to generate
electricity, while the remaining heat of the process is discarded. In the Combined Heat and
Power (CHP) incinerators, the residual heat is recovered and exported to adjacent industrial
premises or districts for space heating, hot water supply, industrial heat demand and other
duties (Williams, 2005).
Another technology for treatment of MSW is MT. A MT plant or ‘dirty’ MRF processes
mixed residual MSW by contrast to a ‘clean’ MRF that process source segregated recyclables.
A MBT plant incorporates trommel, conveyors and hand picking lines, separators, magnetic
separators, eddy current separators, and potentially near infrared detection devices, shredders
and baling equipment (AEA, 2001). As MT plants receive mixed MSW with high putrescible
content they usually recover metals and RDF from the coarse fraction of input material.
MBT is another treatment option for residual MSW. MBT partially processes mixed
MSW by mechanically removing some parts of the waste and by biologically treating others.
Generally a wide range of MBT plant configurations exist, depending on the various
processes that are integrated into MBT and the outputs of the process. The biological process
of a MBT plant may either take place prior to or after mechanical treatment of the waste,
depending on the outputs of the plant and could be either aerobic composting (in-vessel or
tunnel), or anaerobic digestion (AD) or bio-drying (Enviros Consulting Limited, 2007).
Within this study MBT with aerobic composting is defined as MBT(C), MBT with AD as
MBT(AD) and MBT with bio-drying MBT(BioD).
MBT(C) plants incorporate mechanical treatment for recovery of recyclables with aerobic
in-vessel composting to minimise the biodegradability of waste and produce a bio-stabilised
output. Usually in these plants Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) is recovered from the coarse
fraction of materials going to the biological process stage (Archer et al, 2005).
MBT(AD) plants include mechanical separation with anaerobic digestion to recover
recyclables (and potentially RDF) and produce biogas that is usually combusted for energy
recovery. Some MBT(AD) plants combine anaerobic digestion process with post-digestion
aerobic composting that further bio-stabilize the biodegradable content of waste and produce
a bio-stabilised output that could be landfilled or used as soil improver (Archer et al, 2005).
MBT(BioD) plants utilize bio-drying to drive-off moisture from the waste using the
biological activity in an aerobic in-vessel system (boxes). The reduction of moisture and the
degradation of a part of the more volatile biodegradable fraction of waste, increase waste’s
calorific value and produce a Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) rendering it an option for co-
incineration and energy recovery. In MBT(BioD) plants the waste remains in the system
usually for a week, by contrast to MBT(C) where the waste remains at least for 3 weeks and
hence the bio-drying process does not fully biostabilise the waste. (Archer et al, 2005).
In the present section, both terms RDF and SRF are utilized. For the moment, there are is
only the CEN 343 Draft European standard for SRF and the legal definition of the term SRF
has not yet been finalized. In general, both terms are used across European countries to
describe fuels derived from non-hazardous MSW. Quite often, the terminology used in
different countries to describe waste-derived fuels may reflect the desire of the users to have
the material treated in a specific way under existing national legislation (Gendebien et al,
2003). Within this section, the term SRF is used for fuels derived by MBT(BioD) as these
plants are dedicated on the production of these fuels and therefore they are anticipated to
amend their production lines, if it is necessary, in order to adjust the SRF attributes to the
requirements of the new European Standard. The term RDF is used for fuels derived by MT,
MBT(C) and MBT(AD) plants, as these fuels derive from the coarse fraction of waste before
biological treatment and their quality will be more difficult to define.
In general there are various options for the utilization of RDF and SRF, such as
combustion in WTE plants or pyrolysis or gasification plants for energy recovery, or even co-
incineration in cement kilns and power plants, where they substitute fossil fuels; however the
market of these fuels is extremely volatile and quite often end up in landfills, like the RDF
produced by the MBT in Liossia as well (Tsatsarelis and Karagiannidis, 2007).
3.2. Methodology
The present study aimed to quantify Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Nitrous
oxide (N2O) emissions from waste management activities in the Attica scenarios under
assessment. CO2, CH4 and N2O are the major GHG emissions generated by MSW
management and of significant interest under the Kyoto Protocol (IPCC, 1997; 2006). For the
quantification of GHG emissions from the treatment of MSW in each of the scenarios, a
validated methodology (Papageorgiou et al, 2009) was adopted and Emission Factors (EFs)
were sourced from previous studies that assessed the GHG emissions impact of MSW
treatment technologies and were applied in this study adjusted to the Hellenic MSW
composition. It should be mentioned that the performance of the modelled technologies could
potentially be different when applied to Greece, however due to lack of data, it was not
possible model technology application specific to Hellenic conditions.
3.3. Treatment Scenarios
Five scenarios described next were compiled based on published information on the
technologies proposed in the Attica’s Regional Plan and treatment capacities of the proposed
plants. The MSW management system for each of the scenarios is presented in figure 3.2. In
these scenarios residual MSW is transferred by means a kerbside collection scheme, from
households to treatment facilities, via transfer stations.
Scenario 1
400,000 t of residual MSW are treated in a MBT(C) plant and 700,000 in a WTE plant.
MBT(C) outputs include ferrous and aluminium metals, bio-stabilised output, residues and
RDF. Metals are recovered for recycling, while the bio-stabilised output and residues are
disposed in a landfill, whilst RDF substitutes coal in a cement kiln. The bottom ash from the
combustion of RDF in the cement kiln is used for the production of clinker. In the WTE plant,
the ferrous metals recovered from the bottom ash are sent to a reprocessor for recycling,
whilst the bottom ash and the APC ash are both landfilled in a sanitary and a hazardous
landfill cell respectively. The WTE plant recovers electricity only with a net electrical
efficiency of 22.6 % (related to the NCV of waste), in order to be qualified as recovery
operation according to the requirements new Directive on Waste (2008/98/EC)
(Karagiannidis et al, 2009)
Scenario 2
400,000 t of residual MSW are treated in a MBT(AD) and 700,000 t in a WtE. MBT(AD)
outputs are ferrous and aluminium metals (sent for recycling), residues and bio-stabilised
output that are disposed to landfill, RDF that substitutes coal in cement kilns and biogas
which is combusted for electricity generation with efficiency 37%. It is assumed that 33% of
the produced electricity is used in-house for the operation of the plant and 65% is exported to
the grid. The WTE plant is similar with that in Scenario 1.
Scenario 3
400,000 t of residual MSW are processed in a MBT(C) (like Scenario 1) and 700,000 t in
a MBT(BioD). MBT(BioD) outputs are metals sent for recycling, residues disposed to landfill
and SRF that substitutes coal in a cement kiln. Ash from SRF combustion in the cement kiln
is included in clinker production.
Scenario 4
400,000 t of residual MSW are treated in a MBT(AD) (like Scenario 2) and 700,000 in a
MBT(BioD) (like Scenario 3).
Scenario 5
250,000 t of residual MSW are processed in a MT plant and 850,000 in a WtE. MT
outputs are metals sent for recycling, RDF that substitutes coal in a cement kiln and residues
that are landfilled.
Figure 3.2. Waste Management Scenarios for the IWMC in Western Attica.
SRF and RDF were assumed to substitute coal in cement kilns, as this would be the only
option for these fuels in Greece, since there are no existing WTE at the moment, whereas coal
power plants that could potentially combust these fuels are located in Northern Greece and
SRF/RDF transportation from Attica might be very difficult due to logistics constraints. In
Scenarios 1, 2 and 5, RDF from the MBT(C), MBT(AD) and MT plants could be combusted
in the WTE plants instead, but this case was not assessed initially, as the proposed capacities
of WTE plants in the Regional Plan, are only for residual MSW and not additional RDF.
However, in case that there is no market for these fuels, WTE plants could combust them
after investment for capacity extension.
It should be mentioned, that the case of CHP WTE plants was not evaluated as the
demand for heat is anticipated to be low due to the current conditions in the Attica’s waste-
derived heat and industrial market and system. CHP WTE plants would be beneficial in
Greece only if they were sited near industries that have constant demand for heat and steam,
but the Liossia site of the proposed IWMC is far from industries.
3.4. Residual MSW Composition
Table 3.1. MSW, packaging waste and residual MSW composition and physical analysis.
MSW composition, as well as the fraction of packaging waste in MSW in Attica are
displayed in table 3.1 (Technical Chamber of Greece, 2006; Eurostat, 2009). In the present
analysis, it was assumed that the treatment plants in each scenario treat residual MSW, after
kerbside collection. For the estimation of the future residual MSW composition, it was
assumed that the targets set by the Packaging Waste Directive (99/42/EC) would be met and
hence 60% w/w of packaging glass, 60% w/w of paper and cardboard, 50% metals w/w,
22,5% w/w plastic and 15% w/w wood would be recycled.
The residual MSW is taken as the input to the waste management system of each scenario
and its composition is also shown in table 3.1. The same table displays the Net Calorific
Value (NCV), moisture, carbon and Degradable Organic Carbon (DOC) content of residual
MSW, as well as the fossil carbon fraction of total carbon in the residual waste (IPCC, 2006;
Papageorgiou 2009). Based on the residual MSW composition, mass balances for each of the
examined scenarios were compiled and are shown in figure 3.2.
Table 3.2. Direct and indirect emission impacts included in the model.
3.5. Quantification of GHG Emissions
In the present study the methodology presented in Papageorgiou et al, 2009 was applied
for the quantification of GHG emissions from the treatment of residual MSW in each
scenario. This methodology proposes a life-cycle perspective for setting model boundaries
and utilizes Emission Factors (EFs) based on Life-Cycle Inventories and methodologies
proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1997; 2006) for
emission quantification. In a full life-cycle perspective, biogenic CO2 emissions are
considered neutral to global warming, because they originate from organic matter generated
by an equivalent biological uptake of CO2 during plant growth. Conversely, emissions of CO2
from combustion of fossil carbon do have a global warming potential because this release is
not balanced by a ‘recent’ uptake of CO2 (IPCC, 2006; Christensen et al, 2007).
In the present study, both direct and indirect GHG emissions generated by direct and
indirect activities in the waste management system of each scenario, were accounted for
(Consonni et al., 2005; Liamsanguan and Gheewala, 2008). Direct emissions result from
activities within the waste management system, i.e. material and energy flows within the
system, whilst indirect emissions take place in systems outside the waste management
system, as a result of activities within the latter and occur when materials and energy flow to
and from the waste management system (Soderman, 2003). The direct and indirect emission
impacts that were included in the model are summarized below in table 3.2.
3.5.1. Direct Emission Impacts

Direct CO2 emissions derive from the incineration of fossil carbon in MSW or in RDF
and SRF and they were calculated based on the on the composition of waste, the carbon
content and the proportion of fossil carbon of each waste fraction in MSW, according to the
methodology proposed by IPCC (IPCC, 2006). N2O emissions from the combustion of waste
and wasted derived fuels are included in the model and the EF 0.02 kg/t MSW was applied
(IPCC, 2006).
Moreover, CO2 emissions are generated by the consumption of diesel for the operation of
the facilities and the EU EF for diesel consumption was utilized since there is no EF reported
for Greece. The EU EF is 3.17 kg CO2-eq /kg of diesel and it was taken from GEMIS
inventory (GEMIS, 2009).
CH4 and N2O emissions are generated from aerobic composting processes as well and
they were included in the model for the MBT(C) plant. For the estimation of these emissions
the EFs 1 kg CH4/t MSW and 0.1 kg N2O/t MSW were used (IPCC, 2006). For the MBT(AD)
plant CH4 emissions due to leakage are assumed to be negligible, whilst CH4 and N2O
emissions from bio-drying of MSW were not included in the model as they are anticipated to
be very low due to small duration of the process (1 week) comparing to aerobic composting
processes (3-4 weeks).
Finally, for the estimation of CH4 emissions from landfilling of residues from the
treatment processes, the mass balance (Tier 1) method was applied. This method was
proposed in the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
(IPCC, 1997), which assumes that all the methane is released from the waste in the year of
disposal. Although this method does not generate as accurate estimates as the First Order
Decay method (Tier 2), it was preferred in this study as it can give an annual estimate of CH4
emissions per t of waste landfilled, which is necessary for the calculation of overall EFs for
the processes assessed in the scenarios. For the Tier 1 method, it was assumed that the landfill
where the residues are disposed is an engineered landfill, where 80% of the landfill gas is
captured and flared without energy recovery. DOC for every fraction of residual waste is
presented in table 3.1. The Methance Correction Factor (MCF), Fraction by volume of CH4 in
landfill gas, Oxidation factor and the fraction of DOC dissimilated (DOCF) were sourced
from the more recent 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC,
2006).
3.5.2. Indirect Emission Impacts

For the estimation of indirect emission impacts from electricity provision for the
operation of treatment plants information on energy utilization of MSW management systems
were sourced from literature (AEA, 2001; Fischer, 2006). The EF for the average electricity
mix of Greece is applied for estimating both the GHG emissions from consumption of
electricity in the processes and the GHG emission savings from energy recovery. The EF for
the Hellenic electricity mix is estimated to be 0.783 kg CO2-eq/kWh in 2010 according the
Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems (GEMIS) inventory, which includes data for
the whole life cycle of energy production (fuel extraction, transport, conversion, combustion,
distribution) (GEMIS, 2009). In the case of co-incineration of RDF and SRF in a cement kiln,
the fuel was assumed to substitute coal on an energy equivalent basis (i.e. 1 GJ of RDF/SRF
substitutes 1 GJ of coal). Hence, the combustion of SRF replaces emissions from the
combustion of coal that would generate equivalent energy. The NCV of coal used in cement
kilns is 24.9 GJ/t (Papageorgiou, 2009) and the EF for the combustion of coal in cement kins
is 93 kg CO2/TJ of fuel (EEA, 2007). Regarding recycling of metals, the EFs for recycling
offset of ferrous metals is -434 kg CO2-eq/t and for aluminium metals -11634 kg CO2-eq/t
(Fischer, 2006).
In this study carbon sequestration in landfills as well as in soils as a result of application
of the bio-stablizied output from MBT plants has not been included in the model of this study,
as it it is not considered in the IPCC methodology (IPCC, 1997; 2006)
GHG emissions from the use of fossil fuels for MSW transportation, were not included in
the model as the proposed site for the new IWMC in Western Attica is common for all
scenarios and, moreover, the sanitary landfill where the residues of the processes will be
disposed is at the same site. The only differences on GHG emissions could be derived from
transportation of waste and materials to various re-processors, RDF/SRF to cement kilns and
APC ash to a hazardous waste landfill. However, main re-processors of recyclables in Greece
are based near Attica, whilst there are two cement kilns near Athens that could be potential
licensed users of RDF and SRF. Finally, the only hazardous landfill in Greece where APC ash
could be disposed is in Attica (Laurio) as well. Thus, the differences on GHG emissions from
the transportation of waste and materials via different routes, is estimated to be negligible.
The EFs (kg CO2-eq/t of MSW treated) estimated for all activities involved in the waste
management system of every examined scenario, are summarized in table 3.3. The EFs of
these activities were converted to CO2-eq using global warming potentials for a 100-year time
frame (IPCC, 1996) and all are expressed in the units of kg CO2-eq /t MSW treated.
Table 3.3. EFs for the waste management options in the scenarios (kg CO2-eq/t MSW)
3.6. Results and Discussion
Figure 3.3. GHG emissions (Gg CO2-eq) for all five scenarios.
From figure 3.3, where the results of the analysis are illustrated, it can be seen that all
scenarios under assessment in this study for Attica could generate GHG emission savings.
Scenarios 3 and 4 are those that perform better, followed by Scenarios 2, 1 and 5. Scenario 3
incorporates MBT(C) with RDF production and MBT(BioD) with SRF production. Both of
these fuels were assumed to substitute coal in cement kilns, as this would be the only option
for these fuels, since there are no WtEs in Greece for the moment. In general the performance
of all Scenarios and especially Scenarios 3 and 4 are strongly dependent on the existence of a
final market for the produced RDF and SRF. However the market for these fuels is extremely
volatile and there many cases where these fuels end up in landfills instead of being utilized
for energy recovery. For instance, in Attica, the RDF produced from the only existing MBT in
the Region is (up to 2009 still) landfilled, since the agreement for its utilization in a proximate
cement kiln in Evoia, has so far failed to be implemented due to public opposition (Tsatsarelis
and Karagiannidis, 2008). Similarly, in Germany in 2007, almost 7 million t of SRF were
produced but only 3.2 million t of were used as secondary fuel in SRF-dedicated incinerators,
coal-fired power plants and cement kilns, whilst the rest where stored for future use
(Schingnitz et al, 2008). Therefore, it was deemed as absolutely necessary to perform a
sensitivity analysis on the case where there is no market for these fuels.
3.7. Sensitivity Analysis on Scenarios
The sensitivity analysis aimed to evaluate what would be the GHG emission impact in the
case that no end market is found for the produced RDF and SRF from the MT, MBT(C),
MBT(BioD) and MBT(AD) plants in the assessed scenarios. In this case, GHG emission
savings from energy recovery of these fuels should not be taken into account, whereas
potential CH4 production from the degradation of the biodegradable content of these fuels
should be assessed, if they are finally disposed in a landfill. Especially a MBT(BioD) plant
incorporates a bio-drying process, that does not reduce the biodegradable content of the waste
or it reduces only a small amount of it, about 10% (Adani et al 2002; Archer et al, 2005) and
thus the disposal of SRF in landfill will surely generate CH4. Moreover, RDF in the MBT(C)
and MBT(AD) plants is recovered before the biological process and thus the biodegradation
of their organic fraction due to disposal in landfills will generate CH4 as well. The results of
the sensitivity analysis and the GHG emissions from the treatment of MSW in each of the
scenarios are displayed in figure 4. In the sensitivity analysis of the scenarios it was assumed
that the WtE facilities in Scenarios 1, 2, 5 will increase their capacity and finally combust the
surplus RDF from the MBT(C), MBT(AD) and MT respectively. On the other hand, in
Scenarios 3 and 4, where no thermal treatment plant is foreseen, it was assumed that the
produced RDF and SRF will finally end up in landfill.
From figure 3.4 it can be seen clearly how the performance of all scenarios depends
strongly on the existence of end-market for the recovered RDF and SRF. Especially scenarios
3 and 4 generate net GHG emissions and thus the treatment of residual MSW in these
scenarios, offers no benefit, at least on GHG emission savings. Therefore, in the event that a
SRF market does not exist, then probably further aerobic treatment for RDF and SRF will be
necessary in order to reduce its biodegradable content, since they will be disposed in landfills.
On the other hand Scenarios 1, 2 and 5 can provide GHG emission savings as they
incorporate WTE and MBT(AD) which recover electrical energy for which the demand is
constant.
3.8. Conclusions
The present study assessed the GHG emission impact of various treatment technologies
for the residual MSW in Attica Region in the context of five different waste management
scenarios that were compiled according to information from Attica’s Regional Plan. The
study has shown that all scenarios under assessment could save GHG emissions provided that
there is an end market for the recovered RDF and SRF.
Figure 4.GHG emissions (Gg CO2-eq) for the five scenarios with no market for SRF/RDF.
In this case, co-incineration in cement of SRF from MBT(BioD) mainly and RDF from
MBT(C), MBT(AD) and MT can generate significant emission savings. However, if these
fuels are not utilized and disposed in landfills, then CH4 emissions could be generated from
the biodegradation of their organic fraction. Therefore it is proposed that decision makers and
planners evaluate the perspectives of these fuels in the Hellenic market and decide on which
technology is more beneficial for the treatment of residual MSW in Attica. A superficial
planning could result in large amounts of waste derived fuels disposed in landfills, that would
have adverse GHG emission impact and moreover it would increase the cost of waste
management in Attica due to additional disposal costs for RDF and SRF. In this case
MBT(AD) or WTE plants are considered better options, as it has been shown in the
sensitivity analysis, where Scenario 2 which incorporates a MBT(AD) plant and a WtE
facility, performs best. In general, the conclusions of this study could support an integrated
assessment that would assess additional environmental impacts of MSW treatment
technologies and at the same time evaluate their perspectives in the Hellenic market,
supporting like this the decisions makers. It should be also commented here that waste policy
and planning in Greece for the moment does not promote waste minimization measures
neither poses high recycling targets and instead promotes technologies and plants of large
capacity that will treat mixed residual MSW. Thus, the potentials of waste minimization
measures such as home composting and PAYT schemes in conjunction with new waste
treatment plants should be pursued as well.
4. A REVIEW OF THE STATUS AND BENEFITS OF WTE IN THE US

As everywhere in the world, the generation of MSW in the US has grown steadily. A
survey that is being carried out every two years by Columbia University and BioCycle journal
has lately showed that the generation of MSW increased from 369.4 million (short) t in 2002
to 387.9 million t in 2004, an increment corresponding at a rate of 2.5% per year. Landfilling
accounted for 248.6 million t or 64% of the MSW generated, followed by recycling (28.5%),
and WTE in MBIs (7.4%) (Table 4.1). Most of the recycling is done in coastal states and most
of the WTE facilities are on the East coast, corresponding to the 66% of the total WTE
capacity in the US (Table 4.2).
Table 4.1. MSW generation and disposal in 2002 and in 2004 in the US.
generated recycled or composted WTE landfilled

2004, million t 387.9 110.4 28.9 248.6
2004, percent 100% 28.5% 7.4% 64.1%
2002, million t 369.4 98.6 28.4 236.8
2002, percent 100% 26.7% 7.7% 65.6%
Table 4.2. Major users of WTE in the US.
State Number of plants Capacity (t/day)

Connecticut 6 6,500
New York 10 11,100
New Jersey 5 6,200
Pennsylvania 6 8,400
Virginia 6 8,300
Florida 13 19,300
Total 53 69,600
WTE power plants are in operation in 25 states. They are fuelled by 29 million t of MSW
and have a generating capacity of 2700 MW of electricity. They also recover about 0.7
million t of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. There are two main categories of WTE plants:
− MBI plants, where MSW are fed as collected into large furnaces.
− RDF plants, where MSW are first shredded into small pieces and most of the metals
are recovered before combustion (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3. Operating US WTE plants.
Technology Number of plants Capacity, t/day Capacity, million t/year

MBI 65 71,354 22.1
RDF 15 20,020 6.3
Thermal treatment facilities built in the 21st century have been based mostly on the grate
combustion of ‘as received’ MSW. US facilities follow this type of treatment and, in
industrial scale, the dominant WTE technology is grate technology, because of its simplicity
and relatively low capital cost. These figures are given also above in Table 3.3 where it is
shown that the majority of the facilities (80 of the 87 total) are grate combustion (i.e. either
MBI or RDF), while these facilities represent over 80% of the total capacity of WTE in the
US. Three dominant technologies - those developed by Martin, Von Roll, Keppel-Seghers –
are grate technologies. In terms of novel technologies, gasification (JFE), direct smelting
(JFE, Nippon Steel), fluidized bed (Ebara) and circulating fluidized bed (Zhejiang University)
are in operation around the world while some of them are under investigation and discussion
for possible implementation in the WTE facilities that will be constructed in the US. One of
the most successful US facilities is the RDF-type process of the SEMASS facility in
Rochester, Massachusetts, developed by Energy Answers Corp. and now operated by
American Ref-Fuel, has a capacity of 0.9 million t/year. This facility was considered to be
among the 10 finalists for the Waste-To-Energy Research and Technology Council 2006
Industrial Award; thus to be among the best in the world on the basis of energy recovery in
terms of kWh of electricity plus kWh of heat recovered per t of MSW, and as the percentage
of thermal energy input in the MSW feed, level of emissions achieved, optimal resource
recovery and beneficial use of WTE ash, the aesthetic appearance of the facility and the
acceptance of the facility by the host community.
4.1. Benefits from WTE in the US
4.1.1. Energy Production and Reduction Of GHG
According to actual operating data collected by the US WTE industry, on the average,
combusting one t of MSW in a modern WTE power plant generates a net of 550 kilowatt-
hours of electricity, thus avoiding mining a quarter of a ton of coal or importing one barrel of
oil. WTE is the only alternative to landfilling of non-recyclable wastes, where the
decomposing MSW generates carbon dioxide and methane, a potent greenhouse gas, at least
40% of which escapes to the atmosphere even in the modern sanitary landfills that are
provided with gas collection network and biogas utilization engines or turbines. Taking into
account the electricity generated and the methane emissions avoided has led several
independent studies to conclude that WTE reduces greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated
1.1-1.3 t of carbon dioxide per ton of MSW combusted rather than landfilled. Therefore, in
addition to the energy benefits, the combustion of MSW in WTE facilities reduces US GHG
emissions by about 40 million t of carbon dioxide. In Table 4.4, air emissions of WTE and
fossil-fuelled power plants are compared.
Table 4.4. WTE and fossil-fuel power plants: Comparison of air emissions.
Air emissions (kg/MWh)

Fuel
Carbon dioxide Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen oxides
MSW 379.66 0.36 2.45
Coal 1020.13 5.90 2.72
Oil 758.41 5.44 1.81
Natural Gas 514.83 0.04 0.77
4.1.2. Source of Renewable Energy

At this time, the U.S. DOE categorizes WTE as one type of biomass. The term "biomass"
means any plant-or animal-derived organic matter available on a renewable basis, including
dedicated energy crops and trees, agricultural food and feed crops, agricultural crop wastes
and residues, wood wastes and residues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and
other waste materials. Even if one uses a more stringent definition of the term "renewable",
one that includes only material from non-fossil sources, about 64% of the US MSW, after
material recovery for recycling plus composting, are derived from renewable sources. This
fraction of MSW can be used as clean, sustainable and arguably renewable fuel for the
production of electricity and steam. The remaining non-renewable portion, however, has to be
either separated or accepted as part of the fuel.
Table 4.5. Generation of renewable energy in the US in 2002, excluding hydropower.
Energy source kWh x109 generated % of renewable energy

Geothermal 13.52 28.0%
WTE 13.50 28.0%
Landfill gas 6.65 13.8%
Wood/biomass 8.37 17.4%
Solar thermal 0.87 1.8%
Solar photovoltaic 0.01 0.0%
Wind 5.3 11.0%
Total 48.22 100.0%
Table 4.6. Concentration of combustible materials in US MSW.
Biomass combustibles % Petrochemical combustibles %

Paper/cardboard 38.6 Plastics 9.9
Wood 5.3 Rubber 1.5
Cotton/wool 1.9 Fabrics 1.9
Leather 1.5
Yard trimmings 12.8
Food wastes 10.1
Total biomass content 70.2% Total petrochemical content 14.3 %
In 2002, the US WTE facilities generated a net of 13.5x109 kWh of electricity, greater
than all other renewable sources of energy, with the exception of hydroelectric and
geothermal power (Table 4.5). For comparison, wind power amounted to 5.3x109 kWh and
solar energy to only 0.87x109 kWh. The combustible materials in MSW consist of 82%
biomass (paper, food and yard wastes plus half of rubber, etc.) and 18% petrochemical
wastes. Therefore, MSW is a renewable source of energy and it is included by the US DOE in
the biomass fuel category of renewable energy sources.
4.1.3. Recycling and WTE

According to the US EPA, the current MSW recycling rate in the US is 28%. By
comparison, 57% of the 98 WTE communities achieved a higher recycling rate of 33%. Ten
years ago, WTE communities had an average recycling rate of 21% versus the national rate of
17%. Among operating US WTE plants, 77% have onsite ferrous metal recovery programs.
These facilities recover more than 773,000 tons of ferrous annually. Most of these metals are
recovered at WTE MBIs from the bottom ash after combustion. In addition, 43% of the
operating facilities recover other materials on-site for recycling (e.g., nonferrous metals,
plastics, glass, white goods, and WTE ash that is used for road construction outside landfills);
over 854,000 tons of these recyclables are recovered annually. Combining all onsite WTE
recycling, 82% of the US facilities recycle nearly 1,627,000 t. In fact, all communities with
operating WTE plants are linked to offsite recycling programs. The recycling operations
associated with these programs may be public or private, residential or commercial. The
programs may also operate outside of the community in which the plant is specifically
located.
4.1.4. Saving of Land

With proper maintenance, WTE plants, can last well over thirty years. Considering that
WTE plants do not require more land than the initial one, unless they are expanded to process
more MSW, WTE plants do not have a continuing cost in land. Furthermore, the required
land is significantly smaller than for the land used for landfilling the same quantity of MSW;
thus the initial capital for land is very small. As an example, with landscaping and auxiliary
buildings, a WTE plant processing one million t per year requires less then 100,000 m2 of
land. In comparison, the landfilling of thirty million t of MSW would require an estimated
3,000,000 m2. Furthermore, a new plant could be built on the site of the old existing WTE
plant, thus reducing in this way the capital cost for land in the new facility to zero. On the
other hand, the landfill site cannot be used for anything else, ever, and new greenfields must
be converted to landfills.
4.2. WTE Emissions and Public Health Issues
In the distant past, many US cities had thousands of residential incinerators in the city
without any air pollution controls. For example, at one time, New York City had an estimated
eighteen thousand residential incinerators and thirty two municipal incinerators. The
environmental impacts can still be detected in deep lying cores of the Central Park soil.
Understandably, this has left a bad image of incineration in New York City that persists to
this day. The result is that the City transports most of its MSW to distant landfills in other
states. Yet, the adjacent New Jersey and Long Island Sound communities depend largely on
WTE and most of the Manhattan MSW is combusted in the Essex County WTE plant.
At this time, there are over 1500 incinerators of all types in the U.S. but only 87 WTE
plants as mentioned above already. In the past, when the effects of emissions on health and
the environment were not well understood, all high-temperature processes, including metal
smelting, cement production, coal-fired power plants and incinerators were the sources of
enormous emissions to the atmosphere. In particular, incinerators were the major sources of
toxic organic compounds (called dioxins and furans) and mercury. However, in the last
fifteen years and at the cost of about one billion dollars, the 87 WTE facilities operating in the
U.S. have implemented APC systems that have led US EPA to recognize them publicly as a
source of power “with less environmental impact than almost any other source of electricity”.
WTE facilities were subject to new Clean Air Act rules in 1995. In 1995, the US EPA
adopted new emissions standards for WTE facilities pursuant to the Clean Air Act. Their
MACT regulations dictated that WTE facilities with large units (i.e. >250 t per day) should
comply with new Clean Air Act standards by December 19, 2000. Small unit facilities (i.e. 35
to 250 t per day) represent only 5% of the US WTE capacity and by 2005 also met similar
MACT rules. MACT includes dry scrubbers, fabric filter bag houses, activated carbon
injection, selective non-catalytic reduction of NOx and other measures that were implemented
at an estimated cost of over one billion dollars. WTE facilities now represent less than 1% of
the US emissions of dioxins and mercury, as further discussed below.
4.2.1. Decrease in WTE Dioxin Emissions

The toxic effects of dioxins and furans were not realized, both in the US and abroad,
untill the late eighties. Thanks to the implementation of MACT regulations, the “toxic
equivalent” (TEQ) dioxin emissions of US WTE plants have decreased since 1987 by a factor
of 1,000 to a total of less than 12 grams TEQ per year. In comparison, the major source of
dioxin emissions now, as reported by EPA, is backyard trash burning that emits close to 600
grams annually. Table 4.7 shows the change in major sources of dioxins/furans air emissions
in the US over the years.
Table 4.7. Sources of dioxin/furan air emissions in the US, in grams TEQ.
Year
1987 1995 2002
Source
WTE facilities 8,877 1,250 12
Coal-fired power plants 51 60 60
Medical waste Incineration 2,590 488 7
Barrel backyard burning 604 628 628
Total US 13,998 3,225 1,106
4.2.2. Mercury Emissions

The use of mercury in US processes and products reached a high of 3,000 tons per year in
the seventies. It decreased to less than 400 tons by 2002, due to the phasing out of most
applications of this metal, as mandated by US EPA. For example, mercury activated switches
and thermostats have been substituted and the mercury content of fluorescent lamps has been
reduced substantially. Furthermore, many communities have put in place strong recycling
programs that keep older mercury-containing products out of the MSW sent to WTE
facilities. This trend, plus the implementation of the MACT regulations have decreased the
mercury emissions of the WTE facilities from 89 tons of mercury in 1989 to less than one ton
by 2008. By now the major sources of mercury in the atmosphere are the global coal-fired
power plants. Table 4.8 represents the emissions from US WTE facilities reduction between
the years 1990 and 2000, while Table 4.9 represents the average emission of 87 U.S. WTE
facilities, the EPA standard requirements and the respective percentage considering the EPA
limits.
4.3. Conclusions
WTE facilities for MSW management serve about 30 million people in the US.
According to the US experience, the environmental impact of MSW management was
reduced (lower GHG emissions, energy production, land saving, materials recovery, etc).
Furthermore, emissions of toxic and dangerous substances like mercury and dioxins have
been significantly reduced, thus protecting public health. Evaluating further these results, it
can be seen that the WTE facilities have quite lower emissions compared to electricity
production facilities from fossil fuels (except Natural Gas), further reducing GHG emissions
from landfills while at the same time decreasing the dependency for power production on
fossil fuels. In addition, 80% of combustible biomass included in MSW can be considered as
renewable fuel, a fact that is already acknowledged by US DOE which categorizes MSW as
biomass. One more significant parameter that was observed is that US communities that use
WTE have a 17.8% higher recycling percentage than the US EPA national average. The later
seems to counter the usual argument of environmental groups that building of new WTEs will
result in lower recycling rates.
Table 4.8. Emissions from US WTE facilities.
Pollutant 1990 2000 Reduction (%)

Dioxins/furans, grams TEQ* 4,260 g 12 g 99.7
Mercury 45.2 t 2.2 t 95.1
Cadmium 4.75 t 0.33 t 93.0
Lead 52.1 t 4.76 t 90.9
Hydrochloric acid 46,900 t 2,672 t 94.3
Sulfur dioxide 30,700 t 4,076 t 86.7
Particulate matter 6,930 t 707 t 89.8
* Toxic equivalent (sum of substance amounts multiplied by toxicity equivalency factors)
Table 4.9. Average emissions of 87 US WTE facilities.
Average US EPA Average emission (as % of

Pollutant Unit
emission standard US EPA standard)
Dioxin/furan, TEQ basis 0.05 0.26 19.2% ng/dscm
Particulate matter 4 24 16.7% mg/dscm
SO2 6 30 20% ppmv
NOx 170 180 94.4% ppmv
HCl 10 25 40% ppmv
Mercury 0.01 0.08 12.5% mg/dscm
Cadmium 0.001 0.020 5% mg/dscm
Lead 0.02 0.20 10% mg/dscm
CO 33 100 33.3% ppmv
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
MSW management is currently a major issue worldwide and will also continue to be in
the foreseeable future. Besides the numerous developing countries, many other countries that
are not considered generally as developing ones, also find themselves also among rapid
developments and challenges in their MSW management system. In this frame, WTE as a
major element of the MSW management hierarchy after recycling and before disposal, has
been well tested in many developed countries and in a manifold of technological variations,
whereas it is continuously being developed and improved. However, in many transitional
MSW management systems, also in developed countries, significant peculiarities of a
complex socioeconomic nature are still prevailing which often raise barriers and problems in
the balanced integration of waste-to-energy in an overall sustainable waste management
hierarchy. This chapter has presented 3 cases of such developing systems from England,
Greece and the US, where the penetration and integration of WTE is still relatively limited or
at its infancy, but where extensive assessments are being currently performed and related
large-scale projects put under way, due to mounting pressures and closing deadlines from the
pertaining legislation.
ABBREVIATIONS
AD: Anaerobic Digestion
APC: Air Pollution Control
BioD: Bio-Drying
CHP: Combined Heat and Power
DOC : Degradable Organic Carbon
DOE: Department of Energy
EF: Emission Factor
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
FBI: Fluidised Bed Incinerator
GEMIS: Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems
GHG: Greenhouse Gas
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
IWMC: Integrated Waste Management Center
MACT: Maximum Available Control Technology
MBI: Mass-Burn Incineration
MBT: Mechanical Biological Treatment
MBT(C): MBT with composting
MBT(AD): MBT with AD
MBT(BioD): MBT with bio-drying
MCF: Methane Correction Factor
MHT: Mechanical Heat Treatment
MRF: Material Recovery Facility
MSW: Municipal Solid Waste
MT: Mechanical Treatment
NCV: Net Calorific Value
PAYT: Pay As You Throw
RDF: Refuse Derived Fuel
SRF: Solid Recovered Fuel
TEQ: Toxic Equivalent

WTE: Waste-to-Energy
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Chapter 2
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE:

CHARACTER AND COMPOSITION
Libuše Benešová*, Markéta Doležalová,

Petra Hnaťuková and Bohumil Černík
ABSTRACT
This chapter analyzes municipal solid waste (MSW), its definition, brief history, and
management. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which evaluates environmental impacts of
MSW, is also referred. MSW is mentioned in terms of its characteristic as well as a
method of collection, transport, recycling, treatment and disposal. The new methodology
of sampling and analyses of MSW is also mentioned because the knowledge of the
composition allows decision making based on what kind of handling will be optimal for
wastes and the environment.
MSW management is one of the major environmental problem not only in EU
countries but all over the world.
1. INTRODUCTION
The production of MSW is as old as mankind itself. Every civilization, from the oldest to
the most modern economic society, has had to deal with MSW. Of course the style of
handling is different comparing the earliest civilizations to the 21st century. Not only is the
amount of wastes greater, but the composition of wastes is completely different. The
industrial revolution between 1750 and 1850 led many people to move from rural areas to
cities. The concentration of the inhabitants of towns and cities caused an increase in waste
amount. These wastes generated contained a range of materials such a glass, food residue and
human waste. An additional problem was the attraction of MSW for flies, rats and other
vermin which can cause disease transfer. These conditions were very dangerous, and caused
an actual threat to human health and the environment.
* Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, lbenes@natur.cuni.cz
34 Libuše Benešová, Markéta Doležalová, Petra Hnaťuková et al.
Today, the composition and amount of MSW is extremely variable as a consequence of

seasonal, lifestyle, demographic, geographic, and legislative factors. This variability makes
defining and measuring the composition of waste more difficult and at the same time more
essential.
Municipal solid waste (MSW), also called urban solid waste, is a waste type that
includes predominantly household waste (domestic waste), with sometimes the addition of
commercial wastes, collected by a municipality within a given area. They are in either solid
or semisolid form and generally exclude industrial hazardous wastes. The term residual waste
relates to waste left over from household sources containing materials that have not been
separated out or sent for reprocessing.
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and
monitoring of waste materials (Tchobanoglous, 1993). The term usually relates to materials
produced by human activities, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the
environment or aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resources. Waste
management can involve solid, liquid or gaseous substances, with different methods and
fields of expertise for each.
Effective waste management through MSW composition studies is important for
numerous reasons, including the need to estimate the potential of material recovery, to
identify sources of component generation, to facilitate the design of processing equipment, to
estimate physical, chemical, and thermal properties of waste, and to maintain compliance
with national laws and European directives.
2. MSW DEFINITION
The definition of MSW is very important, because there can be great variation in the
composition of natural waste. The material is heterogenous and it is difficult to describe,
define and classify.
In many cases, MSW is a mixture of different waste types and often is on the border
between two categories. Therefore, the MSW must have a strict and legal definition. For EU
countries there is definition given by European Community law. But this is complicated by
the fact that each country and each administration derives its own definition from the EC
Framework Directive (75/442/EEC as amended by 91/156/EEC).
The Czech Republic uses the definition given by the Act of waste no. 185/2001Coll.
where MSW is defined as “all wastes generated on the territory of the municipality, that
originate in the activities of natural persons, with the exception of wastes formed on the
premises of legal persons or natural persons authorized to operate business”.
In recent years, there is support in the CR for an MSW concept including commercial
wastes within the municipality area. Basic items are wastes from households (including bulky
waste), services, and the unproductive assets of enterprise subjects (waste group 20 EWC).
Examples of other definitions of MSW, taken from various web sites, are:
• Municipal solid waste (MSW), also called urban solid waste, is a waste type that
includes predominantly household waste (domestic waste) with sometimes the
addition of commercial wastes collected by a municipality within a given area. They
Municipal Solid Waste: Character and Composition 35
are in either solid or semisolid form and generally exclude industrial hazardous
wastes. The term residual waste relates to waste left from household sources
containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for reprocessing (www.
wikipedia.uk).
• The total waste generated by residents, businesses, and institutions
(www.opala.org/solid_waste/glossary/Glossary.html).
• Solid waste originating from homes, industries, businesses, demolition, land clearing,
and construction (weblife.org/humanure/glossary.html
• MSW is household waste (and some commercial waste) that is set aside for kerbside
collection or delivered to a waste facility
• (www.plymouth.gov.uk/homepage/environmentandplanning/rubbishandrecycling/sw
dwp/swdwpfaqs/swdwpglossary.htm).
• Waste material that is collected from homes and businesses. Waste materials from
industrial processes that are not considered safe to place into landfills are not allowed
to become MSW, and recycled materials are not included in MSW. MSW is referred
to in common parlance as garbage
• (www.alamedapt.com/electricity).
• Waste generated in households, commercial establishments, institutions, and
businesses. MSW includes used paper, discarded cans and bottles, food scraps, yard
trimmings, and other items. Industrial process wastes, agricultural wastes, mining
wastes, and sewage sludge are not MSW
• (www.purdue.edu/envirosoft/housewaste/src/glossary1.htm).
In Europe, wastes are defined by the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) Codes. EWC
Codes are 6 digits long, with the first two digits defining the over-arching category of waste,
the next two defining the sub-category, and the last two defining the precise waste stream.
Municipal Solid Waste comes under the "20" codes, for example: "20 01 02”corresponds to
Municipal Solid Waste (20), components from separated collection (01) glass (02). Similarly
20 02 01 means Municipal Solid Waste (20), waste from garden and parks (02),
biodegradable material (01).
3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF MSW

The study of waste through history brought many insights into civilizations, and has
produced a relatively new research sphere – garbology.
In the timeline of waste history, the problem of wastes was significantly acerbated when
people began to move to industrial towns and cities from rural areas. Prehistoric people
discharged their waste in pits, because these wastes were mostly composed of only hunting
and food preparation items. Due to the composition of wastes and the very low human
population, there were no problems with contamination of water or soil (Pittchel, 2005). In
early pre-industrial times, waste was mainly composed of ash from fires, wood, bones, bodies
and vegetable waste. It was disposed of in the ground where it acted as compost and helped to
improve the soil (Wilson, 1977). Ancient rubbish dumps excavated in archaeological digs
reveal only tiny amounts of ash, broken tools and pottery. Everything that could be was
repaired and reused. However, the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer to farmer meant
that waste could no longer be left behind, and it soon became a growing problem.
In Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations the effect of solid waste became significant,
and was connected with the gathering together of people. The first dumps were established,
and they were situated away from settlements.
Minoan civilization had more advanced technology in dumping, and periodically covered
waste with layers of soil. This was the first precaution for human health (Wilson, 1977). In
capital of ancient Crete, there were not only sewage drains but also effective composting in
pits. The first recorded regulations concerning the handling of MSW established during the
Minoan civilization (Tammemagi, 1999).
There was great progress in MSW handling in Greek municipalities. During the 5th
century B. C., dumps with controlled operations were established. Residents and every
household were responsible for collecting and transport of their wastes beyond the city walls.
In ancient Rome, waste was dumped into the Tiber River or into open pits. This type of
waste discharge led to health problems, and Rome was the victim of plagues in 23 B.C. and in
65, 79 and 162 A.D. (Vesilind, et al. 2002).We have evidence that older civilization reused
and recycled wastes. Until the Industrial Revolution, when materials became more available
than labor, reuse and recycling was commonplace. Nearly 4000 years ago, there was a
recovery and reuse system of bronze scrap in operation in Europe, and there is evidence that
composting was carried out in China. Traditionally, recovered materials have included
leather, feathers and down, and textiles. Recycling included feeding vegetable wastes to
livestock and using green waste as fertiliser. Pigs were often used as an efficient method for
disposing of municipal waste. Timber was often salvaged and reused in construction and ship-
building. Materials such as gold have always been melted down and re-cast numerous times.
Later recovery activities included scrap metal, paper and non-ferrous metals.
When the Roman Empire ended, the „Dark Ages“ arose, with a significant loss of
technical knowledge and the science of basic hygiene (Kelly, 1973). At that time, there was
no organized method of waste disposal, and mankind mostly forgot these practices. The
routine procedure was to simply dump wastes, including fecal matter, directly out of one’s
windows.
In Prague in 14 century there were streets full of waste and according to the statement of Prague
town councillor, vagabonds could hide in the heaps of wastes. Regular street cleaning in Prague
begun in 1340. In 1470 there was a town order that nobody could empty chamber pots in the
street, under a fine of 5 rap.
The first really important attempt to clean Prague streets was done in 1621 by Karl von
Lichenstein who assigned a town inspector who was responsible for cleaning.
From History of Prague sewers- internet
The situation in the medieval period was terrible, with all manner of wastes in front of
houses. In summer there were intolerable bad smells, and in winter animals (like hens and
pigs) were a typical phenomenon near large cities.
Another common practice was to discharge waste directly into surface waters. The plague
of 1347 may have been precipitated by waste into the Thames River (Alexander, 1993).
The waste problems in Western Europe culminated at the end of the 15th and beginning
of the 16th centuries.
The greatest cities such as London and Paris tried to solve these problems – they initiated
street cleaning (paid for by public funds), and introduced the first basic methods of common
hygiene.
The accumulation of refuse in the streets reached the point that in 1348 Phillipe VI de Valois
passed an ordinance requiring the citizens to sweep in front of their doors and to transport their
garbage to dumps or risk fines and imprisonment. He established the first corp of sanitation
workers to clean the streets. Even with ordinances issued every few years, these brought little
relief and were difficult to enforce. Garbage piled up in the streets, making some completely
inaccessible. Finally in desperation, the King made Nobility set an example, and people began to
follow the orders, (but now they dumped their waste on public property and out of the way
places).
From Parisian Sanitation from 1200-1789 - internet
The Great Fire of London in 1666 had some cleaning effects on the city environs, and
complaints about refuse in the streets eased to some extent (Wilson, 1977).
The Industrial Revolution starting in the 18th century had the biggest influence on waste
handling. This was due to the increase in population and the massive migration of people to
industrial towns and cities from rural areas during the 18th century. There was a consequent
increase in both industrial and domestic wastes, posing threats to human health and the
environment. And thus the subject of “recycling“ began to be used in our speech.
Henry Mayhew distinguished five categories of workers within the then largely in formal waste
management and recycling collection in London:
Street buyers – they bought any repairable items. They survived as “rag and bone men” until
well after the Second World War.
Street finders - the bone grubbers and rag gatherers were very much “on the bottom of the
heap” eking out a miserable income from the dregs overlooked by others. More prosperous then
were the more specialised finders, who focused on ‘pure’ (dog-dung, in demand for leather
tanning), cigar-ends and old wood.
Sewer and River finders - Included dredger-men, mud-larks and sewer-hunters. The mud-larks
were generally children, who scavenged along the Thames beaches at low tide, before the
embankments were built.
Paid labourers - dust-men were employed by dust contractors, and scavengers (street sweepers)
by their sub-contractors (as street cleaning was included in the dust contracts). ‘Night-men’ also
removed night-soil (human sewage) that had a ready market as a fertiliser. Recycling shops - a
huge variety of shops bought and sold reusable goods and recyclable materials. The most
comprehensive were the ‘rag-and-bottle’ and ‘marine store’ shops, which bought direct from
the public, from the street buyers and from the various ‘finders.’ The Rowlett’s rag-store in
Lambeth (shown here) had been relatively prosperous, until they lost their entire stock of rags
and waste paper in a tidal flood around 1870, and had to sell tons for manure.
From Henry Mayhew (1862) ‘London Labour and the London Poor’, Volume 2 Griffin, Bohn
and Company. - internet
In 19th and 20th centuries MSW management changed significantly. Many new
technologies were used, like controlled land disposal, incineration, composting or some
combination of these basic methods. In the beginning of the 20th century, the most common
method of MSW disposal was dumping.
In England and Germany, a very effective system for MSW disposal and stabilization
was developed – incineration. The advantage of this method is not only volume reduction and
stabilization, but energy production. The first municipal solid waste incineration system
operated in England – Nottingham in 1874 (Murphy, 1993). After a cholera epidemic in
Hamburg, the city decided to operate an incinerator designed with the cooperation of English
engineers.
In the US the first incinerator was installed in 1885 in Allegheny, PA, but after 1910
incineration was widespread all over the US.
Incineration from a stationary source became a significant method of MSW disposal,
especially when Great Britain and Germany developed technologies to recovery energy from
incinerators.
Using dumps as a method of MSW disposal was a topic of discussion in 1900, as it still is
today.
Land disposal or landfilling is still the most common method of MSW disposal in many
countries. Numerous modifications have been made in the form of sanitary landfills – caps
constructed of clay or impermeable synthetic materials, and subsurface and surface collection
systems for capturing gas and leachates (Filip, at al., 2003; Bilitewski, at al., 2000). In spite of
these technical advantages, there is continuing concern about groundwater contamination and
methane emission.
Similarly, composting is a method which has been used for ages, and today it is most
common especially in developed countries. In EU countries, composting is a supported
method, but there are problems associated with product quality and the ability to sell the
product.
The first separation and recycling programs were documented in Japan and Germany.
(Alexander, 1993).
4. WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste management involves all those activities which are concerned with waste
handling, from planning to discharge. MSW management can be managed though a number
of activities – waste prevention, recycling, composting, and so forth. Some of the most
general, widely-used concepts include:
• Waste hierarchy
• Extended producer responsibility
• Polluter pays principle
The National Waste strategy is a requirement for all member states of the EU, given by
the EC Directive 91/56/EEC. In particular, the Strategy must identify the type, quantity and
origin of waste to be recovered or disposed of. In every EU country, the Directive
requirement has been incorporated into nation laws. In the CR this was the Act on Waste
No.185/2001 Coll., for Great Britain it was Environmet Act 1995, and likewise for all
members of EU.
All EU members have attempted to focus the National Waste Strategy on the idea of
sustainable development, in line with the 1992 United Nations Rio Conference on
Environment and Development (the Earth Summit). The main requirement of the Conference
was that society makes decision with proper regard to their environmental impact.
The treatment and disposal of waste is therefore one of the central themes of sustainable
development.
4.1. Waste Hierarchy
The EC strategy has been developed into the concept of “hierarchy waste management”:
Waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Re-use and Recovery (Wiliams, 1998):
1. Reduction - the first in the hierarchy shows that waste production should be reduced.
It is realized by the development of clean technology and by the use of such
processes which require less material and produce less waste during manufacture.
2. Re-use – the second step in hierarchy. There are many examples of suitable re-use
technologies – tyre re-treading, glass bottles (e.g. from beer and milk). Re-use is not
profitable in every case, but environmental aspects can outweigh the benefits.
3. Recovery - the last step in the hierarchy has a number different types:
• Materials recycling – using waste material for producing a marketable product. A

typical example is the recovering of glass, because scrap glass can be ground and
used for new glass production. In the CR, recycling of PET material is very high, and
PET is re-used for many products, e.g. load-dependent carpets, car parts (steering
wheel, dash-board), fillings for sport clothing. These examples show very suitable
process of changing wastes to products, often with energy savings in comparison
with obtaining raw materials. But the recycling process assumes that there is a
market for recycled materials. Otherwise, waste is produced.
• Energy recovery - this technology produces energy by incineration of wastes or by
combustion of landfill gas. The energy potential of MSW is high, and has recently
been increasing. The problem is that the incinerator installations require high initial
capital costs. An additional problem is the necessity to install sophisticated flue gas
cleaning equipment.
• Composting - uses the decomposition of the organic waste fraction to produce a
stable product similar to fertilizer. But there is a problem with the pollution of raw
material by heavy metals and toxic organic compounds. In the CR and other EU
countries, there are very strict requirements on the quality of compost; all chemical
properties concerning heavy metals and organic compounds are limited.
• Disposal - the last possibility of how to get rid of waste. The most common method
is landfilling, which is the predominant method of waste disposal in Europe and
North America. The problem is production of methane and therefore the necessity of
gas emission controls to prevent potential air pollution.
4.2. Extended Producer Responsibility
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration

of all costs associated with products throughout their life cycle (including end-of-life disposal
costs) into the market price of the product. Extended producer responsibility is meant to
impose accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging introduced to the
market.
This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell products are required to be
responsible for products after their useful life as well as during manufacture.
4.3. Polluter Pays Principle
The Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact
caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the
requirement for a waste generator to pay for the appropriate disposal of waste.
4.4. Integrated Waste Management
The principles of Integrated Waste Management are defined in terms of the integration of
six functional elements (Tchobanoglous, 1993).
4.4.1. Waste Generation

Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer
being of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
This section identifies the sources of solid wastes, provides general information on
quantities, and identifies the potential effect of MSW on daily life and the environment.
Over the past few decades, the generation, recycling and disposal of MSW have changed
substantially. The amount of MSW generated in a country is related to the rate of
urbanisation, the types and patterns of consumption, household revenue and lifestyle.
The quantity of MSW generated in the OECD area has risen since 1980 and exceeded
619 tonnes in 2006 (580kg per capita), (OECD Environmental Indicators).
4.4.2. Waste Characterization, Handling and Separation

Waste handling and separation involves those activities associated with the management
of wastes until they are placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Separation of
waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the
source.
The general purpose of waste characterization is to promote the sound management of
solid waste (Dobson, at al., 2003)
Specially, characterization can determine the following:
• The size, capacity and design of facilities to manage the waste,

• The potential for recycling or composting portions of the waste stream,
• The effectiveness of waste reduction programs, recycling programs and the amount
of other methods of material disposal,
• Potential sources of environmental pollution in the waste (Liu, at al. 1996).
In practice there are one or two fundamentals methods to characterize solid waste in use.
The first – called materials flows technology - is to collect and analyze data on the
manufacture and sale of products that become solid waste after use.
The second method is the direct field study of the waste itself. This second method is
more accurate, but it is dependent on the number of workers available and is relatively
expensive. The results of the study Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic according
to the second methodology is shown in Fig. 1.
There have been significant changes in the composition of household waste over the last
100 years which can be traced back to fundamental social and economic shifts affecting the
way we live our everyday lives, as is traced in the above chronology (Sokka, at al., 2007).
The arising of waste types can be difficult to quantify, and it is only over the last few decades
that there have been any real attempts at estimating the composition of household waste.
The characteristic of MSW in a small town in the CR and its composition are shown in
Fig. 2. and Fig. 3.
Americans generate almost 208 million tons of solid waste each year. By the year 2000,
that number is expected to increase by 20%. Today, each American generates about 1,95 kg
of waste per day. As a country, America generates more garbage than any other country by
far. (EPA, 2008)
6
Tonnes x 106/ year 5
4 MSW total
3 MSW from residental area
MSW household
2
MSW residental activities
1
MSW business
0
2007 2010 2013 2015 2020
Year
Source: Benešová, L., Černík, B., Kotoulová, Z.and Vrbová, M. (2000). Intensification of collection,
transport and sorting of MSW. Technical Report of Research and Development Project of the
Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic 720/2/00, Charles University in Prague,
Faculty of Science (in Czech with English summery)
Figure 1. Production of MSW in the CR, reality and predictions
Photo by L. Benešová
Figure 2. Characteristic MSW in CR.

Benešová, L. (2006). Biodegradable waste, Proceedings of IInd. Conference, Náměšť nad Oslavou, CR,
ZERA –local non governmental organization (in Czech)
Figure 3. The composition of MSW in a small town in the CR ( 2007)
Separation of solid waste is one way to minimize the amount of wastes. All EU
countries separate some portions of solid waste. Basic recyclable materials in the EU
countries are paper, glass, and plastic. In some EU countries biodegradable waste, aluminium,
PET bottles and drinking cartons are also separated. Bulky items are usually placed at a point
of collection. Hazardous wastes as a part of household wastes must be segregated and
collected at special points (e.g. from chemists, various shops and backyards).
Czechs recycle regularly using a system of designated bins located in municipalities across the
country: color-coded for the recycling of plastics, paper, and glass. Drop-off points are easily
accessible, and it’s not uncommon on any given day at almost any hour, to hear smashing glass
being thrown into bins or to hear the crunching of plastic bottles. Statistics recently released by
Eurostat revealed that Czechs are leaders when it comes to plastics: in 2006 they recycled 44
percent of PET beverage bottles and other packaging – which is 3 percent more than traditional
leader Germany. But it’s not all good news. Most are aware that the country still needs to do
much more – and point out while successful in some areas, in others they are clearly lagging
“Any reason for sorting waste is a good one” is a slogan underlining a current TV campaign
promoting recycling in the Czech Republic, and most Czechs would agree recycling is a
necessity.
Source: Official TV campaign in Czech television , 2008.
Character of MSW
Knowledge of the properties of waste, their amount, and physical-chemical composition,
is very important information not only for future handling of waste, but for the prediction of
the behaviour of wastes and their influence on the environment (Chang, 2008)
Waste sampling and analysis is the first step in the determination of the character of
MSW.
Sources of waste from which samples can be selected include individual municipalities,
individual waste collectors, waste generation sectors such a restaurants, family hotels, or
apartment buildings (Li’ao, at al., 2009; Pehlken, 2003).
Every sampling is affected by some variability.
Seasonal variability
The season of the year strongly affects the amount of generated waste and its
composition. But the changes during the week are significant as well.
During the summer and fall months the amount of the biodegradable portion increases.
The results of seasonal variations can be seen in Fig. 4.
Benešová, L., Černík, B. Kotoulová, Z., Hnaťuková, P. and Doležalová, M. (2008). Research of
Character of MSW and Optimization its Using. Technical Report of Research and Development
Project of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic SP/2f1/132/08, CR, Charles
University in Prague, Faculty of Science (in Czech with English summery)
Figure 4. Seasonal variability of the amount of biodegradable waste in MSW in country houses and
central dwelling 2008 (expressed as %)
The variability in content of biodegradable waste for the whole Czech Republic is given
in Table 1.
Table 1. The amount of biodegradable portion in wastes in the CR, 2008
Biodegradable wastes ( %) Central dwelling Country houses

Food waste 22,1 9,7
Wood 0,1 0,4
Textile 5,6 2,0
Paper 21,4 5,5
The physical-chemical parameters change as well, especially according to the area of

collected wastes. The character depends on the type of heating, because individual coal
heating produces more ash in the winter months. In Table 2., the proportion of ash is
expressed as the fraction smaller than 8 mm.
Table 2. Seasonal variations of ash amount in four types of building houses – CR

(expressed as %)
Type of Autumn Winter Spring Summer Average

dwelling/Month and
2000
2008
2000
2008
2000
2008
2000
2008
2000
2008
year
Residential area (C) 2,9 2,3 3,0 3,0 2,9 2,6 1,6 1,2 2,6 2,2
Older district house-
2,9 0,8 3,1 2,1 3,9 2,2 3,0 1,2 3,2 1,6
building (M)
Family houses and
12,2 8,7 24,6 19,3 18,7 12,6 10,3 9,7 16,5 12,6
apartment villas (V)
Country house-
16,5 18,8 39,6 40,9 39,2 30,8 20,6 22,3 29,0 28,2
building (P)
Benešová, L., Černík, B., Kotoulová, Z.and Vrbová, M. (2000). Intensification of collection, transport
and sorting of MSW. Technical Report of Research and Development Project of the Ministry of
the Environment of the Czech Republic 720/2/00, Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science
(in Czech with English summery)
Municipal solid waste processing and disposal systems must take into account the
changes of quantities and composition during the week or year. This data can be very
important e.g. for recycling programs with composting systems, which should expect higher
quantities of biodegradable products in the spring and summer.
Regional Variations
Various countries and various parts of every country produce different types and different
amounts of waste.
Countries with a warm, moist climate during the most of the year will produce more
biodegradable materials like grass and garden waste than countries with a long winter or with
severe frost. On the other hand,”northern“ countries with local heating will produce more ash
and inorganic wastes (Fig. 5. and 6.)
Another example of regional variation is the use of PET bottles for bottled water in post
communist countries after political changes. In the CR, the amount of PET bottle wastes in
the last 10 years has increased more than 25 times. (Benesova, at al., 2000 and 2008), see
Figure 7.
Photo by P. Hnaťuková
Figure 5. MSW material in fraction under 8 mm in “C” dwelling
Figure 6. MSW material in fraction under 8 mm in “P” dwelling

Benešová, L., Černík, B. Kotoulová, Z. and Vrbová, M. (2005). Wastes from municipalities –
environmental and social problem of the future. Technical Report of Research and Development
Project of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech RepublicSL/7/102/05, CR, Charles
Figure 7. The yield of separated PET bottles in the CR.
Household Variations
Studies have found that the number of persons per household can very significantly alter
the waste production (Rhyner, 1976 and Benešová, 2004), see Table 3.
Table 3. Variability in quantities of MSW according to the size of household.
Number of person in household Quantity of MSW (kg/day)

1 1,65
2 1,1
3 0,96
4 0,74
6 0,62
8 0,61
Variations According to GDP and Political Situation

Since the 1980s, household waste increases in the UK have risen from just under 400 kg
per person to over 500 kg per person per year. Such an increase can be attributed to economic
growth, social change, and waste collection methods. The increase in waste has closely
mirrored that of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while the increase in single person
households and increase in wheeled bin household waste collections have exacerbated the
problem. Today in the UK it is estimated that each household throws away over a tonne of
waste annually. In addition, for every tonne of products we buy, ten tonnes of resources are
used to produce them. Around 70% of our household waste has the potential to be either
recycled or composted. Despite the fact that the majority of the general public regards
recycling as worthwhile, and that over 65% of households have access to kerbside collection
recycling schemes, only 14.5% of dustbin contents are recycled or composted.
The results of the Research and Development Project of the Ministry of the Environment
of the Czech Republic „Wastes from municipalities – environmental and social problem of
the future“ (SL/7/102/05) ( Benešová and Černík, 2006) found an interesting correlation
between the political situation, increasing GDP and waste generation rates. After 1990, waste
management in the Czech Republic has gone through fundamental changes in the property
ownership, technologies and economics. Completely newly defined objectives of the
municipal waste management system were defined as liberalised „enterprise opportunities“
contrary to the former „services for the public“. Subsequently, a significant outside factor has
been the successive harmonisation of legal regulations in relation to EU membership by the
CR since 2004. That has brought requirements for technical equipment in the country, as well
as demands on understanding the role of public administration, and that is within the context
of creating communal, regional and national waste management plans. This proceeds under
the terms of a dynamic increase in household and commercial waste generation as a
consequence of improving economic conditions for Czech households and the whole society.
Over the last 15 years, the public and enterprise attitudes toward responsibility for
environmental issues including waste management have undergone quite fundamental
changes.
4.4.3. Projects of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic

All previous and following results based on data from the Research and Development
Project of the Ministry of the Environment of the Czech Republic in the years 2000, 2005 and
2008. This project was based on the new methodology of sampling and analyses of MSW.
This methodology allows decision making based on what kind of handling will be optimal for
wastes and the environment.
Methodology is focused on the following points.
1. The composition of mixed household waste is determined by the method of screening

analysis and manual sorting in a pre-determined set of material groups,
2. In every pursued house-building, three screens of size 40, 20 and 8 mm are used
uniformly,
3. The household waste collected in a pre-determined region which has 1.000 up to
3.000 inhabitants is analysed. The amount of waste collected matches a full haulage
vehicle (4 to 8 t according to the type of vehicle and house-building). The mass and
volume of the waste collected is determined,

4. The average sample of weights 100-200 kg according to the type of house-building
and waste homogeneousity is taken for the screening analysis,
5. The oversize fraction above 40 mm is fully materially analysed. From fractions of
20-40 mm and 8-20 mm a homogenized sample of approximately 20 % mass is
taken, which is materially analysed only after drying (and re-calculated according to
the original sample). The fraction smaller than 8 mm is not materially sorted,
The mass is measured for all groups of grain sizes and materials. The volume is measured
only in material groups of the fractions above 40 mm.
The example of using the methodology

Because the character of MSW is changeable and depends on many aspects, an
observation was done in four types of building-houses. A description of these types is given
in Table 4.
Table 4. Description of four types of building-houses
Residential area with the centralised heat supply systems, without the
C
possibility of any recovery of waste at source in the town above 100.000
(central)
inhabitants.
Mostly older district house-building with various heating systems using
M upgraded fuels (gas, oil), or electricity if appropriate, central heating systems
(mixed, sundry) by means of housing and block boiler-rooms as well as individual (local)
heating systems using solid fuels in the town above 20.000-30.000 inhabitants.
District house-building of family houses and apartment villas with local heating
systems by means of as well solid as upgraded fuels, and with most part of the
V
incineration of combustible components and composting in the town with
(villa-houses)
20.000 - 50.000 inhabitants.
P
Suburban and country house-building with the heating systems mostly by
(provincial,
means of solid fuels, and with the possibility to incinerate, treat by composting
suburban,
and feed a great deal of the waste.
country)
Following Table 5. shows a list of the analysed material groups:
Table 5. List of the analysed material groups in the following 3 steps
1st sorting stage 2nd sorting stage 3rd sorting stage

Paper/cardboard/carton Paper packaging Carton/cardboard
Combined packaging
Other packaging
Prints Newspaper/journals, Periodical
Books
Other prints
Other paper
Plastics*) Plastic packaging Films
PET bottles
Other packaging
Other plastics
Table 5 (Continued)
Glass Non-returnable glass packaging Clear glass

Brown glass
Returnable glass packaging Green glass
Other glass
Metals Metal packaging Fe - metals
Al - metals
Others
Organics Kitchen waste
Garden waste
Textile
Mineral waste
Hazardous waste
Combustible waste Leather/rubber/cork/wood
Sanitary products
Fine waste Residue 20-40 mm
Residue 8-20 mm
Fraction smaller than 8 mm
*) Material sorting: PET, PVC, PE, PP, PS and others
This monitoring was carried out regularly once a month in every house-building for three
years during the time period of 2000 – 2009.
Laboratory analysis of the sorted MSW included both physical and chemical indicators. For
all the fractions the physical indicators are continuously determined as follows:
• humidity (gravimetricaly partly at 65 °C and partly 105 °C)

• combustible substance (gravimetricaly in a furnace at a temperature of 550 °C)
• heat of combustion (total heating value)
• humidity of particular commodities – paper, textile and biowaste - is determined
independently
For the fraction under 8 mm and 20-8 mm the chemical indicators are also determined as
follows:
• total chlorides, total nitrogen, total fluorides, total sulphur

• selected heavy metals – As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Zn, Mn, Ti and Pb. (after
microwave decomposition by aqua regia, detected by AAS method)
selected organic matters (PCB, PAH, …)
Following Table 6. is an example of data treatment of the field analysis in 2008 in a

central dwelling:
Table 6. The data treatment of the field analysis in 2008 in a central dwelling
General information
Number of sample 11200801 Weight of MSW (kg) 6370
Analyses date 6.11. 2008 Volume of MSW (m3) 25,2
Locality Labska kotlina Volume weight (kg/m3) 252,778
Type of dwelling housing estate Weight of sample (kg) 238,420
Name of worker Kotoulova Cartage period once a week

Volume of MSW (m3) 1,6450
Weight Volume % of Volume weight
Fraction Material group Material subgroup % of total
(kg) (m3) total (kg/m3)
In total 20,550 8,62% 0,2050 12,46% 100,244
Paper packaging 8,750 3,67% 0,1100 0,07 79,545
Cardboard 2,400 1,01% 0,0300 0,02 80,000
Composite packaging 2,450 1,03% 0,0400 0,02 61,250
Paper/ Other packaging 3,900 1,64% 0,0400 0,02 97,500
Cardboard Printed material 6,650 2,79% 0,0500 0,03 133,000
Newspaper and journals 3,350 1,41% 0,0300 0,02 111,667
Books 0,000 0,00% 0,0000 0,00 –
Leaflets 3,300 1,38% 0,0200 0,01 165,000
Other paper 5,150 2,16% 0,0450 0,03 114,444
In total 26,600 11,16% 0,8600 52,28% 30,930
Plastic packaging 24,200 10,15% 0,8100 49,24% 29,877
PET bottles pure 1,650 0,69% 0,0800 4,86% 20,625
PET bottles coloured 2,250 0,94% 0,0800 4,86% 28,125
Plastic
Foil packaging 5,650 2,37% 0,1700 10,33% 33,235
Foil non packaging 7,800 3,27% 0,2400 14,59% 32,500
Other packaging 6,850 2,87% 0,2400 14,59% 28,542
Other plastic 2,400 1,01% 0,0500 3,04% 48,000
In total 15,750 6,61% 0,0400 2,43% 393,750
Glass packaging non reversible 12,750 5,35% 0,0350 2,13% 364,286
>40 mm pure 9,350 3,92% 0,0300 1,82% 311,667
Glass green 2,900 1,22% 0,0040 0,24% 725,000
brown 0,500 0,21% 0,0010 0,06% 500,000
Glass packaging reversible 1,900 0,80% 0,0040 0,24% 475,000
Other glass 1,100 0,46% 0,0010 0,06% 1 100,000
In total 5,450 2,29% 0,0200 1,22% 272,500
Metallic packaging 2,450 1,03% 0,0150 0,91% 163,333
Metals Fe 2,050 0,86% 0,0100 0,61% 205,000
Al 0,400 0,17% 0,0050 0,30% 80,000
Other metals 3,000 1,26% 0,0050 0,30% 600,000
In total 34,900 14,64% 0,0900 5,47% 387,778
>40 mm Biowaste household 28,500 11,95% 0,0800 4,86% 356,250
garden 6,400 2,68% 0,0100 0,61% 640,000
In total 26,100 10,95% 0,1200 7,29% 217,500
Textile natural 8,050 3,38% 0,0210 1,28% 383,333
mixture 18,050 7,57% 0,0990 6,02% 182,323
Mineral waste In total 8,250 3,46% 0,0080 0,49% 1 031,250
Hazardous
In total 3,300 1,38% 0,0080 0,49% 412,500
waste
In total 54,800 22,98% 0,1600 9,73% 342,500
Combustible
sanitary goods 43,800 18,37% 0,1300 7,90% 336,923
waste
other 11,000 4,61% 0,0300 1,82% 366,667
Electro waste In total 4,550 1,91% 0,0070 0,43% 650,000
In total 200,250 83,99% 1,5180 92,28% 131,917
% of Volume weight
Fraction Material group Weight (kg) % of total Volume (m3)
total (kg/m3)
Plastic 0,400 0,17% 0,0020 0,12% 200,000
Glass 0,400 0,17% 0,0050 0,30% 80,000
Metals 0,200 0,08% 0,0250 1,52% 8,000
20-40 mm Mineral waste 0,050 0,02% 0,0000 0,00% –
Hazardous
0,100 0,04% 0,0000 0,00% –
waste
Rest 18,850 7,91% 0,0500 3,04% 377,000
In total 20,000 8,39% 0,0820 4,98% 243,902
% of Volume weight
Fraction Material group Weight (kg) % of total Volume (m3)
total (kg/m3)
Table 6 (Continued)
Plastic 0,050 0,02% 0,0000 0,00% –
8-20 mm
Glass 0,010 0,00% 0,0000 0,00% –
Metals 0,050 0,02% 0,0000 0,00% –
Mineral waste 0,000 0,00% 0,0000 0,00% –
Hazardous
0,010 0,00% 0,0000 0,00% –
waste
Rest 11,300 4,74% 0,0300 1,82% 376,667
In total 11,420 4,79% 0,0300 1,82% 380,667
% of Volume weight
Fraction < 8 mm Weight (kg) % of total Volume (m3)
total (kg/m3)
In total 6,750 2,83% 0,0150 0,91% 450,000
% of Volume weight
Sample in total Weight (kg) % of total Volume (m3)
total (kg/m3)
In total 238,420 100,00% 1,6450 100,00% 144,936
Methodology of analysis of MSW in CR is documented in Fig. 8. – 11.
Figure 8. Screens of size 40x40 and 20x20 mm - screening analyses of MSW

Figure 9. Screen 8x8 mm - screening analyses of MSW
Figure 10. Oversize fraction of MSW above 40 mm is fully materially analysedure

Figure 11. Fraction over the 20 mm of MSW
Figure 12.
Part of the research was a physical- chemical analysis. Some results are presented in the
following Figures 12. - 15.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 12.-15. Content of Heavy Metals in P and C dwelling in two fractions in MSW in CR
Figure 16. Content of Specific Organic Compounds in P and C dwelling in two fractions in MSW in
CR.
Common Components in MSW
1. Paper and Paper Products

Paper and paper products are generally the largest components of MSW. The proportion
of this commodity in European countries ranges between 10 and 45 % by weight, the OECD
average is 15 %, in the USA 37 %, and Australian production is 26% (Davis, 2005).
In the CR, paper is the second most frequent commodity in MSW (Vrbova, 2006). The
proportions of various forms of paper waste resulting from analyses in spring 2009 are shown
in Fig. 17. – 23. (fraction above 40 mm)
Figure 17. Paper (mixed)
Figure 18. Carton / Cardboard

Figure 19. Composite packaging
Figure 20. Other packaging
Figure 21. Newspaper and journals

Figure 22. Advertising
Photos by P. Hnaťuková
Figure 23. Other paper
2. Glass
Glass occurs in MSW in the form of bottles, jars, various appliances and electronics. The
proportions of various forms of glass waste resulting from analyses in spring 2009 are shown
in Fig. 24.-27. (fraction above 40 mm)
Figure 24. Glass (mixed)
Figure 25. Glass pure
Figure 26. Glass brown

Figure 27. Glass green
3. Plastics
The largest group of wastes in many countries are plastics. They are used as packaging
and in various goods and appliances. The proportions of various forms of plastic waste
resulting from analyses in spring 2009 are shown in Fig. 28.-34. (fraction above 40 mm)
Figure 28. Plastics (mixed)
Figure 29. PET bottles pure

Figure 30. PET bottles coloured
Figure 31. Foil packaging
Figure 32. Foil non packaging

Figure 33. Other packaging
Figure 34. Other plastics
4. Metal, Biowastes and Textiles

Metals are divided into ferrous a non-ferrous materials. Among the non-ferrous materials
are mainly aluminium used as beverage containers, and other packaging.
Biowastes include all putrescible material, especially food and yard waste.
Textiles in MSW occur in the form of clothing and other goods. Some photos are
presented in the Fig. 35.-37.
Fig. 35. Metals from MSW- results of the survey in 2009, the CR, fraction > 40 mm
Figure 36. Biowastes from MSW- results of the survey in 2009, the CR, fraction > 40 mm
Figure 37. Textiles from MSW- results of the survey in 2009, the CR, fraction > 40 mm
5. Hazardous Waste
Most hazardous materials in household waste occur either as heavy metals, organic
compounds or asbestos Weigand (2005). Common household hazardous waste are various
types of batteries (containing heavy metals), household cleaning products (organic
compounds), paints (organic compounds), products for plant care (containing various
herbicides), paint strippers and removers (organic compounds), asbestos-containing material
and used motor oil (Williams, 1998)
4.4.4. Collection
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials processing facility, a
transfer station or a landfill disposal site.
According the style of collection the system can be divided into 5 types. Every type has
some advantages and some disadvantages.
• Kerbside system - characterized by containers, dustbins or sacks beside every house

or residence (Fig.38). Collection crews empty containers into waste collection
vehicles and returns the containers to their storage location. The advantage of these
systems is relatively low price, regular collection according to a schedule and a
specific storage locality. Disadvantages include the necessity of a schedule, problems
with collecting crews, hygienic problems on collecting days - dust, noise, smell .
Containers used in the CR include traditional metal or plastic dustbins, wheeled bins
or sacks. Collection frequencies range from daily empting from each collection point
(Paris) to three to one time per week in other cities. Once per week collection is a
minimum for all cities.
Figure 38. Typical dustbins used in rural areas in the CR

• Setback collection - containers are placed in special places according to a scheduled

collecting time, normally once or twice in a month. The schedule is given by the
local municipality and announced on a public board or other messaging system. A
special crew transports the containers and empty them in a storage location. In the
CR, as is typical for other locations, this type of collecting is mostly used for bulky
wastes (Fig. 39. – 40.).
Advantages are the big volume of the containers, containers are only present on a given
date in the street, and the special crew works very quickly and are responsible for cleaning of
locality.
Figure 39. Collection of bulky wastes – Czech Republic 2009
Figure 40. Collection of bulky wastes – Czech Republic 2009

• Backyard collection – in this method there is a special locality – given by the

municipality- in which wastes are transported by residents and then sorted into
special containers. In this method, wastes are deposited into containers and then
transported by truck or cars to a processing facility. Advantages are daily operation,
containers (Fig. 41) not present in the street, and wastes are sorted and not polluted.
Disadvantages include that the method is time-consuming for the residents, is
relatively expensive, and needs good organization in backyards with a semi-skilled
crew (Fig. 42).
Figure 41. Example of backyard in Prague, CR
Figure 42. Example of backyard in Prague, CR

• Drop-off collection at a special collection point – residents transport the waste to a

specified point, which can be a transfer station, shops, a petrol pump, etc. This type
of collection is also suitable for hazardous wastes, e.g. medical products, pesticides,
batteries, fluorescent lamp tubes etc. The advantages of the system are low price,
small crew, and purity of the waste. Disadvantages include the necessity to transport
waste by residents and the risk of illegal dumping if collection points are too far or
not clearly described. In the CR, this type of collection is used for medicine, which
are transported to chemists, and batteries, which are taken to various shops.
• Sorted waste collection - characterized by coloured containers placed in specially
designated areas not far from residential houses. The residents transfer the sorted
waste (in the CR paper, glass, plastic, and drinking cartons) to the various coloured
containers. The distance can not be greater than 200 m from the residence. The
advantages of this system are in the purity of wastes (material can be reused or
recycled), and relatively low price (in the CR the system is supported by EKOKOM-
authorized society for packing). Disadvantages are similar as in a kerbside system.
“Any reason for sorting waste is a good one” is a slogan underlining a current TV campaign
promoting recycling in the Czech Republic, and most Czechs would agree recycling is a
necessity. By and large, Czechs are conscientious recyclers, with around 70 percent regularly
recycling plastics, paper, glass and other materials. In fact, statistics recently released by
Eurostat revealed that Czechs are leaders when it comes to plastics: in 2006 they recycled 44 %
of PET beverage bottles and other packaging – which is 3 % more than traditional leader
Germany. But ITL not all good news. Most are aware that the country still needs to do much
more – and point out while successful in some areas, in other they are clearly lagging.
Source: Official TV campaign in Czech television , 2008.
Figure 43. Containers for the sorted wastes in the CR (blue – paper, green a white - glass, yellow –
plastics).
Waste collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions (Fig. 43.
and 44.). Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government
authorities, or by private industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries,
do not have a formal waste-collection system.
Photo by L.. Benešová
Figure 44. Containers for sorted waste in Australia – Perth. Every urban domestic household is
provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden
materials - this bin is provided by the municipality if requested. Also, many households have compost
bins.
Some examples of waste collection methods:
• In European countries, kerbside collection of wastes is the most common system

throughout the countries. In the CR, 99,6 % of residential areas are covered by this
system. In some more wealthy countries, a few communities use a proprietary
collection system known as Envac , which conveys refuse via underground conduits
using a vacuum system. A similar method is also in use in Canada.
• In Australia, kerbside collection is the main method of disposal of waste. Household
waste is segregated: recyclables sorted and made into new products, and general
waste is dumped in landfill areas. According to the ABS, the recycling rate is high
and is increasing, with 99% of households reporting that they had recycled or reused
some of their waste within the past year, up from 85% in 1992.
• In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume
of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if the waste
is disposed in government-issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced
the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.
Collection Equipment
Collecting equipment is usually divided between municipalities a private society.

Generally used equipment includes collecting vehicles, trucks, and trucks with special
equipment on board (computers for monitoring truck performance and collection operations).
\examples of various collection equipment are shown in Fig. 45. and 46.
Photo by L.. Benešová
Figure 45. Waste collection equipment in Prague 2005
Figure 46. Waste collection equipment – Lyon (France), exhibition Pollutec 2008
4.4.5. Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Wastes

The types of means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials
that have been separated at the source include kerbside collection, and drop-off and buy-back
centers. The separation and processing of wastes that have been separated at the source and
the separation of commingled wastes usually occur at a materials recovery facility, transfer
stations, combustion facilities and disposal sites.
The main processes in the transformation of solid wastes are reuse and recycling.
Because of non-uniform terminology, it is necessary to define some terms.
First of all, it is important to clarify the difference between reuse and recycle, which are
terms that are often misused.
Reuse – in our language, this means using an item again for its original purpose. The
most common example is the returnable drink bottle (in the CR these include beer, milk and
some mineral water bottles).
Recycling – is used for processed material, i.e. paper is processed to make recycled
paper, cardboard or newspaper; plastic is shredded and processed into new products such as
car steering wheels and clothing insulation filling; sorted glass is processed into new glass,
etc.
The recycling mechanism has a universal symbol
One arrow in the symbol indicates source separation (removal of materials from the
waste stream), the second arrow symbolizes processing of the material, and the third
represents the consumer.
Source separation is the removal of potentially recyclable material from the waste
stream.
Residual waste is waste after the separation of recyclable materials.
Reuse involves using a product more than once or reusing it in other applications. The
reuse of beverage bottles was very common until the 1980s (Wiliams, 1998). This scheme
was widely used and cost effective, since collecting, washing and transporting returned
bottles was more economic than manufacturing new ones. After the introduction of new
materials, the reuse system of bottles declined. Some schemes have still survived, such as
traditional beer or milk bottles.
Recycling processes have been known for a very long time, since we first realized that
composting is a process which uses biodegradable waste and changes it into fertilizer. But in
recent years, recycling efforts have focused on efforts to reduce the amount of wastes and
especially to reduce the waste loads to local landfills.
Recycling of MSW
Recyclable components include paper, plastics, glass metals and putrescible materials.
But, in some cases it is not possible to recycle some of the waste due to contamination.
Approximately 40% of household waste is potentially recyclable after discounting the
contamination of materials;
In some follow figures there are machines, which helps to sort a recycle waste . See Fig.
47. and 48.
Figure 47. Machine for sorting colour and white glass (Exhibitipon Pollutec,Lyon 2008)
Figure 48. Machine for liquid removal and pressing of PET and other packaging (Exhibition Pollutec,
Lyon 2008)
4.4.6. Transfer and Transport

This element involves two steps:
• the transfer of wastes from a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport equipment,
• the subsequent transport of wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing or
disposal site.
Special transport facilities are used for transportation of waste, especially over long
distances. The collection, temporary storage and transportation are controlled by regulations,
and every county has its own special regulations.
I.E. according regulations 61-107.5 of Bureau of land and waste Management - Columbia :
− all vehicles used to collect MSW shall be constructed and maintained so as to prevent
dropping, sifting or blowing or other escapement of solid waste from vehicle.
− precautions shall be taken to prevent spillage, or leakage during transport from all
vehicles used to collect and or transport MSW that produce leachate.
− all vehicles used to collect and or transport putrescible MSW shall be emptied on a daily
basis , unless the exemption is requested and approved by the Department.
− Collection and transportation vehicles or other devices used in transporting putrescible
MSW shall be cleaned and maintained as often as necessary to prevent odors, insects,
rodents or other nuisance conditions.
From Regulations 61-107.5 SWM : Collection, temporary storage and transportation of Municipal
Solid Waste, of Bureau of Land and waste Management division of Mining and Solid Waste
Management - Columbia, May 1993
The transport of hazardous waste transport was treated as part of the Basel Convention.
This Convention was opened for signatures on 22 March 1989, and entered into force on 5
May 1992. A list of parties to the Convention, and their ratification status, can be found on
the Basel Secretariat's. Of the 172 parties to the Convention, Afghanistan, Haiti, and the
United States have signed the Convention but have not yet ratified it.
4.4.7. Disposal
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

and Their Disposal is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of
hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from
developed to less developed countries (LDCs). It does not, however, address the movement of
radioactive waste. The Convention is also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes
generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source
of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and
other wastes they generate.
Source: www.Wikipedia.org.
Today, the disposal of wastes by landfilling or landspreading is the ultimate fate of all
solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a
landfill site, residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the
combustion of solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste processing
facilities. A modern sanitary land is not a dump; rather, it is an engineered facility used for
disposing of solid wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or
safety, such as the breeding of rats and insects or the contamination of ground water.
The basic methods for disposal of MSW are:
• landfilling
• incineration
• composting
4.4.6.1. Landfilling
Landfill is the oldest method for the disposal of wastes and is still currently the most
widely used technology for getting rid of MSW.
About 120 million tonnes of controlled waste per year are landfilled in the UK, which
includes 90% of household waste. In Italy the proportion of landfilling waste is 54%
(Newman, 2005)
In the CR, about 3 million tonnes of MSW per year are landfilled, which is 65 % of the
total MSW production per year. See Table 7.
Table 7. Disposal of MSW in the Czech Republic (t)
Manner of use 2003 2004

Landfilling 2 924 458 2 997 185
Treatment by soil processes 18 117 4 074
Deep injection - 872
Deposition in the special technically
414 6
controlled landfills
Biological treatment 132 163 142 337
Physical-chemical treatment 8 835 6 577
Combustion 222 928 214 388
Final or permanent depositing 212 227
From Statistical Environmental Yearbook of the Czech Republic
4.4.6.2. Incineration
Incineration is the second major option for waste treatment and disposal in many
countries in the world. In some countries such as Japan, Switzerland, Belgium and Sweden,
incineration of MSW accounts for over 50% of the waste disposal.
Incineration of waste has a number advantage over the landfilling:
• the waste is reduced into biologically sterile ash product. For MSW reductions result
in one tenth of the pre-burnt volume and one third of the pre-burnt weight.
• Incinerations do not produce methane
• Incinerators can be used as a source of energy to produce steam for electric power
generation, heat or hot water for district heating, and thereby conserves valuable
primary resources.
• Of course incineration has also some disadvantages.
• Generally the capital investment is very high,

• In some facilities there is a lack of flexibility in the choice of waste
• Every incinerator produces emissions which can have negative effects on human
health
• Every incinerator produces a solid waste residue which requires management.
4.4.6.3. Composting
Composting is one of the oldest methods of recycling organic materials, and removes a
large portion of the biodegradable waste from the waste stream.
In general, there is a relatively rapid aerobic biological degradation of organic waste, a
process taking about 4 -6 weeks. The result of this biodegradation process is a stabilized
product. Small scale composting has been practised for many years at the individual
household level.
One problem with composts is the purity. All composting in the CR are controlled
according to the Czech technical standard (ČSN). The limit concentrations of some hazardous
items according the ČSN 46 5735 – Industrial compost are given in Table 8.
Table 8. The limit concentrations of heavy metals in compost according to SN 465735
The limit concentrations of heavy metals in mg/kg

Heavy metals Dried sample of compost
Dried raw material
I. class II. class
As 10 20 50
Cd 2 4 13
Cr 100 300 1000
Cu 100 400 1200
Hg 1 1,5 10
Mo 5 20 25
Ni 50 70 200
Pb 100 300 500
Zn 300 600 3000
Green waste includes garden trimmings, leaves, shrubs, plants, grass, street trees, and
tree trunks, park trees or twigs etc. that arise from households, maintenance of public parks
and garden, and commercial premises.
If the quality of compost is suitable, it can be used as a fertilizer. Quality compost is
stabilized, and adds materials that improve the soil nutrient content and structure (especially
for clay soil), and helps soils to retain moisture.
Bulky waste or bulky refuse is a technical term describing waste types that are too large
to be accepted by regular waste collection. In many countries, it is usually picked up regularly
from the streets or designated areas. This service is provided free of charge in many places,
but often a fee has to be paid.
Bulky waste items include discarded furniture (couches, recliners, tables), large
appliances (refrigerators, ovens, televisions), and white goods (bathtubs, toilets, sinks).
Branches, brush, logs and other green waste are also categorized as bulky waste, although
they may be collected separately for shredding and/or composting.
In the CR, inhabitants may deposit bulky waste into Large Capacity Containers (LCC) with
minimum volume 9m3.
The Prague City Hall reimburses for the installation of 8, 764 such containers per year. LCCs are
allocated to the City Districts depending on their respective populations, and every City district
has at least 24 LCCs at its disposal. Some City District Authorities place additional LCCs at their
expense and decision.
Inhabitants may also deposit bulky waste at the yards operated by the Prague City Hall.
From Prague Environment 2006 Prague City Hall
Grapple trucks, also known as knuckleboom loaders, are often used to collect bulky
waste. In the EU, refuse collection vehicles (RCVs) or crushers are being increasingly phased
out as more bulky waste is diverted for re-use and recycling.
5. LCA METHODOLOGY
Evaluation of environmental impacts of MSW represents a very komplex multiparametric
and multicriteron problem. The evaluation methods and models should be preferably based on
the following characteristics and essential qualities:
• complexity - the method should cover the most important environmental criteria,
• time dependency - the method should consider the whole life cycle (ISO 14040),
• probability - the evaluation method should respect the probability feature of the time
dependent problem.
In CR has carried out studies using metodology under the LCA standard EN ISO 14040-
43 on the basis of terrain collection if primary data in the whole CR. Several municipal waste
treatment methods were subject to this assassement Benešová, 2004):
• separate collection and recyclingat a paper mill glasswork and a mixed plastic
treatment facility
• collection and energy recovery ( at incinerator in Pratur, Brno and Liberec)
• collection and landfilling
Environmetal inpacts were assessed through the use of cumulated values. One of the
interesting topic researched was, what changes would come in 2010 in comparison with
2004?
A deterioration in MSW management impact on the environmnt is awaited, particularly
in the are of water management ( consumption, of tester water) emissions of CO, aromatic
hydrcarbons and CO2eq.
Generally, LCA metod is a tool for investigating such waste management problems of the
future.
6. CONCLUSION
A framework for classifying municipal solid waste , its composition, components and
basic disposal processes has been presented. There were described waste generation and
handling which involves the activities associated with management of waste until they are
placed in storage container for collection.
Great deal of the chapter is payied to separation of waste components which is an
important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source.
Collection and disposal is another important step because the functional element of
collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and recyclable materials, but also the
transport of these materials, after collection, to the location where the collection vehicle is
emptied. This location may be a material processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill
disposal site.
Disposal by landfilling or landspreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether
they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site, residual
materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of solid
waste, compost or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A modern
sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid wastes
on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the breeding
of rats and insects and the contamination of ground water.
Apart from process relating paramters include soci-economic long term trends often play
a key role in the assessement of handling and disposal of wastes.
Because of heterogenity of minicipal solid waste reuse, recycling, incinertion and
lanfilling all have their place in modern waste management. The only problem is to determine
their respective optimal ratio.
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Chapter 3
WASTE BIOMASS SUPPLY CHAINS FOR

ENERGY PRODUCTION: A HIERARCHICAL
DECISION-MAKING FRAMEWORK
E. Iakov*, D, Vlachos and A. Toka
ABSTRACT
The development of renewable energy sources has clearly emerged as a meaningful
intervention for enhancing the fragile global energy system with its limited fossil fuel
resources as well as for reducing the numerous related environmental problems. In this
framework, biomass utilization has proven to be a viable alternative for energy
production even though its usage is still at its infancy on a global scale. Thus, a number
of critical issues for all the involved stakeholders, such as potential investors, involved
regulators and decision-makers, need to be addressed systemically.
One of the first challenges that hinders the increased biomass utilization for energy
production is the cost of its respective logistics operations. What differentiates biomass
supply chains from traditional supply chains is the importance of factors such as biomass
product quality as this is dictated by the relevant energy production technology, weather
related variability, localized agricultural capacity and seasonality, and stochasticity of
demand. In this chapter, we present a novel methodological framework for the design and
evaluation of sustainable waste biomass supply chains, taking into account the collection,
storage, and transport operations for supplying facilities with organic raw materials for
energy production.
First, the potential of waste biomass for energy production is presented, as well as
the relevant regulatory incentives, the constraints and the critical issues that have to be
tackled. Moreover, the generic system components of Biomass Supply Chains (BSCs) are
described in conjunction with their relevant key variables and unique characteristics.
Following that, we recognize the natural hierarchy of the decision-making process and
propose an integrated methodological framework that spans all levels of the hierarchy.
We then map the existing research efforts within the proposed framework in order to
* Laboratory of Quantitative Analysis, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, eiakovou@auth.gr
82 E. Iakov, D, Vlachos and A. Toka
identify gaps and overlaps. We proceed with a taxonomy of the current state of the art
research, based on the relevant modeling techniques in order to identify the limitations of
the existing modeling efforts. We wrap-up by discussing our conclusions in the last
section.
INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy sources (RES) play a pivotal role in the current global strategies for
the attainment of a plethora of objectives such as reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, the
partial replenishment of fossil fuels, the independence from external energy supply and the
compliance with the obligations as dictated by the International Conference of Kyoto (United
Nations, 1998). Reserves of fossil fuels, such as oil, gas and coal are the main sources of
energy spread over a small number of countries, thus forming a fragile energy supply that is
expected to reach its limit within the foreseeable future. Moreover, their usage leads to the
degradation of the environment via atmospheric pollution, acidification and the emission of
greenhouse gases (Richardson and Verwijst, 2007). According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), the side-effects of climate change on human health are enormous and
are expected to grow even more by 2020 (Asif and Muneer, 2007).
Biomass includes vegetation and trees, energy crops, as well as biosolids, animal, forestry
and agricultural residues, the organic fraction of municipal wastes and certain types of
industrial wastes. It emerges as a promising option, mainly due to its potential worldwide
availability, its conversion efficiency and its ability to be produced and consumed on a CO2-
neutral basis. Biomass is a versatile energy source, generating not only electricity but also
heat, while it can be further used to produce biofuels (Veringa, 2006). Moreover, the
production of second-generation biofuels obtained by waste biomass is promoted by
governments in the context of an overall effort to avoid the direct and side effects that stem
from the energetic utilization of energy crops, as well as to support effectively waste
management policies. Waste-to-energy plants offer both environmentally safe waste
management and disposal, and generation of clean electric power. Thus, maximizing the
value of waste biomass and organic substrates for energy production is of an ever increasing
priority.
One of the most critical bottlenecks in increased biomass utilization for energy
production is the cost of its respective logistics operations. The rising demand for biomass
and the increasing complexity of the often multi-level involved supply systems outline the
need for comprehensive biomass supply chain management (SCM) approaches. The
requirements with respect to biomass supply in terms of quality and quantity can differ
substantially, depending on the energy demand trends, the energy production technology, the
end use of the power generated and, the cost-efficiency and feasibility of its logistics
operations. Additionally, various parameters can limit the effectiveness of biomass production
systems including localized agricultural capacities and seasonality. To this end, SCM bears
the challenge to develop optimal policies adapted to uncertain parameters and subject to
additional local and inter-regional conditions and constraints, such as the existing
infrastructure, geographical allocation of collection areas, the running regulatory and techno-
economic environment, and the competition among several consumers.
Waste Biomass Supply Chains for Energy Production 83
As energy production from biomass and organic substrates is still at its infancy on a
global scale, a number of issues critical for all involved stakeholders, such as potential
investors, involved regulators and decision-makers need to be addressed. Such critical
questions that need to be answered are listed below:
• Which are the incentives for investing on waste-to-energy systems?

• Does the current regulatory environment support biomass energy production? Are
there additional regulatory incentives for employing waste-to-energy systems?
• Which types of biomass could be profitably utilized for a specific region, and why
should waste biomass be preferred as feedstock for producing energy instead of
energy crops?
• Currently, is there an adequate amount of biomass resources available currently
worldwide? What is expected to happen in the long-run?
• Which are the unique characteristics of biomass supply chains that differentiate them
from conventional networks?
• How should waste biomass supply chain networks be designed?
• Which are the state-of-the-art supply chain management practices that a potential
energy producer should adopt?
• Which network configuration would be efficient enough at the present time but also
robust and flexible enough to adapt to inevitable changes in the long run?
• Which kind of policies are required to achieve bio-energy systems’ sustainability?
In this chapter, we propose a new methodological approach for the design and evaluation
of sustainable waste biomass supply chains, taking into account the collection, storage, and
transport operations for supplying facilities with organic raw materials for energy production.
More specifically, in Section 2 we first discuss the potential of waste biomass for energy
production and then present the relevant incentives, the constraints and the critical issues that
have to be tackled. In Section 3, the generic system components of Biomass Supply Chains
(BSCs) are described along with the relevant key variables and their unique characteristics.
We focus on systems that exploit various types of biomass from different sources and on the
environmental impact of biomass logistics networks. In Section 4, following the natural
hierarchy of the decision-making process, we propose an integrated decision-making
framework and then classify accordingly the existing research. Subsequently, advanced
modeling techniques for biomass supply chains are presented in Section 5 and a taxonomy of
the existing modeling efforts is provided. Through this analysis of the current state of the
research, we identify specific gaps that need to be addressed in the future. Finally, we sum up
with the Conclusion Section.
THE PROBLEM UNDER STUDY

The Potential of Waste-to-Energy Policies
In order to understand the future role of energy production from waste biomass on a
global level, it is important to investigate the drivers for its utilization against competitive
options for substrate resources for energy production, such as energy crops. Biomass in
general is considered to be a promising option for substituting fossil fuels for energy
production mainly due to its potential worldwide availability, its conversion efficiency and its
ability to be produced and consumed on a CO2-neutral basis. According to the European
Union’s Action Plan for Biomass (European Commission, 2005), an increase in biomass use
could bring many benefits, as the diversification of Europe’s energy supply, the direct
employment for thousands of people mostly in rural areas and the potential pressure on oil
price.
However, despite the attention that the production of biofuels from energy crops (also
referred as first generation biofuels) has attracted, a number of issues have emerged
questioning the feasibility of this policy. According to a report published by OECD and the
United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (OECD/FAO, 2007), the increased
demand for biofuels is causing fundamental changes to agricultural markets that drive up
world prices for many farm products. The vast majority of first-generation biofuel feedstocks,
especially in the case of bioethanol, are eatable products, which has led to concerns that
biomass previously destinated for human consumption is diverted to fuel production. An
additional concern relates to the inefficiency of first-generation biofuels, as a large amount of
energy is expended on cultivating, harvesting and processing the biomass, while only a
relatively small portion is used for energy production (van der Laak et al., 2007). Moreover,
according to Bomb et al. (2007) crops used for first-generation biofuels’ production have
lower energy content than conventional petroleum products, which implies that a larger
volume of biofuels is consumed for the same amount of energy produced. According to a
recent directive of the European Commission (EC), the EC shall monitor the origin of
biofuels and bioliquids consumed within the EU, the impact of their production, the
commodity price changes associated with the use of biomass for energy and any associated
positive and negative effects on food security (European Parliament and Council, 2009a).
On the other side, second-generation biofuels obtained by waste biomass are not plagued
by these problems, while at the same time they could support effectively waste management
policies. Second-generation biofuels are obtained from feedstocks not traditionally used for
human consumption. As a result, there is much less concern about their use leading to famine
in developing countries, or adversely affecting consumer prices in the developed nations.
Aside from reducing the threat of food supplies being diverted to fuel production, second-
generation biofuels are argued to be more environmentally friendly than first-generation
biofuels (Deurwaarder, 2005). In addition, the choice of feedstock is wide, including non-
food parts of current crops, such as stems, leaves and husks that are left behind once the food
crop has been extracted, as well as other crops that are not used for food purposes, such as
switchgrass (a spreading perennial grass usually found in North America) or cereals that bear
little grain, and industry waste including among others wood chips, skins and pulp from fruit
pressing (Inderwildi and King, 2009).
Charles et al. (2007) argue that policy decisions that redirect traditional food crops to
bioethanol or biodiesel will have limited benefit in the long run and argue that a more
fundamental reorientation of agriculture is preferable in order to achieve greater production of
second-generation biofuels. Large quantities of agricultural residues are produced annually
worldwide and are vastly underutilised. According to current farming practice these residues
are most of the times burnt, left to decompose, or grazed by cattle, while they can be collected
and effectively utilized for energy production (Sims, 2002).
From a policy-maker perspective, Kaya et al. (2008) discuss the benefits that stem from
the use of agricultural waste for energy production and specifically: (i) lower CO2 emissions
to the environment; (ii) reduced energy cost to the user, providing additional competitiveness
for industrial and commercial users; (iii) large fuel cost savings; (iv) an opportunity to move
towards more decentralized forms of electricity generation, where a plant is designed to meet
the needs of local customers, avoiding transmission losses and increasing flexibility in system
use; (v) improved local and general security of energy supply; (vi) an opportunity to increase
the diversity of power generation plants and provide competition in generation; (vii) increased
employment, especially in rural and farming communities, and (viii) economic development
and growth in the agricultural sector. According to Porter and Reinhardt (2007), in addition to
understanding its emissions related costs, every firm needs to systemically evaluate its
vulnerability to climate-related risks. The authors suggest that business leaders need to
approach global warming as any other strategic threat or opportunity, and not just as a
philanthropic-individualized corporate social responsibility issue.
Taking all the above into consideration, maximizing value of waste biomass and organic
substrates for energy production emerges as an ever increasing priority. Many past and recent
research efforts document the (existing and potential) role of biomass in the future global
energy supply. Theoretically, the total bio-energy contribution (combined in descending order
of theoretical potential by agricultural, forest, animal residues and organic wastes) could be as
high as 1100 EJ, exceeding the current global energy use of 410 EJ (Hoogwijk et al., 2003).
Yamamoto et al. (2001) document using quantitative estimates that there will be a large
bioenergy potential for biomass residues, such as cereal-harvesting residues, animal dung,
roundwood felling residues, and timber scrap (277 EJ/yr in year 2100 on global level).
Parikka (2004) suggests that covering the future demand for renewable energy by increasing
the utilization of forest residues and residues from the wood-processing industry is a
promising alternative. The author states that the total sustainable worldwide biomass energy
potential, obtained from woody biomass, crops and straw represents about 30% of the current
global energy consumption. Berndes et al. (2003) discuss the contribution of biomass in the
future global energy supply based on a review of seventeen earlier studies on the subject,
including residue generation and recoverability. A thorough overview of the global potential
of biomass for energy to 2050 is presented in a report published by the International Energy
Agency, an autonomous body established within the framework of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to implement an international energy
program (IEA Bioenergy, 2007).
Finally, addressing the issue at a European level, only a handful of papers focus on
biomass availability (Eriksson and Björheden, 1989; Gielen et al., 2001; van Dam et al.,
2007). Grahn et al. (2007) compare two models that investigate the cost-effectiveness of
biomass utilization. As stated in the EC’s action plan for biomass dated in 2005, the Union
should be meeting 4% of its energy needs from biomass (EC, 2005). According to this plan,
the EU could more than double the biomass use by 2010 while complying with good
agricultural practice, safeguarding sustainable production of biomass and without
significantly affecting domestic food production. Furthermore, the EC presents certain
conservative estimates on the potential to produce biomass for energy use, stating that the
potential for 2010 is 2,5 times, the potential for 2020 is 3 to 3,5 times and for 2030 is 3,5 to
4,5 times the contribution of 2005. Forests, wastes and agriculture all contribute to this
potential for growth.
Competing markets for biomass is another issue that has to be investigated when
investing on bio-energy systems. The versatility of biomass with the diverse portfolio of
conversion options makes it possible to meet the demand for secondary energy carriers, as
well as biomaterials. (IEA Bioenergy, 2007). Furthermore, electricity production on average
is expected to become less carbon-intensive in the long run due to the increased use of wind
energy, PV and other solar-based power generation, carbon capture and storage technology,
nuclear energy, and fuel shift from coal to natural gas. Using biomass for transport fuels is
expected to gradually become more attractive from the perspective of reducing CO2
emissions. In addition, the use of biomass for biomaterials is expected to increase, both in
well established markets (such as paper, construction) and possibly in large new markets
(such as bio-chemicals and plastics) as well as in the use of charcoal for steel making.
State-of-the-art scenario studies on energy supply and mitigation of climate change agree
that all climate-friendly energy options are needed to meet the future world’s energy needs
and simultaneously drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Sources such as wind and
solar energy have good potential, but their utilization is also constrained by their integration
into electricity grids. In addition, electricity production from solar energy is still expensive.
Hydropower has a limited potential and utilization of geothermal and ocean energy has
proved to be complex. Biomass in particular can play a vital role in the production of carbon-
neutral transport fuels of high quality as well as in providing feedstocks for various industries.
This is a unique property of biomass compared to other renewables and makes biomass a
prime alternative to the use of mineral oil. Thus, as oil is the most limited of the fossil fuel
supplies, biomass is particularly important for improving security of energy supply on the
global as well as on a national level. It is therefore expected that biomass will remain the most
important renewable energy carrier for many decades to come (IEA Bioenergy, 2007).
The Regulatory Environment
Global warming has emerged as a critical issue for the international community. The
adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in
1992 was a major step forward in recognizing the problem; it led to the Kyoto Protocol
(adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005), that requires developed countries to reduce
their greenhouse gas emissions below levels specified for each of them in the Treaty within
the period from 2008 till 2012 (United Nations, 1998). After the conference on climate
changes in Bali in December 2008, the parties of the UNFCCC have scheduled to meet for
the last time on government level before the climate agreement needs to be renewed and are
willing to end up with a Copenhagen Protocol to prevent global warming and climate changes
(Climate Conference in Copenhagen, 2009).
On a EU level, the EC adopted a Green Paper in 1996, which calls for an increase in the
proportion of renewable energy sources in the primary energy supply from 6% (1996) to 12%
in 2010 (EC, 1996). This led to the adoption of two directives: (a) the Green Electricity
Directive, which aimed to increase the portion of electricity from renewable energy sources to
22% by 2010 (European Parliament and Council, 2001a), and (b) the Renewable
Transportation Directive which called for increasing the contribution of biofuels in
transportation fuels to 2% by 2005, 5.75% by 2010 and 20% by 2020 (European Parliament
and Council, 2003). Finally, Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, establishes a common
framework for the promotion of energy from renewable sources, repealing both Directives of
2001 and 2003 (European Parliament and Council, 2009a). The EC sets mandatory targets for
Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Community’s
greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments up to 2020 (European Parliament and
Council, 2009b).
The White Book titled “Energy for the future: renewable resources – White Book for a
strategy and an action plan of the Community” (EC, 1997), proposes an action plan for the
development of renewable resources, recommending that the main contribution to energy
production should be provided mainly by biomass, and to a lesser degree by other renewable
sources. In the wider context of an integrated and coherent energy policy and for the
promotion of renewable energy sources, the EC’s action plan of 2005 (EC, 2005) sets out
measures for increasing the development of biomass energy from wood, wastes and
agricultural crops by creating market-based incentives to its use and removing barriers.
Moreover, according to Directive 2009/28/EC (European Parliament and Council, 2009a)
each Member State must have presented by June 2010 a national renewable energy action
plan, including information on sectoral targets. The Commission’s Decision 2009/548/EC
(EC, 2009) sets out the template for the national renewable energy action plans required by
Directive 2009/28/EC. Specifically, the directive states that in order to exploit the full
potential of biomass, the Community and the Member States should promote the greater
mobilization of existing timber reserves and the development of new forestry systems.
Bioenergy is also viewed by the EU as a solution for improving the security of supply by
expanding the use of local energy resources (EC, 2001). Currently the EU imports about 50%
of its energy requirements and the current trend indicates that its dependence on external
energy sources will rise till about 70% in 2030.
Promoting waste-to-energy for its ability to reduce the volume of waste in an
environmentally-friendly manner, to generate valuable energy and to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, EU member nations rely on waste-to-energy as the preferred method of waste
disposal (Zafar, 2008). In fact, the EU has issued a legally binding requirement for its
member States to limit the land filling of biodegradable waste. According to the
Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants (CEWEP), Europe currently treats 50
million tones of wastes at waste-to-energy plants each year, generating an amount of energy
that can supply electricity for 27 million people or heat for 13 million people.
As far as the legislative framework for agricultural residue management is concerned,
several regulations related specifically to agricultural waste have been developed. The EU’s
agricultural policy with relevance to agricultural waste management and exploitation
promotes efficiency and environmental protection in the management of agricultural by-
products and waste, especially in the form of renewable energy (i.e. biomass energy)
development. This policy is formed by the Animal By-Products Regulation No 1774/2002
(European Parliament and Council, 2002), the Regulation No 951/97 on improving the
processing and marketing conditions for agricultural products (European Parliament and
Council, 1997) and finally the agro-Environmental Measures Regulation (European
Parliament and Council, 1992).
Various EU environmental directives have relevance to agricultural waste management
and exploitation: the Waste Framework Directive (European Council, 1975), the Waste
Incineration Directive (European Parliament and Council, 2000), the Large Combustions
Plants Directive on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air (European
Parliament and Council, 2001b) and the Landfill Directive (European Council, 1999).
Regulated issues include setting emissions’ limit for large combustion plants operated with
biomass, and encouraging recycling, re-use, and reclamation of agricultural (and other)
wastes, including the reclamation of waste for energy recovery. A comprehensive review of
the EU policy and legislation relevant to agricultural waste can be found in (Kaya et al.,
2008).
Finally, the EU has emerged as a global leader in addressing carbon dioxide emissions. It
has established the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), the largest multi-
national, emissions trading scheme in the world. Thus, a carbon market has been created and
a growing number of businesses are making investment decisions for implementing climate-
friendly policies. The European Parliament and Council in the context of the new targets it
has settled for the EU regarding the lessening of CO2 emissions has published Directive
2009/29/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse gas emission allowance trading
scheme of the Community (European Parliament and Council, 2009c). In addition, many
governments are eager to reduce dependence on oil and gas imports and to further enhance
energy security; this has led to the encouragement of energy efficiency and the promotion of
domestic energy sources, including biomass (The Economist, 2007). The introduction of
various regulatory interventions and supporting measures, such as governmental R&D
programs, tax cuts and exemptions, investment subsidies, feed-in tariffs for renewable
electricity, mandatory blending for biofuels or biofuel quotas, have been mostly temporary
and tend to change frequently. Hence, the lack of a stable regulatory environment is a major
impediment, as it discourages additional strategic investments.
BIOMASS SUPPLY CHAINS (BSCS) FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION

The Various Stages of Bscs
Figure 1. Graphical Representation of a Biomass Supply Chain.

For designing biomass supply chain networks for energy production four general system
components (basic operations) are identified: Biomass production / harvesting / collection
(from single or several locations) and pre-treatment, storage (in one or more intermediate
locations), transport (using a single or multiple echelons) and energy conversion (Figure 1).
In the following paragraphs the system’s components are described and their special
characteristics are discussed in order to identify the distinctive characteristics that
differentiate BSCs from traditional supply chains, as well as to reveal their impact on the
supply network’s efficiency.
Harvesting and Pre-Treatment
Harvesting biomass represents one of the significant cost factors in BSCs. The harvesting
process is energy-intensive, primarily due to transport fuel costs, and can introduce
contaminants, such as soil, which can subsequently lead to operational problems during
processing to produce energy. The moisture content of the biomass varies with the time of
harvest and for some crops it can introduce additional processing costs, due to the need to
pre-dry, before processing further (McKendry, 2002a).
Woody species are harvested as felled-timber and are cut into lengths or chipped,
depending on the subsequent energy conversion technology. The processing of biomass
improves its handling efficiency and the quantity that can be transported. This can involve
increasing the bulk density of the biomass (e.g. processing forest fuel or coppice stems into
wood chips) or unitising the biomass (e.g. processing straw or miscanthus in the swath into
bales). Woody biomass can be obtained as felling residues from traditional forestry timber
growing activities, or as short rotation coppice timber (e.g. willow and poplar, grown for 3-4
years and then harvested). Herbaceous plant species are harvested as baled straw or grasses,
or as seeds/grains. Processing can occur at any stage in the supply chain but often precedes
road transport and is generally cheapest when integrated with the harvesting (Allen et al.,
1998). Thus, harvesting costs depend on the type of biomass being produced and the
processing costs necessary to provide a feedstock suitable for use in whichever biomass
conversion process is to be used. The thoughtful development of a system to minimize
machinery use, human effort and energy inputs can have a considerable impact on the cost of
the biomass as delivered to the processing plant gate.
The harvesting approach fundamentally affects the storage, handling and transport
requirements in the biomass supply chain, as there is a very high level of interconnection
among the several operations. Several authors have discussed harvesting and especially
methods, collecting machines, relative costs etc., along with storage or transportation issues,
for specific biomass raw materials, such as switchgrass (Cundiff and Marsh, 1996), forest fuel
(Eriksson and Björheden, 1989), cotton plant residues (Fischer and Gaderer, 2000; Gemtos
and Tsiricoglou, 1992; 1999), herbaceous biomass in general (Cundiff and Grisso, 2008),
logging residue (Nurmi, 1999) and corn stover (Shinners et al., 2007). Indicatively, Kinoshita
et al. (2009) address the widespread adoption of woody biomass energy by presenting a cost
model, focusing on cost-effective harvesting methods costs.
Additional processing of biomass on other stages after the time of harvesting is related to
the conversion technology employed into the energy production facility. Unprocessed biofuel,
in which case the material is used essentially in its natural form (as harvested) for direct
combustion, usually supplies cooking, space heating, or electricity production needs, although
there are also small- and large-scale industrial applications for steam raising and other
processes requiring low-to-medium temperature process heat. Processed biofuels in the form
of solids (mainly charcoal), liquids (mainly alcohols), or gases (mainly mixtures with
methane or carbon monoxide), can be used for a wide range of applications, including
transport and high-temperature industrial processes (Kaltschmitt et al., 2004).
Storage
The stage of biomass storage is a critical link of BSCs. In the case of biomass that is
harvested over a relatively short period of the year, such as straw and short rotation coppice,
large quantities need to be stored in order that the supply of fuel is spread evenly on a year-
round basis. This requires storage facilities that can be located on the farm/forest, at the
conversion facility or at an intermediate site.
According to Rentizelas et al. (2009b), in most cases of the relevant research work low
cost storage solutions are chosen, such as on-field biomass storage (Allen et al., 1998;
Huisman et al., 1997; Sokhansanj et al., 2006). Both ambient and covered on-field storage
have also been examined (Cundiff et al., 1997). The method of on-field storage has the
advantage of low cost. However, biomass material loss is significant and biomass moisture
cannot be controlled and reduced to a desired level, thus leading to potential problems in the
power plant equipment. Moreover, the farmers may not allow on-farm storage of the biomass
for a significant time period, as they may want to prepare the land for the next crop
(Sokhansanj et al., 2006). Finally, health and safety issues exist due to increased moisture
(Allen et al., 1998; Nilsson and Hansson, 2001).
Various studies consider the use of intermediate storage locations between the fields and
the power plant (Allen et al., 1998; Nilsson and Hansson, 2001; Tatsiopoulos and Tolis,
2003). This storage scheme results in a higher delivered cost than a system in which there is
only one road transport movement, as it requires that biomass material has to be transported
first from farm/forest to the intermediate storage facility/facilities and then from storage to the
conversion facility. According to Allen et al. (1998) using an intermediate storage stage may
add 10–20% to the delivered costs, as a result of the additional transportation and handling
costs incurred. However, in some cases intermediate storage may be inevitable as there are
many biomass collection areas that cannot be easily accessed by road transport vehicles
during wet winter periods while on-farm storage does not constitute a viable solution.
Finally, the option of settling the storage facility next to the biomass power plant has also
been examined by several authors (Tatsiopoulos and Tolis, 2003; Papadopoulos and
Katsigiannis, 2002). Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis (2002) present an innovative storage
layout with biomass drying capability using dumped heat from the power plant. This concept
aims at reducing faster the biomass moisture content and prevents material decomposition as
well as fungus and spores formation. Using storage facilities attached to the power plant is the
only viable option of accelerating the drying process of the biomass, as dumped heat may be
used without need for extra energy consumption. However, most power stations or other
energy production facilities to which biomass is supplied have limited on-site storage
facilities, mainly due to the space required to stock large quantities of seasonal products that
bears the physical and financial costs of holding stock (Allen et al., 1998). In this case,
inventory management should be effective enough in order to ensure that a few days of
supply are available on-site with low risk of stock-out.
Rentizelas et al. (2009b) compared the above mentioned three biomass storage solutions
found in the literature, in terms of total system cost. The authors suggest the development of a
multi-biomass system, i.e. the exploitation of various types of biomass or/and from different
sources, aiming at reducing the storage space requirements. Another study has also proved
that the multi-biomass concept may lead to significant system cost reduction (Nilsson and
Hansson, 2001). Detailed description of storage methods as well as data for the cotton
biomass behaviour and composition during and after each one of these procedures can also be
found in McGowin and Wiltsee (1996) and Huisman et al. (2000).
Transport
The transport element of the biomass supply chain links together all the activities that
have to take place between the point of production through to the point of use at the energy
conversion facility and the locations at which they occur. Specifically, after the harvesting
and processing of the material on first stage, in-field/forest transport takes place to move the
biomass to a point where road transport vehicles can be used. Once the biomass has been
moved to the roadside it will either have to be stored for some time or be directly transferred
and loaded to road transport vehicles for transferring to the plant, where it has to be unloaded.
The transportation costs of supplying biomass to energy production facilities are mainly a
function of the distance over which the material has to be moved, the type of transportation
means selected to be used (trucks, ship or train), the type of biomass and the form in which it
is transported (e.g. chopped or coppiced timber, compared with baled cereal straw), as well as
the time spent for loading and unloading vehicles. For example, biomass fuels with relatively
high bulk densities (such as coppice and forestry residue chips) are likely to require fewer
vehicle movements to deliver a specified tonnage to a power station than biomass with lower
bulk densities (such as miscanthus and straw). Moreover, the size of the storage facility either
on an intermediate location or at the power plant affects the transport arrangements. A power
station with a relatively small on-site stock level (e.g. a few days’ supply) will require more
frequent, evenly spread deliveries than a plant with a large storage capacity. Low levels of
stockholding at the power station will increase the importance of reliable and flexible
transport (Allen et al., 1998). Furthermore, using heavy goods vehicles (rather than
agricultural or forestry equipment) for transport to the power station is likely to be essential
due to the average distance from farms to power station, and the carrying capacity and road
speed of such vehicles, increasing further the total transportation cost. Finally, the catchment
area for the biomass collection points and hence the transport distance over which biomass
has to be moved depends on a number of factors. These include the size of the facility and the
conversion technology used and thus, the quantity of biomass fuel required, the crop yield
that is achieved, and the availability of the material for biomass resource.
Considering the typical locations of biomass fuel sources (i.e. in farms or forests) the
transport infrastructure is usually such that road transport will be the sole potential mode for
collection and transportation of the fuel. Additional factors that reinforce the use of road
transport include the relatively short distances over which the fuel is transported and the
greater flexibility that road transport can offer in comparison with other modes (Rentizelas et
al., 2009b). Other transportation means, such as ship or train may be considered when long
distance biomass transport is examined (Hamelinck et al., 2005). According to the last
authors, various studies have shown that long-distance international transport by ship is
feasible in terms of energy use and transportation costs but the availability of suitable vessels
and weather conditions (e.g. winter time in Scandinavia and Russia) need to be considered.
However, local transportation by truck may be a high cost factor, which can influence the
overall energy balance and total biomass costs. Harbour and terminal suitability to handle
large biomass streams can also hinder the import and export of biomass to certain regions.
Finally, the most favourable situation is when the end user has the energy production facility
close to the harbour avoiding additional transport by trucks (Junginger et al., 2006).
Energy Production
Different technological processes can be used to obtain the various energy products from
biomass. Most biomass used for energetic purposes is directly combusted to produce heat
and/or power, but a huge variety of additional possibilities are available to provide
environmentally sound heat and/or electricity as well as transportation fuels from organic
material (McKendry, 2002a; Kaltschmitt et al., 2004; McKendry, 2002b). The purpose of
biomass conversion is to provide fuels with clearly defined characteristics that can meet given
fuel quality standards. The most important conversion options, as presented by Kaltschmitt et
al. (2004) are depicted schematically in Figure 2.
In brief, thermo-chemical conversion processes convert biomass into a solid, liquid or
gaseous fuel, (e.g. gasification, pyrolysis and charcoal production). The most significant
options of bio-chemical conversion are alcohol production from biomass containing sugar,
starch and/ or celluloses and biogas production from organic waste material (e.g. animal
manure). Finally, physical-chemical conversion processes provide liquid fuels (e.g. biodiesel)
through physical (e.g. pressing) and chemical (e.g transesterification) processing of dedicated
energy crops. According to Demirbas et al. (2009) the main biomass processes that are
expected to be utilized in the future in industrialized countries, are the direct combustion of
residues and wastes for electricity generation, ethanol and biodiesel as liquid fuels, and
combined heat and power production from energy crops. The future of biomass electricity
generation lies in biomass integrated gasification/gas turbine technology which offers high-
energy conversion efficiencies.
The choice of conversion process depends mainly upon the type and quantity of biomass
feedstock, the preferred energy product, as well as environmental and economic issues. Raw
products differ mainly in their suitability for different production processes, but also in their
regional availability and their conversion costs according to their physical attributes.
Consequently, it is important to obtain global insights about the effects of all these
technological options on waste biomass supply chains; such understanding would allow the
identification of optimal configurations for bio-energy supply systems, as well as of
meaningful improvement options. As it is beyond the scope of this chapter to analyze in more
detail energy conversion processes, the reader could consult state-of-the-art literature on this
field, such as Kaltschmitt et al. (2004), Mitchell et al. (1995), Ravelli et al. (2008),
Kirubakaran et al. (2009), Yanik et al. (2007), Kobayashi et al. (2008) and Wang and Chen
(2007).
Figure 2. Overview of renewable energy production from organic substrates (Kaltschmitt et al., 2004).
Key Variables and Characteristics
Biomass supply chains present several distinctive characteristics that differentiate them
from traditional supply chains, as described in subsection 3.1. The primary features that
should be considered, when designing waste biomass supply networks for energy production,
are summarized below:
Seasonality of biomass. Agricultural biomass types are usually characterized by seasonal
availability, and thus there is a need of storing large amounts of biomass for a significant time
period resulting in high holding costs, if year-round operation of the power plant is desired.
The multi-biomass approach, as long as products have similar characteristics and fuel
properties, may smooth significantly problems that stem from seasonality (see subsection 3.3
for additional analysis of such systems).
Variability of biomass production quantities and dispersed geographical
distribution. As for all agricultural products, weather related variability and competing uses
of biomass in a dynamically changing market have to be considered when determining the
flows of material supply network, as the final amount of product available for procurement
deviates from the predicted one.
Perishability of biomass. The complexity of biomass supply chains is even higher for
perishable biomass products, where the transportation time of the products through the supply
chain and the opportunities to use inventory as a buffer against demand and transportation
variability are severely limited.
Low density of biomass. Most forms of biomass and bioenergy carriers tend to have a
relatively low energy density per unit of volume (e.g. GJ/m3) or mass (e.g. MJ/kg) compared
with fossil fuels with the same energy equivalent. For example, ethanol has an energy content
of ~22 MJ/l whereas gasoline is ~34 MJ/l; air dried woody biomass is around 12-15 GJ/t and
sub-bituminous coal around 20-25 GJ/t (low heat values). This often makes handling, storage
and transportation more costly per unit of energy carried.
Stochasticity of energy demand. Biomass supply chains need to be robust and flexible
enough to adapt to unpredicted changes in market conditions, as the demand of the finally
produced energy depends on the type of the conversion facility, the price of competitive fuel
substitutes or other unexpected events that may occur during the production period.
Interdependencies of logistics operations. Upstream decision-making for the several
activities that take place within biomass supply chains affects later activities in the chain and
the interdependence between them is very strong. Allen et al. (1998) provide a representative
example of the degree of interdependence among the logistics operations taking place in such
networks, discussing the interdependency of harvesting, storage and transportation methods in
the case of forest trees supply chains.
Taking all above into consideration, it is evident that there is need for a holistic supply
chain perspective when planning any single activity in the chain rather than considering that
activity in isolation. The harvesting approach fundamentally affects the storage, handling and
transport requirements in the supply chain. On the other hand, when the supply system is
designed from the other end of the chain as is common, the choice of power station
technology, size and location dictates how all the upstream activities should be conducted so
that biomass arrives at the conversion facility at the correct time, in the correct quantity, and
at the desired quality. Theoretically, a large number of bioenergy chains can be envisioned. It
is important to obtain insights in the effects of all logistics variables on the total cost and
energy consumption of bioenergy chains. This would allow for the identification of best
configurations for bioenergy supply systems, as well as for improvement options.
The key variables of biomass logistics systems have been identified in specific studies,
investigating strategically the interdependencies between them and their effect on supply
chain efficiency and cost. Their analysis could support strategic and tactical decision-making
on biomass supply chains. Mitchell et al. (1995) provide a techno-economic assessment of
biomass to energy and investigate the interrelationships between the stages in the supply
chain. Allen et al. (1998) address the supply-chain considerations and costs of using biomass
fuel on a large scale for electricity generation at power stations, recognizing the importance of
logistics planning and management facets. An analytic supply chain modeling for five
biomass types was performed, concluding that 20–50% of the biomass delivered cost is due to
transportation and handling activities. Nilsson and Hansson (2001) examine the influence of
various machinery combinations, fuel proportions and storage capacities on costs for co-
handling of straw and reed canary grass to district heating plants.
Hamelinck et al. (2005) study for the first time systematically the influence of various
parameters on the performance of complete transport chains, analyzing a generic international
scenario that assumes five possible transfer points: the production site, a central gathering
point (CGP), two transport terminals (export and import) and the energy plant. Caputo et al.
(2005) investigate the economic profitability of biomass utilization for the direct production
of electric energy taking into account the critical logistics aspects related to the overall bio-
energy chain as well as the impact of the main logistics variables on the economics of such
systems. Finally, Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003) present a model, which simulates the cotton
biomass supply chain. Their study examines the feasibility and the problems that arise while
trying to organize an integrated logistics network. Also, economic aspects of other logistics
procedures like collection and warehousing are also investigated.
Multi-Biomass Systems
The concept of multi-biomass utilization has captured the interest of researchers because
of its potential benefit on the total system cost. The work by Nilsson and Hansson (2001) is
indicative of the cost reduction potential of the multi-biomass approach. The authors
investigate the simultaneous use of straw and reed canary grass and conclude that the specific
combination led to a total system cost reduction of about 15–20% compared to a single-
biomass case, despite the increased production cost of reed canary grass compared to straw.
The cost of producing energy using all the available biomass types in a certain region is
determined by Voivontas et al. (2001). A case study for utilizing multiple forest biomass
types for local district heating applications is presented by Freppaz et al. (2004), using GIS
for logistics modeling. De Mol et al. (1997) study the multiple-biomass approach and discuss
the benefits of employing an optimization - instead of a simulation - model to decide the
optimal mixture of biomass types. Moreover, Hamelinck et al. (2005) acknowledge in their
study the need for widening the operational window of biomass logistics by combining
multiple biomass chains to minimize the share of capital costs. Frombo et al. (2009) develop
an Environmental Decision Support System in which the woody biomass resources are
partitioned into forest and non-forest resources.
Significant savings from the multi-biomass approach can also be realized in the stage of
storage, as the inflow of biomass throughout the year may be smoother and the storage space
required may be reduced. Furthermore, additional cost savings can be expected from
smoother equipment and labour resource requirements at the biomass supply chain.
Rentizelas et al. (2009b) compare three biomass storage solutions found in the literature, in
terms of total system cost, adopting the multi-biomass approach by considering two locally
available biomass types (cotton stalks and almond tree prunings). The authors conclude that
multi-agricultural biomass approach appears to be attractive for systems where expensive
storage solutions are used, in order to reduce the storage space required.
However, the concept of multi-biomass utilization has been scarcely investigated by
researchers up to now due to the associated complexity. According to Faaij et al. (1997),
organizational aspects, variations in availability, storage and backup fuel especially in winter
months, are issues that require more detailed study. An interesting research examining the
case of utilizing six biomass sources to identify the optimum biomass fuel mix, including
municipal solid waste and the criterion for the technical capability of using the biomass mix is
presented by Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis (2002).
Most biomass types can be processed into numerous forms, each one potentially
requiring different equipment for handling, loading, unloading, transport and fuel feeding.
Thus, it is important for the multi-biomass approach that all the potential sources may be
processed in a form that will allow the use of only one type of handling and feeding
equipment or that will require small, inexpensive and easily made modifications and
customizations.
One of the main technical challenges of the multi-biomass approach is the ability of the
available energy conversion technology to use a fuel mix comprised of several biomass types
with varying fuel characteristics, or a fuel that will vary its characteristics according to the
season of the year. It is therefore essential that the selection of the biomass conversion
technologies established on the production facility is made in conjunction with the selection
of biomass suppliers. The different biomass types are characterized by a set of
physical/chemical parameters that influence the efficiency of the various processes
(McKendry, 2002a). Some technologies are more flexible in biomass characteristics variation
(e.g. fluidized bed combustion) as opposed to others (e.g. pyrolysis), and some types of
biomass have very similar characteristics whereas others may have totally different. However,
there are technologies capable of coping with the simultaneous use of biomass types (Faaij et
al., 1997).
There exist several families of biomass types that have very similar characteristics and
fuel properties (e.g. woody biomass types, several cereal biomass types, etc.) and this has to
be considered when designing specific multi-biomass supply chain networks. For example,
Rentizelas et al. (2009b) assume in their case study that a suitable technology is considered to
use the fuel mix that may result from the locally available biomass sources of the case study
region. In another study the same authors present a decision support system (DSS) for multi-
biomass energy conversion applications. The presented model is designed to incorporate
parametrically a large number of biomass types. The outcome identifies the type and quantity
levels of biomass that should be selected to optimize the financial yield (Rentizelas et al.,
2009a).
Environmental Impact of BSCs
The environmental impact of biomass fuel supply is of great importance as the rationale
driving the use of biomass fuel is that it is less harmful to the environment than traditional
fossil fuels (Allen et al., 1998). The environmental benefits and energy production that results
from using biomass fuel should at least outweigh the environmental impacts and resource
consumption that their growth and supply incur. The most logistically efficient supply chain
will not necessarily provide the best benefit to cost ratio in environmental terms.
Most activities that take place in biomass supply chains can be responsible for a
significant proportion of the total energy use and the environmental impacts that arise in the
biomass supply chain, like traffic generation, vehicle emissions, vehicle noise, visual
intrusion and health and safety of workers and the public. Such activities include harvesting
with various types of equipment using fuels, transportation with many vehicle movements,
storage of perishable products for long time period and production of energy through
technologies more or less friendly to the environment. Transportation is considered to have
the most important impact on the environment and thus decisions regarding vehicle selection,
routing and scheduling should be taken with respect to the total emissions estimated to be
released during the networks lifetime. According to Allen et al. (1998), public perception
often proves to be a significant factor in the acceptability and future development of an
industrial or commercial activity and can influence location choices, land-use and transport
planning decisions. Transport activities should therefore be planned as efficiently as possible

in order to minimize their environmental impacts.
Moreover, interdependencies among biomass logistics operations affect the decisions
regarding the environmental impact of a biomass supply chain. For instance, even if an
alternative approach to storage and transport is known to be less harmful to the environment,
the chosen harvesting system can preclude its selection.
As far as the environmental impact of waste biomass conversion to energy is concerned,
when biomass is burned it releases carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in exactly the same way
as the combustion of a fossil fuel does. However, the growth of an equivalent quantity of
biomass absorbs the same amount of CO2 from the atmosphere, thus leading to zero
contribution to atmospheric CO2 concentration in total. Moreover, biomass residues resulting
from agriculture and urban living have traditionally been allowed to decompose. This
decomposition leads to the significant release of methane, a more potent greenhouse gas than
CO2, whereas burning waste in a biomass power plant prevents this methane release.
HIERARCHICAL DECISION-MAKING FRAMEWORK

The structure of the global market for biomass and the associated supply chains is
evolving quite dynamically. Traditionally, biomass has been used for energy (mainly thermal)
production in areas close to its production sites. However, an emerging practice for energy
producers is to procure biomass from several suppliers to develop the critical mass necessary
to develop an efficient energy production facility. The increased complexity of this system
dictates the need for adopting more sophisticated supply chain planning and coordination
methodologies that have been successfully used in traditional supply chain management, for
which there is extensive literature (e.g. Min and Zhou (2002), Vidal and Goetschalckx (1997),
Sarmiento and Nagi (1999) and Meixell and Gargeya (2005)).
Assessing BSCs for energy production involves a complex hierarchy of decision-making
processes. Implementing the well-established conventional supply chain practices to BSCs is
not necessary prudent since such networks are characterized by significant supply and
demand uncertainty, as well as by perishable, often bulky, seasonal products (see also
discussion in Section 3). Furthermore, in order to adequately plan BSCs’ operations it is
necessary to develop specific planning models that capture issues such as harvesting policies,
marketing channels, logistics activities, vertical coordination and risk management. Actually,
few of these issues resemble to the ones appearing in the supply chain management of fresh
agricultural products (Epperson and Estes, 1999). Iakovou et al. (2009) present a holistic
approach that takes into account all major technological and managerial aspects in design and
execution of waste biomass supply chains developed for energy production.
Recognizing the natural hierarchical decision-making process for the design and planning
of BSCs and taking into account the existing academic research and industrial practices, we
propose the comprehensive hierarchical decision-making framework exhibited in Figure 3.
All issues that need to be addressed by the relevant stakeholders (such as system regulators,
investors, decision-makers and planners) at the strategic, tactical and operational level are
mapped in this framework. We proceed by discussing the decisions at each level of the
hierarchy, while presenting the relevant research efforts.
Figure 3. Hierarchy of Decision Making for BSCs
Strategic Decisions
Decisions at the strategic level of decision making include: selection of suppliers /

collection sites, procurement of multiple types of biomass, ensuring long-term biomass
supply and demand, sitting and optimal capacity of conversion facilities, allocation of storage
facilities, network building, choice of suitable energy conversion processes, selection of
collection, pre-treatment and storage methods, outsourcing of logistics operations and timing
of pre-treatment. At this level, most decisions affect operations and impose a set of
constraints to the lower decision-making levels. These decisions are discussed below.
Ensuring Long-Term Supply and Demand
The global effort for the usage of biomass energy has led to a policy environment that is
defined by various regulatory interventions and stimulation measures, such as governmental
R&D programs, tax cuts and exemptions, investment subsidies, feed-in tariffs for renewable
electricity, mandatory blending for biofuels or biofuel quotas. However, these measures are
mostly temporary and myopic in nature, and often the lack of a stable system discourages
long-term serious investments. Thus, the stabilization of the external environment, sufficient
biomass resources and a well-functioning biomass market that can assure reliable,
sustainable, and lasting biomass supplies are crucial preconditions for the development of
sustainable bioenergy systems.
Van Dam et al. (2005) discuss policies for securing renewable resource supplies for
changing market demands in a bio-based economy. The authors suggest that the development
of a sustainable bio-based economy requires a joint effort from the agricultural sector,
industries, governments and consumer organisations, fully utilising the available scientific
infrastructure and multidisciplinary expertise. Junginger et al. (2006) examine the
opportunities and barriers in the context of securing sustainable bio-energy trade. A detailed
analysis is carried out by Koopmans (2005) to determine the sustainability of biomass energy
demand and supply in sixteen Asian countries. Nagel (2000) points out that as a result of the
currently lower fossil fuel prices and the higher investment and operating costs of biomass-
fired plants, the energy use of biomass is case-dependent. The author further documents that
different factors can improve the economic viability of bio-energy systems, especially fuel
prices/rates of fossil and biogenic fuels, sales of biogenic produced electricity, the investment
costs for biomass-fired heating plants as well as co-generation plants. McCormick and
Kåberger (2007) propose strategies including policy measures for altering the economics of
bio-energy, pilot projects to stimulate the learning processes and guidance for network
building and supply chain coordination.
An essential step in proceeding with the often large investment necessary for developing
biomass conversion facilities is ensuring the uninterrupted supply of adequate biomass, as
well as the critical mass of demand over the strategic horizon. To that end, contractual
agreements that guarantee long-term supply and demand, while spreading “equitably” total
profit among the supply chain partners from agriculture and forestry to energy consumers can
be of great value. Various contract models have been presented in literature, which differ
based on the contractual clauses between the buyers (retailers or manufacturers) and the
sellers (suppliers) (Tayur et al., 1999). Several authors in the field of agricultural science
discuss contracting with farmers, such as Key and MacDonald (2006), Hovelaque et al.
(2009), Ligon (2003), Mathews (2008), Poole et al. (1998), Roumasset (1995), and
Roumasset and Lee (2007). Kumar et al. (2002) discuss and propose methods for estimating
the monetary value of agricultural residues used as biofuels, defining the minimum amount
that a farmer has to be paid as well as the upper limit up to which the energy end-user can pay
for the agricultural residues.
Design of BSC Networks
The logistics network design is one of the most comprehensive strategic decision
problems that need to be optimized for the long-term efficient operation of BSCs. The
configuration of BSC networks is comprised of critical decisions that affect the biomass flow
and the associated costs. These refer to the identification of collection sites, potential
procurement of a single or multiple types of biomass, purchasing quantities from each
supplier, allocation and optimal capacity of intermediate warehouses and energy conversion
facilities, while taking into account key parameters such as the capacity limit of supply nodes
or the potential fixed capacity of an existing power plant. The objective is to design or
reconfigure a logistics network so as to minimize annual system wide costs, including
harvesting, collection or purchasing costs, facility (storage, handling and fixed) and inventory
holding costs, and transportation costs, subject to variety of service level requirements. The
capacities and allocations decided on strategic level then become constraints in the aggregate
planning that takes place on tactical decision making level. However, the supply chain
configuration not only has to be efficient with respect to the expected conditions but also
robust and flexible enough to adapt to potential changes in these conditions on the long run.
Selection of Collection Sites / Suppliers. The rather dispersed geographical distribution
of significant biomass potential has raised the interest of researchers that either gather
information about the available biomass through bibliographic study and other data sources
(Skoulou and Zabaniotou, 2007) or use Geographical Information Systems (GIS). GIS have
been widely used in existing literature for the evaluation of the biomass supply and
characteristics, the selection of collection sites, or even the estimation of the transportation
cost to existing power plants. For example, Voivontas et al. (2001) propose a GIS-based
decision supporting tool to identify the geographic distribution of the economically exploited
waste biomass potential for power production. Noon and Daly (1996) estimate the costs for
supplying wood fuel to any one of its 12 coal-fired power plants, and Singh et al. (2008)
make an attempt to evaluate the spatial potential of biomass and a mathematical model for
collection of biomass in an Indian state. Certain studies assess the manure potential for energy
production (Ma et al., 2005; Batzias et al., 2005; Dagnall et al., 2000). Ramachandra et al.
(2004) propose a Decision Support System (DSS) for regional biomass assessment
considering the resources available and deterministic demand. Kinoshita et al. (2009) address
the widespread adoption of woody biomass energy by presenting a cost model, focusing on
cost-effective harvesting methods costs.
Selection of Biomass Types for Procurement. Another strategic decision that has to be
made when designing a BSC is whether it is more profitable to utilize multiple types of
biomass for energy production than a single type. The exploitation of various types of
biomass from different sources has captured the interest of certain researchers because of its
potential benefit on the total system cost (Nilsson and Hansson, 2001; Voivontas et al., 2001;
Freppaz et al., 2004; De Mol et al., 1997; Frombo et al., 2009, Rentizelas et al., 2009a;
2009b). Rentizelas et al. argue that the multi-agricultural biomass approach appears to be
attractive for systems where expensive storage solutions are used, in order to reduce the
storage space required (see discussion in subsection 3.3).
Allocation of Energy Production Facilities. The allocation and the optimal capacity of
energy production facilities have attracted the interest of several authors. To allocate
conversion facilities researchers tend to use GIS-based methodologies. Panichelli and
Gnansounou (2008) present a methodology that tackles the competition of various energy
facilities through an allocation model based on least-cost biomass quantities. Graham et al.
(1997) examine the effect of location and facility demand on the marginal cost of delivered
wood chips from energy crops. Shi et al. (2008) evaluate the feasibility of setting up new
biomass power plants and optimizing the locations of plants in a Chinese region and Zhan et
al. (2005) investigate the economic feasibility of locating a switchgrass-to-ethanol conversion
facility in Alabama. Another tool for locating conversion facilities is proposed by
Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis (2002), while considering economic criteria for assessing the
sustainability of the installation. Tembo et al. (2003) use an integrated mixed integer-
programming model to determine the most economical source of biomass and the optimal
biorefinery location that maximizes net present profit for a biomass-to-ethanol system. A
methodology for the optimization of the installation of new biomass energy systems on a
regional level is presented by Dornburg and Faaji (2001).
Optimal Capacity of Energy Production Facilities. An analytical framework for
determining the optimal power plant size and the derivation of supply curves is presented by
Gan (2007). Jenkins (1997) and Nguyen and Prince (1996) discuss the optimal sizing of a
biomass utilization facility. The power cost and optimum plant size for power plants using
three biomass fuels in western Canada are determined by Kumar et al. (2003), including
agricultural residues and taking into consideration costs of loading and unloading. Bakos et
al. (2008) develop an ‘energy-planning’ model that determines the number of biomass-fuelled
power installed in a given area based on available biomass from agricultural residues in the
island of Crete, Greece. Celma et al. (2007) study the waste-to-energy possibilities of the
industrial olive and wine-grape by-products in Extremadura, whereby specific costs are
analyzed assuming the products’ use in a centralized power plant, while taking into account
logistics components. Freppaz et al. (2004) develop a decision support system for locating
plants and computing their optimal capacity. Nagel (2000) formulates a problem to determine
whether to construct or not a district heating network, a heating plant or a co-generation plant
using information regarding the consumers’ annual heat consumption, as well as its seasonal
distribution.
Allocation of Storage Facilities. The allocation of storage facilities is of critical strategic
importance when designing a BSC. Certain authors examine the option of on-field biomass
storage (Allen et al., 1998; Huisman et al., 1997; Sokhansanj et al., 2006; Cundiff et al.,
1997), the use of intermediate storage locations (Allen et al., 1998; Nilsson and Hansson,
2001; Tatsiopoulos and Tolis, 2003) or the option of settling the storage facility next to the
biomass power plant (Tatsiopoulos and Tolis, 2003; Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis, 2002).
Rentizelas et al. (2009b) compare these three biomass storage solutions in terms of total
system cost (see subsection 3.1.2).
Network Design. Several authors study the design of integrated biomass supply chains.
An optimization model has been developed by De Mol et al. (1997) to optimize the network
structure and the mixture of biomass types supplied to the energy plant. Rentizelas et al.
(2009a) develop a simulation and optimization model to maximize the net present value
(NPV) of the investment for bio-energy supply system’s lifetime, and decision variables
include the optimum location and capacity of the bioenergy facility, as well as the types and
optimal quantities of biomass that have to be procured. Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003) present
a comparison for cotton-stacks supply chain methods and examine the feasibility and the
problems that arise while trying to organize an integrated logistics network and optimize its
transportation economy. Gronalt and Rauch (2007) describe a novel approach for configuring
a wood biomass supply network for a certain region, providing their evaluation method for
designing regional forest fuel supply networks. Frombo et al. (2009) present the application
of the Environmental Decision Support System (EDSS) for agro-forest biomass use for
energy production at a strategic level, in which the plant location is fixed and the variables to
be optimized are the plant capacity and the quantity of material to be harvested in a specific
location.
Selection of Energy Production Technologies
The conversion of waste biomass and organic substrates into energy encompasses a wide
range of different types and sources of biomass, conversion options, end-use applications and
infrastructure requirements. Factors that influence the choice of a conversion process include
the type and quantity of biomass feedstock and the desired form of the produced energy, i.e.
end-use requirements, environmental standards, economic conditions and other project-
specific factors. Based primarily upon the biomass moisture content, the type of biomass
selected subsequently dictates the most likely form of energy conversion process. High
moisture content biomass, such as the herbaceous plant sugarcane, requires a ‘wet’
conversion process that involves fermentation, while a ‘dry’ biomass such as wood chips, is
more economically suited to gasification, pyrolysis or combustion. However, there are
additional factors which must be taken into consideration when determining the selection of
the conversion process, apart from simply moisture content (McKendry, 2002a).
Several authors have included bioenergy conversion facility in their biomass supply chain
modelling efforts. Indicatively, the results from using two biomass-to-electricity conversion
technologies, a C/ST (fluidized bed combustion with steam turbine) and G/CC (fluidized bed
gasification with combined gas–steam cycle), is compared by Caputo et al. (2005),
concluding that 56–76% of the total system operational costs are due to the biomass logistics,
thus indicating the potential for cost reduction. A comparative economic evaluation of various
bioenergy conversion technologies was conducted by Mitchell et al. (1995), using a
comprehensive biomass-to-electricity and ethanol model. Frombo et al. (2009) present, a
geographic information system (GIS)-based Environmental Decision Support System (EDSS)
for the optimal planning of forest biomass use for energy, structured properly to encompass
different energy conversion technologies (pyrolysis, gasification or combustion) in the
system. The International Energy Agency provides an overview of the perspectives for
bioenergy processes combined with main biomass resources, as well as a summary of
estimates for costs of various fuels that can be produced from biomass (IEA Bioenergy,
2007).
Balancing the Financial and Environmental Impact
Sustainability of logistics operations is a critical issue that has to be taken into account
when designing and executing biomass supply chain networks for energy production. Thus, a
comprehensive cost-benefit analysis that includes the environmental impact of the adopted
technologies and transportation means is necessary. To that end, Forsberg (2000) presents a
biomass distribution system investigating the resulting environmental load profiles of several
bioenergy chains. Hamelinck et al. (2005) analyze a generic international logistic scenario
that assumes five possible transfer points. In a modular approach the costs, energy use and
CO2 emissions of each step in the selected chains were calculated. Frombo et al. (2009)
suggest that running the strategic logistics model they develop for various technological
options, the user can obtain the optimal results for combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis
processes and compare results on the basis of economic and environmental considerations.
Elghali et al. (2007) develop a sustainability framework for the assessment of bioenergy
systems to provide practical advice for policy makers, planners and the bioenergy industry,
using multi-criteria decision analysis. Several other studies have recently been published,
addressing the critical issue of designing and evaluating sustainable supply chains, in which
profitability and environmental impacts are balanced (Linton et al., 2007; Neto et al., 2008,
2009).
Tactical and Operational Decisions
As decision-making on the tactical and operational level for BSCs is similar to that of
traditional supply chain management, the related discussion here is in brief. The tactical level
includes medium-term decisions such as aggregate planning, inventory management or fleet
management. The operational level includes day-to-day decisions, such as inventory control,
or second-stage pre-treatment operations into the facility.
Aggregate Production Planning
Aggregate production planning in BSCs is concerned with the tactical determination of

production, inventory, and work force levels to meet energy demand requirements over a
mid-term planning horizon. Computational stochastic simulation models are presented for
exploiting forest-biomass (Gallis, 1996), cotton residue (Gemtos and Tsiricoglou, 1999) and
herbal biomass (Huisman et al., 1997). De Mol et al. (1997) develop a simulation -
optimization model to calculate energy consumption and cost to transport biomass from its
source to its conversion plant. Cundiff et al. (1997) design a biomass delivery system that
considers systems-related issues associated with the harvest, storage, and transport of
herbaceous biomass from on-farm storage locations to a centrally located plant. A dynamic
simulation model for baling and transporting wheat straw by Nilsson analyses a hypothetical
straw-to-energy system for district heating plants in Sweden (Nilsson, 1999a; Nilsson,
1999b). Dornburg and Faaij (2001) study a mathematical model which analyses and processes
past data of biomass distribution cases using linear or exponential regression models in order
to predict and solve a similar biomass distribution problem. Hansen et al. (2002) develop a
simulation model of sugar cane harvest and mill delivery in South Africa, whereas
Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003) simulate a cotton biomass supply chain to find biomass
delivery schedule. Moreover, Sokhansanj et al. (2006) develop a framework of a dynamic
integrated biomass supply analysis and logistics model to simulate the collection, storage, and
transport operations for supplying agricultural biomass to a biorefinery and Kumar and
Sokhansanj (2007) use this model to evaluate switchgrass delivery system. Ravula et al.
(2008b) simulate the transportation system of a cotton gin, using a discrete event simulation
model, to determine the operating parameters under various management practices, while
they provide a comparison between two policy strategies for scheduling trucks in a biomass
logistics system (Ravula et al., 2008a).
Only a few research papers address inventory management and control, only a few
research papers attempt to tackle this field (Tembo et al., 2003; Tatsiopoulos and Tolis, 2003;
Gallis, 1996). The key variables of biomass logistics systems are addressed in three other
studies, investigating strategically the interdependencies between them and their effect on
supply chain efficiency and cost (Hamelinck et al., 2005; Caputo et al., 2005; Hamelinck et
al., 2003). Furthermore, Allen et al. (1998) address the supply chain considerations and costs
of using biomass fuel on a large scale for electricity generation at power stations, recognizing
the importance of logistics planning and management facets.
Selection of Collection, Storage, Pre-Treatment and Transportation Methods
Selection, procurement or design of collection, storage, pre-treatment or transportation

methods are tactical decisions (or even strategic in cases of strong technological
interdependence of the operations) that the research community has studied for specific
biomass raw materials, such as switchgrass (Cundiff and Marsh, 1996), forest fuel (Eriksson
and Björheden, 1989), cotton plant residues (Fischer and Gaderer, 2000; Gemtos and
Tsiricoglou, 1992), herbaceous biomass in general (Cundiff and Grisso, 2008), logging
residue (Nurmi, 1999) and corn stover (Shinners et al., 2007). McGowin and Wiltsee (1996)
analyze several biomass treatment methods. Huisman et al. (2000) provide a generalized
comparison of bale storage systems for biomass, whereas Rentizelas et al. (2009b) review
research relevant to biomass storage and analyze three biomass storage methods, while
applying the latter to a case study and presenting tangible comparative results.
During harvest, some of the decisions that need to be made include the timing for
collecting the crops from the fields and the determination of the level of resources needed to
perform this activity. Some other decisions made at harvest include the scheduling of
equipment, labor, and transportation equipment. Jiao et al. (2005) present a harvest-
scheduling model for a region in Australia with multiple independent sugar cane fields. Recio
et al. (2003) embe a mixed integer program into a decision support system (DSS) that
provides detailed plans for farmers’ activities such as crop selection, scheduling of field tasks,
investment analysis, machinery selection and other aspects of the production process. Higgins
and Neville (2002) develop models to deal with operational decisions for scheduling
harvesting operations. Ferrer et al. (2008) determine a plan for the optimal scheduling of the
harvest of wine grapes using an LP model with the objective of minimizing operational and
grape quality costs.
Another critical decision is the most effective timing of the material’s pre-treatment and
specifically whether it will take place before or after its transportation (e.g. production of
wood chips, pellets and other compressed forms to facilitate the transportation and storage of
biomass). De Mol et al. (1997) present a cost optimization mathematical model that
determines biomass flows in multi-biomass supply chain networks, as well as the technical
and economical feasibility of pre-treatment at the optimal energy conversion sites for each
biomass type.
MATCHING OF THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK WITH THE

EXISTING RESEARCH
Our analysis has clearly demonstrated that biomass energy production is a rapidly
evolving research field. Table 1 displays matching of the critical waste biomass supply chain
decisions identified in Section 4 with the relevant research efforts. This classification can be
used to identify overlaps and gaps in the existing literature.
Table 1. Matching of the Proposed Framework with Existing Research
Decisions References
Skoulou and Zabaniotou (2007), Voivontas et al. (2001), Noon and Daly
Selection of Collection Sites (1996), Singh et al. (2008), Ma et al. (2005), Batzias et al. (2005), Dagnall
et al. (2000), Kinoshita et al. (2009), Ramachandra et al. (2004)
Nilsson and Hansson (2001), Voivontas et al. (2001), Tembo et al. (2003),
Exploitation of Multiple
Collection Freppaz et al. (2004), De Mol et al. (1997), Frombo et al. (2009),
Types of Biomass
Rentizelas et al. (2009a and 2009b)
Selection or Design of Cundiff and Marsh (1996), Gemtos and Tsiricoglou (1992), Shinners et al.
Harvesting Methods and (2007), Cundiff and Grisso (2008), Jiao et al. (2005), Recio et al. (2003),
Equipment Higgins and Neville (2002), Ferrer et al. (2008)
Selection or Design of
Eriksson and Björheden, (1989); Cundiff and Grisso (2008)
Pre-treatment Equipment
Timing of Pre-treatment De Mol et al. (1997)
Fleet Management Eriksson and Björheden (1989)
Vehicle Planning &
Transportation Scheduling Ravula et al. (2008a)
Outsourcing Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003)

Allen et al. (1998), Huisman et al. (1997), Sokhansanj et al. (2006),
Allocation of Storage
Cundiff et al. (1997), Nilsson and Hansson (2001), Tatsiopoulos and Tolis
Facilities
(2003), Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis (2002), Rentizelas et al. (2009b)
Gemtos and Tsiricoglou (1992), Cundiff and Marsh (1996), Shinners et al.
Storage (2007), Cundiff and Grisso (2008), Eriksson and Björheden (1989),
Selection of Storage Methods
McGowin and Wiltsee (1996), Fischer and Gaderer (2000), Nurmi (1999),
Huisman et al. (2000), Rentizelas et al. (2009b)
Inventory Management &
Tembo et al. (2003), Gallis (1996), Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003)
Control
Panichelli and Gnansounou (2008), Graham et al. (1997), Shi et al. (2008),
Allocation of Conversion Zhan et al. (2005), Papadopoulos and Katsigiannis (2002), Tembo et al.
Facilities (2003), Dornburg and Faaij (2001), Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003),
Rentizelas et al. (2009a), Freppaz et al. (2004)
Gan (2007), Jenkins (1997), Nguyen and Prince (1996), Kumar et al.
Optimal Size/Capacity & (2003), Tembo et al. (2003), Bakos et al. (2008), Celma et al. (2007),
Energy Number of Plants Freppaz et al. (2004), Nagel (2000), Rentizelas et al. (2009a), Frombo et
Conversion al. (2009)
Gallis (1996), Huisman et al. (1997), De Mol et al. (1997), Cundiff et al.
Aggregate Production (1997), Gemtos and Tsiricoglou (1999), Nilsson (1999a), Nilsson (1999b),
Planning Dornburg and Faaij (2001), Hansen et al. (2002), Tembo et al. (2003),
Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003), Sokhansanj et al. (2006)
Conversion Technologies e.g. McKendry (2002a), Kaltscmitt et al. (2004), Caputo et al. (2005),
Installed Mitchell et al. (1995), Frombo et al. (2009)
Nagel (2000), Cundiff et al. (1997), De Mol et al. (1997), Tatsiopoulos and
Tolis (2003), Tembo et al. (2003), Gronalt and Rauch (2007), Gan (2007),
Design of BSCs
Frombo et al. (2009), Ayoub et al. (2007), Freppaz et al. (2004),
Rentizelas et al. (2009a)
van Dam et al. (2005), Junginger et al. (2006), Koopmans (2005), Nagel
(2000), McCormick and Kåberger (2007), Tayur et al. (1999), Key and
Ensuring Long-term Supply and Demand MacDonald (2006), Hovelaque et al. (2009), Ligon, (2003), Mathews
(2008), Poole et al. (1998), Roumasset (1995), Roumasset and Lee (2007),
Kumar et al. (2002)
Balancing the Financial & Environmental Forsberg (2000), Hamelinck et al. (2005), Frombo et al. (2009), Elghali et
Profit al. (2007), Linton et al. (2007), Neto et al. (2008, 2009)
Symbols: S for Strategic, T for Tactical, O for Operational
Although the vast majority of the studies in the field of biomass-to-energy production
examine the system from a purely technological or ecological point of view, there is a subset
of the literature body that addresses the relevant and highly critical supply chain management
issues. In fact, it is evident that the published works on BSCs have increased significantly
during the last decade, indicating the increased importance of the efficient design and
evaluation of sustainable biomass supply chain networks on a global level.
As exhibited in Table 1, the current research captures only a subset of the decisions
needed to be taken at a strategic, tactical and operational level and focuses mainly on the first
and the last level of BSCs, i.e. the collection of biomass and the energy production. More
specifically, there is a plethora of literature findings regarding the assessment of biomass
potential, the selection of collection sites and the allocation and optimal capacity of the
energy conversion facilities. However, only a few of the existing research papers tackle the
biomass supply chain network design systemically. In addition, despite the fact that
sustainability of supply chains in general is a research field of emerging interest, only a
handful of papers address the critical issue of designing sustainable BSCs in which
profitability and environmental impact are balanced. Apart from the environmental impact of
energy conversion technologies, decisions regarding biomass logistics operations should be of
first priority as these operations could be rather harmful for the environment if not planned
carefully.
Moreover, our analysis has demonstrated that strategic decisions on BSCs have attracted
more the interest of the research community compared with the tactical and operational
decisions. However, tactical decisions and mainly aggregate production planning emerge as
further challenging research field that has not been investigated thoroughly this far. There are
only a few studies that investigate inventory and fleet management in BSCs, while related
scientific outcomes would be of great value due to the stochasticity of supply and demand,
and the unique characteristics of biomass networks (as discussed thoroughly in subsection
3.2). Finally, another critical decision that has not been addressed this far is the optimal
timing of the material’s pre-treatment.
MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR BIOMASS SUPPLY CHAIN

MANAGEMENT: A TAXONOMY
In this Section we review supply chain planning models focusing on strategic and tactical
decisions and specifically on the design and aggregate planning of BSCs. In table 2, we
provide a taxonomy of the research works already identified in Section 4 according to the
modeling technique employed, such as spreadsheet modeling, mathematical programming
and heuristics. On a second level, we present an additional classification according to the
unique characteristics of the supply chains under study, such as transportation mode,
environmental impact, storage options examined and other; these characteristics are presented
in Table 3.
Table 2. Modeling approaches and software used in reviewed literature
Frombo et al.,
Sokhansanj et
Cundiff et al.,
De Mol et al.,
Hamelinck et
&Tolis, 2003
Caputo et al.,
Tembo et al.,
Ravula et al.,
Tatsiopoulos
Rauch, 2007
Nagel, 2000
Gallis, 1996
et al., 2009a
Sokhansanj,
Gronalt and
et al., 200b
Allen et al.,
Huisman et
Kumar and
Mitchell et
Mitchell et
Freppaz et
Rentizelas
Rentizelas
Nilsson &
1999a&b
2008a&b
Hansson,
al., 1995
al., 1997
al., 1999
al., 2004
al., 2005
al., 2006
Nilsson,
1997
1997
1998
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
Modeling Approach
Energy conversion considered x x x x x x x x x
Single-biomass problem x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Multi-biomass problem x x x x x x x x
Uncertain biomass supply x x x x x x x
Economics studied x x x x x x x x x x
Stochastic demand x x x x
Deterministic demand x x x x x x x x x x
Spreadsheet modeling x x x x x x x
Heuristic approach x x
LP x x x
NLP x
MILP x x x
SQP x
Simulation x x x x x x x x x
Software / Tools
LINGO x x
OMP x
CPLEX x
MATLAB x
GAMS/CPLEX x
GASP IV
SIMAN (Arena) x x
SLAMSYSTEM x
EXTEND x x
SIGMA x
PROSIM x
GIS x x x
EXCEL x x x x x x
Noon and Daly (1996), Voivontas et al. (2001), Frombo et al. (2009), Mitchell et al. (1995), Mitchell (2000), Ramachandra et al. (2004), Freppaz et
Development of DSS
al. (2004), Rentizelas et al. (2009), Ayoub et al. (2007)
Spreadsheet Modeling
Spreadsheet modeling has been used widely for the analytical evaluation of biomass
supply chain costs. Allen et al. (1998) perform an analytic supply chain modeling for five
biomass types using a spreadsheet package, concluding that 20% –50% of biomass delivered
cost is due to transportation and handling activities. Mitchell et al. (1995) provide a
comparative economic evaluation of various bioenergy conversion technologies and examine
alternative feedstock supply strategies using a spreadsheet-based decision support system.
The cost of production, collection and storage of biomass from short rotation forestry (i.e.
growing of trees, usually willow or poplar, in extremely dense stands) is also examined by
Mitchell et al. (1999).
Hamelinck et al. (2005) compare long-distance bioenergy supply chains and assess the
influence of key parameters, such as distance, timing and scale on performance. Moreover,
the economical feasibility of biomass utilization for direct production of electric energy by
means of combustion and gasification-conversion processes, along with a detailed evaluation
of logistic costs, is examined by Caputo et al. (2004), taking into account total capital
investments, revenues from energy sale and total operating costs.
Mathematical Modeling
In the bioenergy supply chain literature, several optimization methods have been applied.
Cundiff et al. (1997) develop a linear programming optimization model to minimize a cost
function that is comprised of the costs of biomass logistics activities between the on-farm
storage locations and the centrally located power plant, the construction and expansion costs
of storage facilities, as well as the cost of violating storage capacity or lost revenue in case of
biomass shortage. Tatsiopoulos and Tolis (2003) develop a detailed cotton-stalk LP based
supply chain model for biomass delivery scheduling. Similarly, Frombo et al. (2009) develop
an LP optimization model for the determination of the site of a single energy conversion plant
and the required harvested biomass quantities, taking into account regulatory and
technological constraints.
A Mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model is proposed by de Mol et al. (1997)
to estimate the annual flows of biomass for designed networks under several scenarios,
encompassing several pre-treatment options. Tembo et al. (2003) develop a multi-region,
multi-period, MILP model that encompasses alternative feedstocks, feedstock production,
delivery, and processing. Vlachos et al. (2008) develop a MILP model for supporting strategic
decision-making by identifying the optimal location of a BSC’s nodes along with the
associated network flows and implement it for the design of a regional BSC located within
the Region of Central Macedonia, Greece. Finally, Nagel (2000) presents a methodology for
biomass to energy supply at a regional level. The problem was formulated as a MILP model
using a dynamic evaluation of economic efficiency, and binary decision variables to
determine whether to construct or not a district heating network, a heating plant or a co-
generation plant.
Simulation Modeling
An activity oriented stochastic computer simulation model of forest biomass logistics in

Greece, based on the SLAMSYSTEM simulation language, has been developed by Gallis
(1996). De Mol et al. (1997) implemented a simulation model to obtain insights into the costs
and energy consumption of the logistics operations, using the PROSIM simulation package.
A dynamic simulation model named SHAM (Straw HAndling Model) for baling and
transporting wheat straw by Nilsson analyses a hypothetical straw-to-energy system for
district heating plants in Sweden (Nilsson, 1999a; Nilsson, 1999b). The objective of the last
two studies was to evaluate and optimize various alternatives for handling straw with respect
to system performance, costs and energy needs. Moreover, the dynamic simulation model
SHAM is used in a following study by Nilsson and Hansson (2001) aimed at satisfying a
daily average heating demand load.
Sokhansanj et al. (2006) simulate the flow of biomass from field to a biorefinery, by
developing the dynamic Integrated Biomass Supply, Analysis and Logistics model (IBSAL),
in order to model climatic and operational constraints, to quantify resource allocations for
biomass supply and transport operations and to calculate the biomass delivered cost. Kumar
and Sokhansanj (2007) use the IBSAL model to evaluate delivery systems for three biomass
collection options. Ravula et al. (2008b) simulate the transportation system of a cotton gin,
using a discrete event simulation model, to determine the operating parameters under various
management practices, while in another work they present a comparison between two policy
strategies for scheduling trucks in a biomass logistics system (Ravula et al., 2008a).
Rentizelas et al. (2009a) simulate using Matlab the operation of a biomass-to-energy
system comprised of the biomass supply chain, the bioenergy conversion plant and the DHC
network that will supply the final customers with the energy products needed. Rentizelas et al.
(2009b) analyze three biomass storage methods through simulation modeling and are applied
to a case study to come up with tangible comparative results. Finally, Huisman et al. (1997)
develop a detailed simulation model for Miscanthus giganteus biomass (a large perennial
grass used for energy production).
OTHER MODELING APPROACHES

A number of researchers attempt to tackle the biomass supply systems’ configuration
using interactive decision support systems (DSS). Moreover, GIS (Geographical Information
System) methodologies have been employed in several studies to estimate the exact
transportation distances for supplying specific amounts of energy crop feedstock, taking into
account the spatial variability in their yield (Graham et al., 1997; Graham et al., 2000). Noon
and Daly (1996) propose a GIS-based DSS for estimating the costs for supplying wood fuel to
its twelve coal-fired power plants, able to analyze efficiently the transportation networks and
estimate distances and costs. A GIS–DSS to estimate the power production potential of
agricultural residues is developed by Voivontas et al. (2001). This analysis handled all
possible restrictions and identified candidate power plants using an iterative procedure that
locates bioenergy units and establishes the needed cultivated area for biomass collection.
Frombo et al. (2009) present a GIS-based Environmental Decision Support System (EDSS)
for the optimal planning of forest biomass use for energy.
Moreover, Mitchell et al. (1995) develop a bioenergy assessment model for the techno-
economic assessment of bioelectricity generation, heat and liquid fuels from a range of
feedstocks and several conversion technologies. Later, Mitchell (2000) discusses the
problems of modeling bioenergy supply systems and develops a DSS for bioenergy
applications, focusing on harvesting wood for energy from conventional forestry and short
rotation forestry. Ramachandra et al. (2004) develop a DSS to assess regional biomass energy
potential. Freppaz et al. (2004) present a DSS methodology for the regional exploitation of
available biomass supply for energy production, through a combination of GIS and
mathematical modeling. Rentizelas et al. (2009b) develop a DSS for multi-biomass energy
conversion applications. The system aims at supporting an investor by assessing investment
scenarios in existing multi-biomass exploitation facilities for tri-generation applications
(electricity, heating and cooling) in a given area. Ayoub et al. (2007) provide a two level
general Bioenergy Decision System (gBEDS) for bioenergy production planning and
implementation. Finally, Gronalt and Rauch (2007) propose a simple stepwise heuristic
approach to solve the forest fuel supply network design problem.
LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING MODELING EFFORTS

The taxonomy of quantitative-based biomass supply chain modeling efforts, as presented
in Tables 2 and 3 reveals several gaps in the existing research in the field of BSCs. Fistly, an
interesting finding is that the use of integrated planning models for biomass SCM is still quite
limited. The existing models address only a minor subset of the decisions needed to be taken
at a strategic, tactical and operational level. Although integrated models are inherently more
complex, their potential benefits outweigh the added complexity. The existing models focus
mostly on the strategic design of BSCs and the allocation of its nodes, while only a few deal
with tactical and operational planning, including inventory management and control, fleet
management and vehicle scheduling.
A second finding is that planning models for biomass utilization rarely capture variability
at the different echelons of the supply chain. For example, many authors manage to retain
linearity and flexibility of their models as they model the biomass supply chain while
omitting the energy conversion processes. Others capture the stochasticity of demand, as well
as the probabilistic production or case-dependant constraints through simulation models.
While spreadsheet modeling has been used to display analytically the economics of supply
chain operations it is not effecting in identifying optimal supply chain designs. Hybrid
methods have also been used when non-linearity is introduced in the models. The tradeoff
between model’s solvability and realism is always in place. Models with different levels of
detail and realism may be useful at different stages of the design process.
In plant storage
Harvesting costs
Production costs
Purchasing costs
On - farm storage
Road, Rail or Water

Intermediate storage
Road Transportation
Processing considered
Environmental impact
Biomass types studied

Contracting with a 3pl
Undertaken by farmers
Long-distance networks
Short-distance networks
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Forestry and
Mitchell et al., 1995
short rotation coppice
x
x
x
x
x
Forest biomass Gallis, 1996
x
x
x
x
x
x
Switchgrass Cundiff et al., 1997
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Miscanthus Giganteous Huisman et al., 1997
x
x
x
x
x
Prunings, waste-wood,
De Mol et al., 1997
sewage sludge, waste paper
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Forest fuel, Short Rotation

Allen et al., 1998
Coppice, Straw, Miscanthus
x
x
x
x
x
Straw Nilsson, 1999a&b
x
x
x
x
x
x
Short rotation forestry Mitchell et al., 1999
x
x
x
Biomass Nagel, 2000
x
x
x
x
x
Cerealstraw and reed canary Nilsson & Hansson,

grass 2001
x
x
x
x
Storage
Lignocellulosic biomass
Collection
Tembo et al., 2003

feedstock
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Transportation
Tatsiopoulos &Tolis,
Other parameters
Cotton stalks
2003
x
x
x
x
Forest & waste biomass Freppaz et al., 2004

x
x
x
x
x
x
agro-industrial and wood

Caputo et al., 2005
wastes
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Forestry residues and Hamelinck et al.,

energy crops 2005
x
x
x
x
x
Sokhansanj et al.,
Corn stover supply
2006
x
x
x
x
x
x
Kumar and
Switchgrass
Sokhansanj, 2007
x
Wood biomass & forest Gronalt and Rauch,

fuels 2007
x
x
x
x
x
x
Table 3. Supply chain issues addressed in reviewed biomass supply chain planning models
Ravula et al.,
Cotton gin
2008a&b
x
x
x
x
x
Wheat Straw, corn stalks,

Rentizelas et al.,
olive & almond tree
2009a
prunings
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Cotton stalks, Almond tree Rentizelas et al.,

proonings 200b
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Forest, agricultural,
Frombo et al., 2009
industry. residues
Another byproduct of the taxonomy is that most modeling approaches of BSCs optimize
a single objective such as cost or profit. However, the design, planning, scheduling of supply
networks often involves trade-offs among different goals. An additional optimization goal in
BSC modeling could be the minimization of CO2 emissions of its logistics operations.
Finally, multi-objective optimization has been considered by different researchers. For
example, Sabri and Beamon (2000) develop an integrated multi-objective supply chain model
for strategic and operational supply chain planning under uncertainties of product, supply and
demand.
CONCLUSION
The merit of the gradual replacement of fossil fuel by renewable energy sources has been
clearly documented. Logistics and supply chain management are disciplines of critical
importance for the successful energetic utilization of waste biomass and organic substrates.
Interested stakeholders for designing and implementing such BSCs need to address
systemically an array of decisions spanning all levels of the natural hierarchical decision-
making process. To that effect, based on industrial practice and needs and existing research,
we propose a novel comprehensive hierarchical decision-making framework. We identify
gaps in the existing research and thus opportunities for additional research by matching the
proposed framework with the existing state-of-the-art research. We then proceeded by
additionally taxonomizing these modeling efforts based on the modeling techniques employed
to unveil limitations of the existing efforts. We envision the developed framework to provide
systemic guidance for researchers and practitioners alike, in their effort towards designing
and executing efficient BSCs.
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Chapter 4
WASTE PICKING AT LANDFILLS: A SOURCE OF

LIVELIHOOD OR INTERFERENCE WITH WASTE
DISPOSAL PROCESSES?
Benjamin Bolaane*
ABSTRACT
There appears to be a consensus that stakeholder participation is one of the key
dimensions to realising sustainable waste management. Among the identified
stakeholders are waste pickers. This chapter established the extent and manifestations of
waste picking at the Gaborone landfill. The chapter used a cross-section of methods that
included informal interviews, in-depth interviews and key informant interviews. It was
found that there was extensive waste picking at the Gaborone landfill mainly constituted
of informal waste pickers who irked a living directly from picking and formal waste
pickers who were employed by the formal recycling sector to pick materials of their
interest. However, the attitude of local authority officials who manage the landfill was to
exclude the informal waste pickers through a permit system. Informal waste pickers were
deemed to be uncontrollable and interfering with daily landfill activities. It was also
found that waste pickers were engaged in collaborative efforts to support each other and
enhance their earning potential. This provides an opportunity to build into the existing
networks for integration of waste pickers into formal waste management activities. On
the basis of the foregoing, this chapter proposes that to realise sustainability of waste
management systems there should be recognition by waste management policy that waste
pickers are a critical stakeholder who need recognition in waste management processes.
The emphasis on government policy should be on educating all stakeholders on the
symbiotic nature of their relationships.
* Department of Architecture and Planning, P.O. Box 601093, Gaborone, BOTSWANA, bolaaneb@mopipi.ub.bw
122 Benjamin Bolaane
1. INTRODUCTION
Stakeholder participation is one of the key components of the integrated sustainable solid
waste management concept (van de Klundert and Aschütz 2001). Among the identified key
stakeholders are waste pickers (Sudhir et al. 1997, Rouse 2006, Wilson et al. 2006). There
appears to be a consensus that the primary objective of waste picking is earning a livelihood
(Ahmed and Ali 2004, Hayami 2006, Olu-Olu and Omotosho 2007). In addition to the
economic benefits of waste picking, there is continuing realization that the pickers also
benefit local authorities by reducing the quantity of waste to be collected and disposed of
(Baud et al. 2001, Hayami 2006). These positives attributes to waste picking have motivated
most practitioners and researchers in the field to focus their efforts on identifying ways and
means of integrating waste pickers in the waste formal management processes (Ali et al.
1999, Wilson 2006). But opponents of waste picking are mainly concerned with occupational
health and working conditions of waste pickers (UNEP 2000, Torun et al. 2006). Others,
primarily local authorities, argue that they interfere with operational activities of disposal
sites (Baud et al. 2001, Rouse 2006). This concern has led to the landfill managers and other
officials to work on mechanisms that are intended to exclude waste pickers from accessing
landfills (Mitchell 2008). The rational for such conduct by the officials is informed by public
policy that is often driven by the need to safeguard public health. This has often led to police
harassment and eviction of waste pickers (Rouse 2006; Wilson 2006), who have often
responded by blocking access of collection trucks, resisting extinguishing of landfill fires by
water (Rouse 2006).While picking occurs at collection points, transfer stations and disposal
sites (Sudhir et al. 1997, Wilson et al. 2006), it appears the primary concerns by the
opponents of waste picking are mainly with regard to picking at disposal sites (Rouse 2006;
Wilson 2006).
Waste picking is largely a phenomenon of developing countries, with relatively high
levels of unemployment and poverty (UNEP 2000, Hayami 2006). Generally, the rise in wage
rate and better employment opportunities in a country makes waste picking eventually
unviable (Beede and Bloom 1995, Amin 2005). The majority of the countries where waste
picking has been documented such as Vietnam, Pakistan, India, Phillipines and Indonesia are
classified in the income categories of low to low-middle income (World Bank 2007). In
Botswana, an upper middle income country, with income per capita of USA$ 6120 in 2007
(World Bank 2007), waste picking as a vocation is not common and it is mainly restricted to
landfills. However, limited work has been done to establish the extent and manifestations of
waste picking at the Gaborone landfill. Rankokwane and Gwebu (2006) on one of the few
studies carried out at the Gaborone landfill concluded that even though waste picking at the
Gaborone landfill may be hazardous to the informal entrepreneurs, it has the potential to
sustain livelihoods. The objective of this chapter is to fill the existing knowledge gap by
determining the character of waste picking at the Gaborone landfill and its contribution to
livelihood diversification. More specifically, the study established the extent and magnitude
of waste picking at the Gaborone; profiled waste pickers at the landfill and established their
motives for engaging in waste picking and determined the contribution of waste picking to
livelihood diversification of the pickers. The chapter recommends policy interventions that
recognize the role of waste pickers as a stakeholder in waste management.
Waste Picking at Landfills 123
2. CONCEPTUAL BENCHMARKS FOR SUSTAINABLE

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Subsequent to the environmental concerns of waste generation, Integrated Waste
Management (IWM) emerged as a leading concept in sustainable solid waste management
(Tchobanoglous 1993; Palmisano and Barlaz 1996; van Beukering et al. 1999). The broader
concept implies that decisions on waste handling should take into account environmental,
social and institutional dimensions. The integrative aspect of IWM lies in the tradeoff
between these dimensions. Among the key elements of the integrated waste management
approach is the waste hierarchy (Barret and Lawlor 1997 and Shah 2000). The waste
hierarchy is an ordered list of approaches to deal with municipal solid waste (MSW), which
ranks the options according to their environmental acceptability, with waste reduction the
most preferred, and landfill disposal the least preferred. However, there is a school of thought
that despite being generally accepted, the rigid use of the hierarchy will not always lead to
environmentally and economically sustainable systems, and it makes no attempt to measure
the impacts of the different options (White et al. 1995). The result of this school of thought is
a proposal for a holistic approach that recognizes that all disposal options have a role to play
in waste management. Van Beukering et al. (1999) are of the view that the waste hierarchy
was never intended to be a dogma as its critics often argue, but was mainly intended to
provide options for policy makers, and only referring to environmental effects not economic
or social criteria. Overall, IWM seems to place emphasis of the different waste management
system elements, and appears to be oblivious to the fact that waste management does not take
place in a vacuum.
On realization that waste management, is much more that putting the traditional waste
management systems in a certain order, the concept of Integrated Sustainable Waste
Management (ISWM) was developed by WASTE, Advisors on Urban Environment and
Development in 1995. It has three dimensions of Stakeholders, Waste System Elements and
Aspects. It differs from the conventional waste management system by seeking stakeholder
participation, covering waste prevention and resource recovery, including interactions with
other systems and promoting an integration of different habitat scales (city, neighbourhood
and household). While the ISWM concept is broad, with its dimensions over encompassing,
researchers and practitioners seem to put emphasis of sustainability on resource recovery
through initiating expensive source separation schemes in the richer countries and in
supporting recycling initiatives by certain sectors of society in developing economies
(Shekdar 2009). The emphasis for sustainability of waste management systems is placed on
the stakeholder dimension of ISWM, with the view that each stakeholder has a role to play
(Joseph 2006; Ahmed and Ali 2006; Rose 2006; Wilson et al. 2006). The informal sector or
waste pickers, who depend on recycling materials from waste for their livelihood, have been
identified as a key stakeholder (Wilson et al. 2006; Joseph 2006; Ahmed and Ali 2004). There
is growing recognition of the economic, social and environmental benefits of waste pickers in
waste management. This has led to considerable activity in many developing countries in
developing policies, often led by NGOs that seek to integrate them into formal waste
management activities (Joseph 2006; Wilson et al. 2006).
What seems to emerge from the preceding discussion is that sustainable waste
management systems should be premised on multiple stakeholder approach, with each
stakeholder having a role to play. For this to be achieved there is need to build some
consensus that apart from the limitations brought about by waste pickers in the waste
management process, they are an important stakeholder. It is this consensus with other
stakeholder in the sector that could realize formal recognition and integration of waste pickers
as partners in waste management. That is not to say ISWM is a panacea to waste management
issues, but rather, it provides a framework for the selection of appropriate technologies and
institutional setup for development of sustainable waste management systems.
3. METHODOLOGY
The study used a cross-spectrum of data collection techniques that included informal
interviews, in-depth interviews and key informant interviews and observations. Informal
interviews preceded in-depth interviews and were mainly exploratory intended to establish
rapport and identifying waste pickers that were cooperative and willing to share their
experiences in relation to their waste picking endeavours. This was important in that waste
pickers tend to have a spasmodic ‘work schedule’ and generally shy away from unfamiliar
strangers prying into their business (Rankokwane and Gwebu 2006). The interviews were
conducted in January 2006. At the time of the study, there were approximately between 200
and 300 waste pickers at the Gaborone landfill. Of these waste pickers, 61 were working for 6
middlemen, picking materials that included paper/cardboard, metal, tyres, glass bottles,
plastic bottles and metal cans. In addition to waste pickers employed by middlemen, there
were others who picked waste on an informal basis. Informal interviews were conducted with
the 20 waste pickers, 10 from each category of pickers (formally employed or self employed).
The interviewees were selected randomly subject to their agreement to engaging in the
interview. A total of 6 in-depth interviews were carried out with waste pickers selected on the
basis of whether they were employed by formal recycling company or self employed (2
formally employed and 4 informal pickers).
Key informant interviews were carried with the landfill management crew at the
Gaborone landfill that included landfill manager, landfill security officer and landfill plant
operator to establish the operational constraints associated with waste picking. Another key
informant interviewed was a representative of Somarelang Tikologo (an environmental NGO)
Formal sector entrepreneurs were also interviewed to establish the use to which they put the
materials obtained from waste pickers. Observations mainly focused on the interactions of
waste pickers and the operational activities of the landfill.
The raw data from interviews were processed using Microsoft Excel to provide tables and
descriptive statistics for analysis. Observations and responses to in-depth interviews were
organised into themes.
4. GABORONE LANDFILL AND WASTE PICKING ACTIVITIES

The Gaborone landfill was opened in 1993. It is located about 5km from the city centre
(see Figure 1). Situated in a area measuring 630m by 340 m, it was designed to receive waste
for 10 years. It was closed from receiving waste on 30th September 2009, following the
opening of a new landfill that serves Gaborone and the surrounding areas. The main activities
at the Gaborone landfill as observed during fieldwork involved daily delivery of waste from
the different waste generators of households, commercial enterprises and light industries.
Waste was delivered by local authorities’ trucks, private companies contracted by the local
authority and individuals. As the collection vehicles entered the landfill, they were directed to
the appropriate zone for unloading, depending on the materials to be disposed of. There were
designated zones for refuse, garden waste, scrap metals and tyres. At construction, the landfill
was security fenced to bar intruders including waste pickers. At the time of the study, the
perimeter fence for the landfill was dilapidated and almost accessible at any point. It was not
clear when informal waste picking started at the Gaborone landfill. But there were
suggestions in the public media that it intensified with the dilapidation of the security fence.
The intensity of waste picking was viewed by local authority officials to be interfering with
daily landfill operations as waste pickers climbed into disposal vehicles as they arrived at the
landfill (see Figure 2), getting on the way of the bulldozer and compactor as they spread and
compacted refuse respectively and spreading refuse around the disposal area (Daily news
2005; Ontebetse 2007). Daily News (2003) reported on complaints by residents of
neighbourhoods close to the landfill about smoke emanating from the landfill mainly
attributed to burning of waste by waste pickers. There was also some public health concerns
reported in the public media emanating from allegations that waste pickers were picking
foodstuff such as chickens, expired canned food and drinks that they sold to food vendors
(Ontebetse 2007, Daily News 2001)
Figure ii. Waste collection vehicle entering the landfill with waste pickers climbing it
On the basis of these concerns, Gaborone City decided to implement measures that were
intended to restrict entry of waste pickers into the landfill. Among the measures implemented
were security patrol around the perimeter fence of the landfill and licensing of waste pickers.
However, the landfill perimeter patrol initiative that involved four security personnel during
the day and two during the night failed because they were overwhelmed by the numbers of
waste pickers wanting to enter the landfill (Daily News 2005). The initial permits were given
to formal recyclers who had lobbied the city council for access to the landfill to pick
recyclables at the exclusion of informal waste pickers. The formal recyclers would in turn
hire waste pickers who they had to register with the local authority to pick materials of their
interest. At inception, four companies recycling paper, glass, plastic and metal cans were
licensed. Figure 3 shows metal cans picked by this arrangement ready for collection by a
company that provides intermediate markets for recyclables (see Bolaane and Ali 2005).
Figure iii. Picked metal cans ready for collection
The above discussions show that there was desire to access recyclables from the landfill
by formal and informal sectors. This could be indicative of that recyclables are not readily
accessible before they reach the landfill, primarily because there no established source
separation. However materials obtained at the landfill could be of lower quality as a result of
cross contamination. In addition to limited access to recyclables before they reach the landfill,
there appears to be some power struggle to access recyclables between the formal and
informal sector. The formal sector lobbied the local authority for access to recyclables at the
exclusion of the informal sector. The local authority acceded to the formal sector request
though the introduction of a permit system. This could indicate some prejudice on informal
waste pickers by the local authority. This could possibly be a scenario where profit is given
preference to livelihood.
Box 1. Typical waste picking permit
CONDITIONAL PERMIT TO SALVAGE MATERIAL YOU APPLIED FOR TO

COLLECT FROM GABORONE CITY COUNCIL – LANDFILL SITE
Your application can only be accepted if you can agree and promise to comply with the
following conditions:
1. Provided you enter the landfill at 0.800 am and report to the main gate at 15.30 hrs to
knock-off on daily basis from Monday to Friday only weekends and public holidays
excluded.
2. Collect only what you had applied for, and bring water for yourself for drinking
purposes.
3. No babies and school going children less than 18 years will be allowed into the
landfill site for safety and health reasons.
4. Permit cannot be passed on to the next person.
5. No one will be allowed to pick-up or scavenge foodstuff from the landfill site for
eating or selling purposes.
6. Be regular worker, but locals can absent themselves for three weeks, foreigners five
weeks consecutively for good reason, if you have a good reasons for exceeding the
specified weeks, you should inform management.
7. Salvaged materials should not be left unattended for a long period of time such that
they discourage smooth landfill operations
8. Termination of permit can be done any time by GCC in writing to the applicant
SIGNED AGREEMENT
I, …………………………….. the applicant hereby agree and promise GCC to comply
with all conditions stated above and thereby append my own signature
………………………………..
ID……………………………. Passport No……………………………
PERMIT
Permission is given to the applicant …………………………………to salvage -------------

-----------------------from GCC landfill starting from this day----------------------
Box 1 shows typical details provided in waste picking agreement entered into by the
waste pickers and Gaborone City Council. A closer reading of the conditions of the
agreement shows that while it was initially given to formal recycling companies; it was also
meant for individual waste pickers. The agreement also restricted times at which to pick
recyclables and excluded food stuff from materials that could be picked, probably as a result
of public health concerns. Overall, the permit system seems to be encouraging recycling
through allowing waste picking waste picking by employees of the formal sector. However, if
viewed against the concerns of the officials, it appears they do not encourage waste picking at
the landfill because of concerns such as interference with landfill operations and public health
threats of food obtained from the landfill. Despite these concerns, the desire to earn a living
from waste picking by the informal sector made it inevitable; the only option left was an
attempt at its regulation with the object of making it orderly. But sanctions for violation of the
permit conditions were not clearly spelt out. Apart from that, the permit conditions are silent
on protective clothing which is necessary when working in an environment such as the

landfill. This could expose waste pickers to occupational risks of waste picking.
The initial permits were not given to individuals. However, landfill security officials with
the assistance of the police would often round up and chase away waste pickers who were not
working for companies with permits. This was viewed as harassment and discrimination by
waste pickers and they continued to force their way into the landfill until the security officials
were overwhelmed. This forced the local authority to extend licensing of pickers to
individuals. However, because of the large number of individual applicants, the licensing
system collapsed and waste picking was free for all those interested. At the time, the landfill
was also operating like a dump site, with limited or no daily cover and compaction (see
Figure 4). In addition to the control measures that were implemented without success, the
local authority also contemplated erecting a new electrified fence around the landfill as well
as destroying food stuff before disposal at the landfill (Daily News 2005; Ontebetse 2007).
These measures were however never implemented.
It is also clear from the licensing system and the contemplated security measures that
they were deliberate efforts to exclude informal waste pickers from the Gaborone landfill.
This may be a result of preconceived ideas that they were a nuisance to landfill operations.
This attitude could stifle integration of waste pickers into formal waste management activities
and deny them a means of livelihood.
Figure iv: Gaborone landfill operating like a dump site
4.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Waste Pickers
Informal interviews revealed that most of the waste pickers were from the high density
and low income neighbourhoods of Old Naledi and Bontleng (see Figure 1). Others had
erected makeshift housing structures that served as their permanent dwelling as they irked
their living solely from waste picking. The housing structures have primarily been
constructed from materials salvaged at the landfill, such as wood, cardboards, plastics and
metal sheets. At the time of the study, because of the economic hardships in Zimbabwe, there
was a reported increase in the number of Zimbabweans waste pickers, which often resulted in
conflicts that are xenophobia in nature between the different nationalities. Table 1 shows the
distribution of waste pickers by the materials picked from 61 waste pickers hired by formal
recyclers issued with permits. A large proportion of pickers were employed to pick tyres
(23%) followed by metals cans (20%) and Scrap metal (18%). These materials were mainly
picked because of their established intermediate markets that had linkages with end-user
markets outside the country (Bolaane and Ali 2005). Prevalence of waste pickers employed
formally is a unique scenario in the waste picking vocation. This could indicate that there is
limited opportunity to retrieve recyclables by the formal recyclers other than at the landfill.
Table 1. Distribution of formally employed waste pickers by material components
Recyclable materials No. of pickers employed % of pickers employed

Paper 8 13
Scrap metal 11 18
Tyres 14 23
Glass bottles 6 10
Metal cans 12 20
Plastic bottles 10 16
Total 61 100
The age of those interviews ranged from 15 to 60. Of these, 35 percent were between the
ages of 15 to 24. They were mainly primary school dropouts who decided to engage on waste
picking to generate personal income or just daily sustenance by consuming food materials at
the landfill. The rest, 25 to 60 year olds started picking at an earlier age and grew up engaging
in the vocation. Others came to town looking for employment without success or lost their
jobs or family support network. Most of those interviewed reported that their first engagement
with waste picking was an experiment that development into a livelihood strategy.
Of the 20 waste pickers that were interviewed, 11 were males while 9 were females.
Overall, there appears to be more males than females at the landfill. This could be possible be
explained by the risk associated with working at the landfill environment, with the physical
men being able defend themselves more vigorously when their security is under threat.
4.2. Case Histories of Waste Pickers From in-Depth Interviews
Box 2 through Box 7 presents brief case histories of waste pickers obtained through in-
depth interviews. Of the six waste pickers interviewed, two worked for formal recyclers and
picked plastic bottles and paper, while four were self employed and picked metal cans, scrap
metal, glass bottles and tyres. The case histories show that people are driven into waste
picking primarily to earn a living. The materials they pick often have established markets that
enable them to earn regular and stable income. It is also clear from the case histories that the
waste pickers realise the occupational hazards of working at the landfill, with some of them
having adequate protective clothing. While the primary objective in waste picking is to pick
recyclables that have established markets to earn some income, some waste pickers take
advantage of their stay at the landfill to pick food stuff to supplement their ration. It also
emerges from the case histories that informal waste pickers collaborate with each other at
their own initiative to offer each other support and collectively increase their earnings. This is
an important development to build onto because most waste management practitioners who
have been working towards improving the working conditions of waste pickers, have always
tried to form cooperatives that will enable them to speak with one voice. The case histories of
waste pickers also show that they usually work beyond the stipulated hours in the permits.
Apart from showing that the local authorities are not able to enforce their permit conditions, it
also shows the desire of waste pickers to stay longer and the landfill to maximise their earning
potential.
Box 2. Self-employed metal can picker
Waste Picker 1
Waste picker 1 is a 45 year old lady. She started waste picking in 1997 after the
death of her husband in order to support her two children who at the time of the
study were aged 22 and 25. She started by collecting paper, but later changed to
metal cans because they were much easier to sort. Her typical day starts at 9 am and
end at 5pm. She has some protective clothing that consists of knee high boots, hat,
musk, work suit and thick hand gloves. She could easily be mistaken for a landfill
management crew. Together with 12 others pickers who obtained permits for waste
picking, they have grouped themselves to form one team (almost like a
cooperative). Within this team, there were nine women and 3 men. The basis for
their collaboration was to minimize transportation costs of recyclables as they
transport them to intermediate markets. Every two weeks they each pay P10 for
transport. At the end of the month they each get between P400 and P550. She does
not particularly like the job, but does not have much option. She also dislikes the
fact that they are usually harassed by street children who often roam around the
landfill looking for food.
Box 3. Self-employed tyre picker.
Waste Picker 2
Waste picker 2 is a 23 year old Zimbabwean man, who started picking tyres in 2003, a
month after he arrived in Botswana. He was mainly driven into picking by economic
hardships in his native country. He usually starts work at 8 am and finishes at 5pm from
Monday to Saturday. He works with other 13 tyre pickers, all Zimbabweans. Each one of
the tyre pickers pays P350 to transport the tyres to the end user market in Zimbabwe. He
makes between P700 and P750/month. His primary concern is that he is not able to get a
work permit to enable him to stay longer in Botswana. He often has to go back to
Zimbabwe to extend his length of stay in Botswana.
Box 4. Self-employed glass bottle picker
Waste Picker 3
Waste picker 3 is a 56 year divorced woman who started picking glass bottles in 1997.
She has two children aged 20 and 25 who are both going to the University of Botswana.
She is very much looking forward to their graduation so that she could retire from waste
picking. She works a five day week from 8 am to 5 pm. She sells the glass bottles she
picks to a local company that operates a deposit refund scheme. She has a full
complement of protective clothing consisting of knee level boots, must, work suit and
gloves. She collaborates with another lady with whom they share the profits at the end
of every month. Every two weeks they sell the bottles and deposit the money in a bank
account. At the end of the month they withdraw the money and share it equally. On
average, they each make P600/month.
Box 5. Self-employed scrap metal picker
Waste Picker 4
Waste picker 4 is a 50 year old man who is licensed to pick ferrous and non ferrous
scrap metal. A market for scrap metal is readily available and is therefore popular with
pickers without permits. There is lots of competition in picking scrap metal. To offset
the competition brought about pickers without permits, Waste picker 4 has hired 10
other scrap metal pickers working under his permit. In addition to picking scrap metal,
Waste picker 4 also transports scrap metal for others to the market. This earns him
additional income. He has some protective clothing for himself, but not his workers. He
reported that on average he makes more than P1000 in profit.
Box 6. Formally employed plastic bottles pickers
Waste Picker 5
Waste picker 5 is a 60 year old man who picks plastic bottles. He started picking
independently in 1995. He was later hired by a company that recycles plastic bottles. He
started working for the company in 1999, mainly motivated by a semblance of job
security. Every morning himself and his co-workers are dropped off by the company
vehicle at the landfill to start work from 9 am to 5 pm. The company provides them with
protective clothing. They are paid according to the quantity of materials they pick. Even
though he has been picking for a long time, he thinks waste picking lowers one’s dignity
and exposes them to health hazards. He is however grateful that working at the landfill
affords one the opportunities to pick other valuables including food.
Box 7. Formally employed paper picker
Waste Picker 6
Waste picker 6 is a 24 year older mother of one. She started picking in 2005. She
dropped out of school while doing O-levels. She has been hired by a paper recycling
company together with seven other waste pickers. When she went for a job interview at
the company she was not aware that she will be working at the landfill. She almost quit
the job when she saw the environment at the landfill, but persevered in order to support
his son. Now she is used to the job, even though her age mates often make a mockery
about her job. She starts work at the landfill at 8 am and end at 5 pm. She is paid
according to the quantity of paper she picks. On average she makes between P400 and
P500/month, which is enough for her daily needs. A large proportion of her food supply
is obtained from the landfill.
5. MATERIALS, MARKETS AND INCOME

Materials that were mainly picked by waste pickers included paper, scrap metal, tyres,
glass bottles, plastic bottles metal cans. These materials were mainly picked because they had
established intermediate markets. Glass bottles were mainly returned to the local bottling
company that operated a deposit refund scheme. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of
materials flow from source to end user markets. The materials are recovered from the landfill
by waste pickers hired by formal recyclers (intermediate markets) or informal waste pickers
who would sell to intermediate markets. In all the two scenarios, the waste pickers are paid
according the quantity of materials picked.
Landfill
Source
Recovery Waste pickers (formal) Waste pickers (informal)
Markets Intermediate Markets
Processing Sorting, Cleaning, Bailing
End use Regional Markets
Figure v: Materials flow from source to market

The income obtained from waste picking depended on the type of material picked and on
whether the waste picker is hired by a formal recycler or working informally. Waste pickers
who worked informally collecting tyres, glass bottles and scrap metal made more money than
other, usually in the range of P600- P1000/month, while those working for formal recycler
picking paper, plastic bottles and metal cans made between P400 and P550. This could be
explained by that glass bottles, tyres and scrap metal pickers sell directly to intermediate
markets, and will often sell to the buyer who offers the highest price. While those hired by
formal recyclers, the market and the price are pre-determined by the buyer. However, the
earnings of waste pickers are significant, in some instances even higher than the wages in the
formal sector.
6. STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS
The perception of other stakeholders such local authority officials, formal recyclers and
NGO officials are varied. Perceptions of landfill management crew were largely influenced
by permit system put in place by the local authority. For example all interviewed landfill
management crew indicated that they do not have any problems with the waste pickers with
permits because they are cooperative and work with them in camaraderie relationship. The
landfill management were of the view that informal waste pickers were the once who caused
them a lot of problems and interfered with landfill operational activities. Their main concern
was that these pickers would often climb into waste delivery vehicles and delay the unloading
process. At times they would even block the passage of the vehicle from disposing of waste at
the designated space. In addition, these pickers would often delay the processes of spreading
and compacting of waste because the equipment had to wait until they have finished picking
all the valuables. Despite the concerns of waste pickers interfering with waste management
processes, landfill workers support regulated waste pickers, primary because they realise that
it is a source of livelihood for those involved in the vocation. In fact some workers at the
landfill are also engaged in buying materials from waste pickers to sell to intermediate
markets, albeit at a limited scale.
Formal recyclers that provided intermediate markets for materials picked by waste
pickers were of the view that the landfill provided a single source of a large volume of
materials. This motivated them to hire waste pickers to pick materials from the landfill under
the local authorities’ licensing system. These formal recyclers see their role as enhancing the
livelihood of waste pickers by providing a market for picked recyclables. Somarelang
Tikologo and Kgalagadi Conservation Society, local environmental NGOs have a contrasting
view to that of formal recyclers. While they all agree that waste picking contributes to the
economic wellbeing of waste pickers, they are of the view that the pickers are exploited by
middlemen through paying below market prices for the materials. Their view is that to further
enhance earning livelihood from picking, waste picking should be integrated into formal
waste management process. As a precursor to integration, the NGOs are of the view that there
should be concerted efforts towards improving the working conditions of waste pickers.
Among the suggested improvements is creating awareness by educating pickers on safety and
occupational health risks. In addition, to enhance the income earned by pickers, NGOs
suggest that instead of selling their materials to middlemen, waste pickers should group
themselves and sell the materials direct to end users. Despite the suggested ideas of
improving working conditions of waste pickers, these NGOs have not yet initiated practical
projects that could improve the working conditions of waste pickers as is the case in other
jurisdiction (Brazil Recycling Commitment 1996; UNEP 2000).
7. CONCLUSION
While waste picking has largely been a phenomenon of low income countries with high
unemployment rates as a source of income for those who participate in it, it has also been
found to contribute to livelihood diversification of waste pickers in upper middle income
countries like Botswana. But because relatively effective waste collection systems, that take
the majority of recyclables to disposal sites, waste picking has mainly been taking place at the
landfill. Waste picking at landfills, particularly informal picking appears not to be wholly
embraced by official authorities. Their concerns over interference with landfill operation
processes also appear valid. But the validity of their concerns should not compromise the
desire of waste pickers to earn a leaving from waste. Rather, these concerns could be
addressed by a collaborative effort with waste pickers by recognising them as stakeholders as
opposed to being confrontational.
Instead of embracing waste pickers as a stakeholder in waste management processes,
there has been a tendency by formal recyclers and official authorities to exclude informal
waste pickers from accessing the materials at the landfill. These exclusionist tendencies by
measures such as permits, policing and plans to erect electric fences could undermine the
livelihood of informal waste pickers. Apart from that the attitude of official authorities
towards informal waste pickers could make it difficult to integrate them into formal waste
management processes. However the collaborative efforts of waste pickers where they
voluntarily form working teams, provides an opportunity to use the established links to forge
any form of cooperation with the official authorities.
It has been established that formal sector employment of waste pickers tends to reduce
their earnings. This could mean that any assistance towards improving the working conditions
of waste pickers as contemplated by other stakeholders such NGOs should entail establishing
an enabling environment for direct access to the markets.
To realize sustainability of waste management systems, waste management policy should
recognise the important role played by waste pickers in the waste management process.
Government policy should emphasize educating all stakeholders on the symbiotic nature of
their relationship. This would entail facilitating access to recyclables without interfering with
landfill operation activities. This may include provision of infrastructure such as sorting
platforms at the landfill, as is the case in other jurisdictions. But to minimize competition
between the formal and informal waste recycling sectors, the formal sector should explore the
possibility of cooperating with local authority to set up source separation schemes, that will in
turn provide cleaner and high quality recyclables.
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Rankokwane, B. and Gwebu, T.D. (2006) Characteristics, threats and opportunities of landfill
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(http://web)
Chapter 5
SIMULTANEOUS SOLUTION FOR SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT AND WASTE WATER TREATMENT:
CR(VI) REMOVAL AS A CASE STUDY
Suresh Gupta and B V Babu*
ABSTRACT
Solid waste management is a major environmental issue all over the world.
Uncontrolled solid waste disposal increases the risk of different diseases and health
problems. Different ways of dealing with the solid waste issues are demonstrated in this
chapter. Recycling of material for different purposes or for reprocessing into a different
form is the most significant way of handling the solid waste. In this study, plant waste
(tamarind seeds, neem leaves, sawdust) and the waste generated from coal burning
(flyash) is used for recycling. Solid waste material used in this study is reprocessed into
the form of adsorbents for the removal of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] from the
wastewater streams. The presence of highly toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic Cr(VI) in
effluent streams is a major environmental issue. Adsorption process which is a cost
effective and versatile method for the removal of Cr(VI) is chosen in this case study. The
study includes the development of low-cost adsorbents such as activated tamarind seeds,
activated neem leaves, sawdust, and activated flyash. The performance of above
adsorbents are compared with the commercially available activated carbon which is a
well known adsorbent used for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater. Batch and
continuous adsorption experiments are conducted to evaluate the performance of
developed adsorbents for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater. The maximum
adsorption capacity is obtained as 62.9 mg/g for activated neem leaves among various
developed adsorbents, while maximum adsorption capacity for commercially available
activated carbon is found to be 71.7 mg/g at an initial pH value of 1. Desorption of
Cr(VI) from adsorbents using acid and base treatment exhibit higher desorption
efficiency by more than 95% except for activated flyash. A feasible solution is proposed,
for the disposal of contaminant (acid and base solutions) containing high concentration of
* Dean-Educational Hardware Division & Professor, Chemical Engineering Group, Birla Institute of Technology
and Science (BITS), Pilani - 333 031, Rajasthan, INDIA. Phone: +91-1596-515259; Fax: +91-1596-244183;
Email: bvbabu@bits-pilani.ac.in Homepage: http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/~bvbabu/
138 Suresh Gupta and B. V. Babu
Cr(VI) obtained during desorption process. Continuous column studies are carried out for
the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater using activated tamarind seeds and sawdust as
adsorbents in a fixed-bed adsorption column. The effects of influencing parameters such
as flow rate, mass of adsorbent, initial Cr(VI) concentration are studied and breakthrough
curves are obtained. The extensive cost analysis which is carried out for developed and
commercial adsorbent show that the sawdust is most economically viable option for the
Cr(VI) removal from wastewater. Through this work of Cr(VI) removal as a case study, it
is demonstrated that the waste management and waste water treatment problems can be
solved simultaneously.
Keywords: Solid waste, Recycling, Re-use, Adsorption, Hexavalent chromium, Batch

studies, Continuous studies, Desorption, Cost analysis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Solid waste has become serious concern for many environmental groups for decades.
There has been a significant increase in solid waste generation in all over the world. This is
due to the increase in population growth and economic development. The first source of solid
waste is the production of commodities and byproducts from solid materials. The things
which are produced are discarded to the environment. Natural cycle of plant growth and
decay is considered as second source of solid waste. The plant material which is not in use is
discarded. This solid waste is the most variable source of municipal solid waste and is also
source of bulky waste production. Yard waste which includes leaves, grass clippings & shrub
and garden trimmings commonly account for as little as 5% to 20% of the municipal solid
waste generated in any county. Generally, plant material wastes are available in abundant,
when lots are cleared for new construction. Due to the increase in civilization, the waste
generated became a problem of more complex nature.
The risk involved due to the unscientific disposal of solid waste include the population in
areas where no proper disposal method is adapted, waste workers, and workers in facilities
producing toxic and infectious material. A high-risk exists for the population living close to a
waste dump and the water supply near these areas become contaminated either due to waste
dumping or leakage from landfill sites. Uncollected solid waste also increases risk of injury,
and infection. Various health related problems occur due to the solid wastes such as skin and
blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste, eye and respiratory infections
resulting from exposure to infected dust, different diseases resulting from the bites of animals
feeding on the waste, cancers resulting from exposure to dust and hazardous compounds
(UNEP, 1996).
The above mentioned harmful effects of solid wastes indicate that solid waste
management has become a major environmental issue globally. The solid wastes can also be
treated with different established waste treatment technologies such as composting, landfill,
recycling, and windrow composting. The main disadvantages of these methods are to produce
the secondary pollutants and economically not feasible. The environmentally beneficial ways
of dealing with solid wastes or residues are to reduce, re-use, and recycle wastes. Reduction
in waste quantity is possible by modification in the product design, change in the material
specification, and improvement in production processes. Re-use of solid wastes means the
thing continues to perform the function for which it was originally designed. The most
Simultaneous Solution for Solid Waste Management… 139
significant way of dealing the solid waste issue is the recycling of the material for a different
purpose or for reprocessing into a different form.
The plant and industrial waste materials such as tamarind seeds, neem leaves, saw dust,
and flyash are available in abundance and have a major difficulty in disposal. Tamarind seeds
are widely available in Asian and African continents as well as in many parts of tropical
American region as they can be easily cultivated in variety of soils. Because of its widespread
cultivation, it is used in cuisines all around the world. Freshly fallen as well as partially dried
neem leaves are available in huge quantities in nature. This increases the quantity of
municipal solid waste tremendously. Sawdust is composed of fine particles of wood material.
Sawdust is produced from cutting the wood with a saw and it is the main by-product of
sawmills. Flyash is one of the waste products generated in the combustion of coal. Fly ash is
generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants. Disposal of large quantity of
flyash generated in power plants is a challenge for these industries.
These are the biological waste products which are readily available in nature. The most
significant way of handling these waste materials is the recycling. The biological waste
products can be used as viable adsorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions which is a
feasible solution for the other environmental problem of waste disposal. Heavy metals (Cr,
Ni, Cu, Pb, As, etc.) are very toxic in nature and harmful to the environment (Uysal and Irfan,
2007). When toxic heavy metals enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies,
they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the
pollution of water whereby affecting aquatic ecosystems. All over the world, chromium is
abundantly available in nature and has a dominant presence in most of the effluent streams as
compared to other heavy metal ions. Cr(VI) is widely used in various industries such as dyes,
ink, plastics, paint, primers, glass, ceramics, fungicides, rubber, fertilizers, tanning, mining,
metallurgical, etc. (Namasivayam and Yamuna, 1995; Radovic, 2000; Kaewsarn and Yu,
2001; Selatnia et al., 2004; Sankararamakrishnan et al., 2006;. Kumar et al., 2007; Venditti et
al., 2007; Malkoc and Nuhoglu, 2007). Cr(VI) is highly mobile and is considered acutely
toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic to living organisms, and hence more hazardous than other
heavy metals. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate Cr(VI) from the environment, in order to
prevent the deleterious impact of Cr(VI) on ecosystem and public health. Various methods are
available for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater streams, among which adsorption is
found to be a highly promising treatment method to purify industrial effluent streams
contaminated with Cr(VI) (Alvarez-Ayuso et al., 2007).
The removal of heavy metal ions from industrial wastewaters is considered as an
important application of adsorption processes using suitable adsorbent (Radovic, 2000; Babu
and Gupta, 2008b). All solid materials including metal and plastics have the adsorption
capacity. However, the solids having a porous structure and high surface area will have higher
adsorption capacities (Ngah et al., 2006). This indicates that the selection of an adsorbent is a
key for the use of adsorption as a treatment technique for Cr(VI) removal. The cost associated
with commercially available adsorbents increases the overall cost of the adsorption process.
This led to the search for new strategies for developing low-cost materials which are available
in abundance with a good capacity for Cr(VI) removal (Aggarwal et al., 1999; Karthikeyan et
al., 2005; Khezami and Capart, 2005).
Adsorption of Cr(VI) on low-cost adsorbents depends on physicochemical surface
properties (surface area, porosity, ionic groups on surface etc.) of the adsorbents. Waste
materials can be utilized as low-cost materials and thier surface properties can be enhanced by
a proper physical and chemical activation procedure (Mohan and Pittman, 2006).
In this chapter, abundantly available solid waste materials such as tamarind seeds, neem
leaves, sawdust, and flyash are activated and used as low-cost adsorbents for the removal of
Cr(VI) from wastewater which also solves the problem of waste management simultaneously.
The adsorbents are prepared by giving physical and chemical activation of waste materials.
The performance of these developed adsorbents is evaluated by conduction batch and
continuous experiments. The saturated adsorbents are regenerated to check the applicability
for re-use of this material. The cost analysis is carried out for low-cost adsorbents and
compared with commercially available activated carbon adsorbent to see the economic
feasibility of the process.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Adsorbent Preparation
2.1.1. Activated Tamarind Seeds (ATS)

Tamarind seeds are collected from the wastage of Cafeteria and Guest House (BITS -
Pilani) of the institute. The seeds are washed with distilled water and dried at 1100C for 5 h.
The dried seeds are crushed into small particles by using Jaw crusher. Crushed seeds are
sieved by 10-12 mesh BSS screens. The particles, having an average size of 1.85 mm, are
treated with concentrated sulphuric acid (98% w/w) in 1:1 weight ratio and kept in an oven
maintained at a temperature range of 1500C for 24 h. The carbonized material is washed with
distilled water to remove the free acid. Then it is soaked in 1% sodium bicarbonate solution
for two days. The material is then washed with distilled water and dried again at 1000C for 5
h (Ramadevi and Srinivasan, 2005; Gupta and Babu, 2009b).
2.1.2. Activated Neem Leaves (ANL)

Neem leaves are collected from the neem trees of institute campus (BITS – Pilani). Neem
leaves are washed repeatedly with distilled water to remove dust and soluble impurities.
Initially leaves are kept for drying at room temperature in a shade for 6 h and then in an oven
at 800C till they turn pale yellow. Then they are crushed and passed through 15-20 mesh BSS
screens. Neem leaves are activated by treating in a ratio of one part of neem leaves to 1.8
parts by weight of concentrated HCl (36.5 wt%) and by keeping them in an oven maintained
at a temperature range of 1500C for 24 h. The treated leaves are washed with distilled water to
remove free acid and dried at 1000C for 5 h. Then 10 g of activated neem leaves are treated
with 100 ml of 100 mmol/L copper solution (initial pH 8.5). The mixture is shaken for 24 h at
300C and filtered with membrane filter paper. Copper impregnated neem leaves are washed
several times with distilled water until the filtrate is free from copper. Finally, the adsorbent is
dried at 800C for 6 h (Manju et al. 1998; Babu and Gupta, 2008a). \
2.1.3. Sawdust (SD)

Sawdust is collected from the carpentry section of the institute workshop (BITS – Pilani).
It is washed repeatedly with distilled water to remove dust and soluble impurities. It is then
kept for drying at room temperature in shade for 8 h (Gupta and Babu, 2009a).
2.1.4. Activated Flyash (AFA)

The flyash used in this study is collected from National Thermal Power Corporation
(NTPC), Tanda. The flyash is washed with distilled water and dried at 1100C for 5 h. The
activation of flyash is carried out by treating it with concentrated sulphuric acid (98% w/w) in
1:1 weight ratio and is kept in an oven maintained at a temperature range of 1500C for 24 h.
Again it is washed with distilled water to remove the free acid.
2.1.5. Activated Carbon (AC)

The activated carbon used in the present study is produced from coconut shell which has
high surface area and purchased from market (S.D. Fine Chemicals, New Delhi).
2.2. Batch Experiments
All the chemicals used in the present study are of analytical grade (CDH and Merck). A
stock solution of 1000 mg/L of Cr(VI) is prepared by dissolving 2.8287 g of 99.9% potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in distilled water and total volume of the solution is made up to the
1000 ml. This solution is diluted as required to obtain standard solutions.
The batch experiments are carried out in 100 ml borosil conical flasks. A specific amount
of adsorbent is added in 25 mL of aqueous Cr(VI) solution, and then shaken for a
predetermined period ranging from 17 – 67 h for different adsorbents (found out from kinetic
studies) at 300C in water bath-cum-mechanical shaker. Afterwards, the resultant solution is
filtered using filter paper. Adsorption isotherm study is carried out with different initial
concentrations of Cr(VI) ranging from 20 to 800 mg/L while maintaining the adsorbent
amount of 10 g/L.
Desorption studies are conducted by batch experiments using the saturated adsorbent
obtained from adsorption studies to make it reusable. The 15 g of saturated adsorbents with
Cr(VI) is first treated with 150 mL of 1 N NaOH solution for 1 day. After the NaOH
treatment, adsorbents are separated from the solution and washed with distilled water.
Washed adsorbents are further regenerated with 150 mL of 1 N HCl. The adsorbents are
washed with distilled water and dried at room temperature (~300C) for 6 h. Desorption
experiments are carried out with different initial concentrations of Cr(VI) from 50 to 500
mg/L while maintaining the adsorbent amount of 10 g/L and an initial pH value of 1 at 300C.
2.3. Continuous Experiments
Continuous fixed-bed experiments are performed to remove Cr(VI) from wastewater

using activated tamarind seeds and sawdust adsorbents. The schematic diagram of the
experimental set up is given in Fig. 1. Stock solutions of Cr(VI) are allowed to flow through
the fixed-bed of adsorbents (activated tamarind seeds and sawdust) through a valve, by which
the flow rate is controlled. The parameters varied in the continuous experiments are flow rate,
bed height, and inlet Cr(VI) concentration. The following fixed-bed experiments are
performed by changing the parametric values as given in Table-1.
1 Stored Cr(VI) solution

2 Outlet collection tank
3 Pump
4 Fixed-bed column
5 Feed of Cr(VI) solution
6 Outlet control valve
9 7 Inlet control valve
8 Base
7 9 Liquid Rotameter
1 2
3
8
Figure 1. Fixed-bed continuous adsorption experimental setup for Cr(VI) removal from wastewater
Table 1. Variation of different parameters for fixed-bed adsorption
S No Adsorbents Parameter values

Initial concentration (ppm) Mass(g) Flow rates (mL/min)
100 25 10
100 25 15
Activated tamarind 100 25 20
1
seeds 100 20 10
100 15 10
150 25 15
200 25 15
50 25 10
50 25 15
50 25 20
2 Sawdust 50 30 10
50 15 10
75 25 10
100 25 10
2.4. Analysis of Cr(VI) Ions
In the present study, di-pheynl carbazide method is used for the analysis of Cr(VI) in the
solution. This method has been reportedly used in many studies for analysis of Cr(VI) at low
pH (Malkoc and Nuhoglu, 2007; Alvarez et al., 2007). The concentration of Cr(VI) ions in
the effluent is determined spectrophotometrically by developing a purple-violet color with
1,5-diphenyl carbazide in acidic solution as a complexing agent (APHA, 1985). The
absorbance of the purple-violet colored solution is read at 540 nm after 20 min. To calculate
the deviation of analytical method of Cr(VI) concentration, calibration curve is prepared from
standard solutions. The standard deviation obtained for the calibration curve is 0.00453 which
is indicative of a good fit of the data and within the error limits of ±1.64 %. This ensured high
confidence limits of the experimental measurements.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Batch Studies
Batch adsorption experiments are carried out to estimate the maximum adsorption
capacity of various adsorbents such as activated tamarind seeds, activated neem leaves,
sawdust, activated flyash, and activated carbon for Cr(VI) removal from wastewater. The
equilibrium studies are useful to obtain the adsorption capacity of adsorbents for Cr(VI). The
obtained data from equilibrium studies can be represented in form of adsorption isotherm.
Adsorption isotherms are important to describe the adsorption mechanism in term of the
interaction of Cr(VI) with adsorbent surface. An adsorption isotherm is characterized by
certain constant values that express the surface properties and affinity of the adsorbent
towards Cr(VI). Fig. 2 shows the adsorption isotherms for Cr(VI) removal using different
adsorbents. The maximum adsorption capacity of developed adsorbents are 30.5 mg/g, 62.9
mg/g, 41.9 mg/g, 42.3 mg/g, and 71.7 mg/g using activated tamarind seeds, activated neem
leaves, sawdust, flyash, and activated carbon respectively. The obtained adsorption capacity
for low-cost adsorbents is comparable with the commercially available adsorbent (Gupta and
Babu, 2009a). This indicates that the waste material can be utilized for the removal of Cr(VI)
from wastewater streams.
In an adsorption, atoms, ions or molecules of an adsorbate diffuse to surface of a solid,
where they either bond with the solid surface or are held thereby weak intermolecular forces.
The electrostatic, chemisorptive and functional group interactions define the affinity of an
adsorbent for a specific adsorbate. In the present study, activated tamarind seeds, activated
neem leaves, sawdust, activated flyash, and activated carbon are used as an adsorbent for the
removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. The understanding of the solute transport
mechanism onto the adsorbent surface is very crucial.
The adsorption process mechanism for the solute transport onto the adsorbent surface
follows three steps: (i) external mass transfer of solute from the bulk fluid to the film
surrounding the adsorbent (ii) from film to the adsorbent surface and (iii) from surface to the
internal sites followed by binding of metal ions to the active sites. Generally it is observed
that, the rate of adsorption process is controlled by either step (ii) or step (iii). Physical
attachment of adsorbate to adsorbent is not the actual rate controlling step (Sharma and
Bhattacharyya, 2004). In fact, the adsorption of solute on adsorbent also depends on the
surface available for adsorption, ionic groups present on to the surface of adsorbent, and pH
of the solution.
70 ATS
ANL
SD
Adsorption capacity (mg/g)
60
AFA
AC
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 40 80 120
Equilibrium concentration (mg/L)
Figure 2. Adsorption isotherms for Cr(VI) adsorption on different adsorbents at 300C
The specific surface area of all adsorbents is measured using BET surface area analyzer
(Smart Sorb 92/93, Smart Instruments Co. Pvt. Ltd., Thane). The measured value of specific
surface area is obtained in the range of 0.5 – 15.03 m2/g which is higher as compared to other
low cost adsorbents. Larger specific surface area is one of the important reason for the higher
uptake of Cr(VI) on adsorbents used in the present study. Specific surface area of activated
carbon is found to be more than that of the other adsorbents.
Cr(VI) adsorption also depends on both microporous structure and surface functionality
(Park and Jang, 2002). The adsorption of Cr(VI) is more effective on acid-treated adsorbents
(Mattson and Mark, 1971). In the present study, activated neem leaves, activated tamarind
seeds and activated flyash are treated using concentrated acids (HCl, H2SO4) at lower
temperature (1500C). At this temperature, adsorbent surface generally develop acidic surface
oxides and lower solution pH. It is well documented in the literature that chemically activated
naturally occurring adsorbent has a higher surface area and shows a larger capacity of Cr(VI)
removal.
The metallic ions uptake on adsorbents mainly depends on (1) the ions concentration, and
(2) adsorption and reduction phenomena that simultaneously take place on the adsorbent
surface (Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Park and Jang, 2002). These phenomena are strongly
related to the solution pH. Various mechanisms such as electrostatic forces, ion-exchange,
chemical complexation must be taken into account while discussing the mechanism of Cr(VI)
adsorption on adsorbents. The solution pH plays a major role in the adsorption of Cr(VI) and
it can be related to the type and ionic state of the functional group present on the adsorbent
surface (Mohanty et al., 2006). In the present study, the initial pH of solution is maintained in
the range of 1-3. Within the solution pH range of 1.0–6.0, chromium ions can exist in
different forms, such as Cr2O7−, HCrO4−, Cr3O102−, Cr4O132− of which HCrO4− predominates.
The lower solution pH results in the formation of H+ ions on the adsorbent surface. The
increase of Cr(VI) adsorption is due to the electrostatic attraction between positively charged
groups of adsorbent surface and the HCrO4- which is dominant at lower pH. Another reason
for the higher adsorption of Cr(VI) on adsorbent may be due to the reduction of Cr(VI) to
Cr(III) in acidic medium. As the size of Cr(III) ions is small, they can be easily replaced by
the positively charged ions present on the adsorbent.
3.2. Desorption Studies
The saturated adsorbent which contains Cr(VI) is not safe for disposal due to the stringent
environmental constraints. It is important and appropriate to propose a method for
regeneration and reuse of adsorbent so as to reduce the load on environment in terms of
disposal of polluted adsorbent. In the present study, adsorbents (activated tamarind seeds,
activated neem leaves, sawdust, activated flyash and activated carbon) are regenerated and are
used for the removal of Cr(VI) at different initial Cr(VI) concentration range used in batch
study (same ranges chosen for fresh adsorbents). Figs. 3 to 7 show the comparison for the
percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated adsorbents. Fresh and regenerated
activated tamarind seeds are used for the adsorption of Cr(VI) having 50 mg/L and 500 mg/L
of initial Cr(VI) concentration and the percentage removal of Cr(VI) decreased from 98.02%
to 68.85% and 97.02% to 64.46% respectively. The percentage removal using activated neem
leaves and sawdust as adsorbents in the initial concentration ranging from 50 to 500 mg/ is
achieved in the range of 99.7% to 97.9% and 98.85% to 97.42% using fresh adsorbent, 99.7%
to 95.7% and 87.59% to 83.99% using regenerated adsorbents respectively. The percentage
removal for activated flyash and activated carbon is obtained in the range of 81.9% to 52.5%
and 99.6 to 88.7% for fresh adsorbents and 73.08% - 35.03% and 99.4% to 80% for
regenerated adsorbents respectively. These results exhibit higher desorption efficiency by
more than 95% for the removal of Cr(VI) for all the adsorbents excluding activated flyash.
Since, Cr(VI) adsorption is an example of physical adsorption, it is possible to regenerate the
adsorbents, which are considered for reuse. The adsorption of Cr(VI) onto the adsorbents is
highly pH dependent. Hence, desorption of Cr(VI) is accomplished by increasing the solution
pH.
The major problem of desorption process is the disposal of the acid and base solution
obtained which contain high concentration of Cr(VI) (Gupta and Babu, 2009c). One of the
methods to tackle this problem is precipitation of Cr(VI) from the aqueous solution using
barium chloride. Addition of barium chloride solution to a Cr(VI) solution precipitates bright
yellow barium chromate, as given by the following reaction (Eq. 1):
Ba 2+ (aq) + CrO 24− (aq) → BaCrO 4 (s) (1)
The precipitated solid volume (2 mL) is very less as compared to the volume of the
solution (100 mL). Also the chromium present in the complex solid can be recovered and
reused by the industries. So this way the problem of disposal which is a major disadvantage
of adsorption process can be solved effectively and efficiently.
100
% Removal of Cr (VI)
90
80
70
Fresh
Regenerated
60
0 100 200 300 400
Initial Cr (VI) Concentration (mg/l)
Figure 3. Comparison for the percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated activated
tamarind seeds
100
99
98
% Removal of Cr (VI)
97
96
95
94
93 Fresh
Regenerated
92
0 100 200 300 400 500
Initial Cr (VI) Concentration (mg/l)
Figure 4. Comparison for the percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated activated neem
leaves
100
96
% Removal of Cr(VI)
92
88
84
Fresh
Regenerated
80
50 100 150 200 250 300
Initial Cr(VI) concentration (mg/l)
Figure 5. Comparison for the percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated sawdust
85
80
75
% Removal of Cr(VI)
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
Fresh
35 Regenerated
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Initial Cr(VI) concentration (mg/l)
Figure 6. Comparison for the percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated activated flyash
100
98
96
94
% Removal of Cr(VI) 92
90
88
86
84
82
Fresh
80
Regenerated
78
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Initial Cr(VI) Concentration (mg/l)
Figure 7. Comparison for the percentage removal of Cr(VI) using fresh and regenerated activated
carbon
3.3. Continuous Column Studies
Fixed bed column experiments are performed in order to generate the data for obtaining
the breakthrough curves. The breakthrough time and the shape of the breakthrough curve are
very important characteristics for the determination of the dynamic response of the adsorption
column. The breakthrough curve shows the loading behavior of Cr(VI) to be removed from
solution in a fixed-bed and is usually expressed in terms of adsorbed Cr(VI) concentration
(Cad) as given by Eq. (2):
C ad = C b0 − C t (2)
where, Cbo and Ct are inlet Cr(VI) concentration and outlet Cr(VI) concentration respectively.
The normalized concentration defined as the ratio of effluent Cr(VI) concentration to inlet
Cr(VI) concentration (Ct/Cbo) as a function of time or volume of effluent for a given bed
height (Aksu and Gönen, 2004).
Effluent volume (Veff) can be calculated from Eq. (3):
Veff = Qt f (3)
where, tf and Q are the total flow time (min) and volumetric flow rate (ml/min), respectively.
Total quantity of adsorbed Cr(VI) (qt, mg) in the column for a given inlet Cr(VI)
concentration and flow rate is calculated from Eq. (4).
t =t total
QAc Q
qt = =
1000 1000 ∫C
t =0
ad dt (4)
The area under the breakthrough curve (AC) is obtained by plotting the adsorbed
concentration (Cad, mg/L) versus time (t, min). Total amount of Cr(VI) sent to column (mt) is
calculated from Eq. (5):
Co Qt t
mt = (5)
1000
Total percentage removal of Cr(VI) is calculated from Eq. (6):

qt
Total percentage removal of Cr(VI) ( S ) = × 100 (7)
mt
Equilibrium Cr(VI) uptake (qeq) (or maximum capacity) in the column is defined as the
total amount of Cr(VI) adsorbed (qt) per gram of adsorbent (W) at the end of total flow time,
as given by Eq. (8):
qt
q eq = (8)
M
The empty bed residence time (EBRT) is the time required for the liquid to fill the empty
column. The EBRT is given by Eq. (9):
Bed volume
EBRT = (9)
Volumetric flow rate of the liquid
The adsorbent exhaustion rate (Ra) is the mass of adsorbent used (W) per volume of liquid
treated at breakthrough point which is given by Eq. (10):
mass of adsorbent in column

Adsorbent exhaustion rate ( Ra ) = (10)
volume treated at breakthrough
The breakthrough time is usually defined as the time of adsorption when the effluent
concentration from the column is about 3–5% of the influent concentration. The different
parameters such as time equivalent to the total capacity of column (tt), total flow time (tf),
breakthrough time (tb), total or stoichiometric amount of Cr(VI) adsorbed (qt), maximum or
equilibrium Cr(VI) uptake (qeq), total amount of Cr(VI) sent to the column (mt), total
percentage removal of Cr(VI) (S), EBRT, adsorbent exhaustion rate (Ra) and fraction of
unused bed length (y) are evaluated for Cr(VI) removal using activated tamarind seeds and
sawdust in fixed-bed adsorption column for different operating conditions and reported in
Table 2 and 3. In the present study, the effect of influencing parameters such as flow rate,
mass of adsorbent and inlet Cr(VI) concentration on breakthrough curve are examined (Gupta
and Babu, 2009c).
3.3.1. Effect of Flow Rate

The flow rate of wastewater stream flowing through the column plays a major role in
designing an adsorption column for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater. The
breakthrough curves are obtained for Cr(VI) adsorption by activated tamarind seeds and
sawdust at different flow rates (10, 15 and 20 ml/min) by maintaining the constant adsorbent
amount of 25 g and initial Cr(VI) concentration 100 and 50 mg/L respectively as shown in
Figs. 8 and 9. It is clear from these two profiles that as the flow rate increases, breakthrough
time is obtained earlier. The breakthrough times are obtained as 210, 115 and 80 min for
activated tamarind seeds and 630, 440 and 240 min for sawdust for flow rate values of 10, 15
and 20 ml/min respectively for Cr(VI) removal. The total time, corresponds to stoichiometric
capacity of the column, is found to be decreasing with increase in the flow rate as shown in
Table 2 and 3 for both the adsorbents. The total percentage removal of Cr(VI) for the fixed-
bed adsorption column is decreasing from 50 – 45.1% and 74.5 to 66.6% with increase in
flow rate from 10 – 20 ml/min for activated tamarind seeds and sawdust respectively (Table 2
and 3). The fraction of unused bed length at breakthrough point shows an increasing trend
with the increase in flow rate for both the adsorbents. It is observed from Figs. 2 and 3 that
the breakthrough curve becomes steeper when the flow rate is increased.
The decrease in breakthrough time with an increase in flow rate may be because of a
fixed saturation capacity of the bed based on same driving force giving rise to a shorter time
for saturation at higher flow rates. The probable reason for the increase in steepness of
breakthrough curve and decrease in removal efficiency (50 – 45.1% for activated tamarind
seeds and 75.5 – 66.6% for sawdust) with increase in flow rate (10 – 20 ml/min) is that, when
the residence time of Cr(VI) in the column is not long enough for adsorption equilibrium to
be reached at that flow rate, the Cr(VI) solution leaves the column before equilibrium occurs.
And hence the contact time for Cr(VI) using activated tamarind seeds and sawdust is very
short at higher flow rates, causing a reduction in the removal efficiency which can be seen
from Table 2 and 3.
3.3.2. Effect of Mass of Adsorbent

Effect of mass of adsorbent (activated tamarind seeds and sawdust) is also studied for 15,
20 and 25g for activated tamarind seeds and 15, 25 and 30 g using sawdust. The breakthrough
curves obtained for this study are shown in Figs. 10 and 11. It can be seen from Figs. 10 and
11, as the mass of adsorbent increases, breakthrough time gets delayed. The breakthrough
times are obtained as 110, 115 and 210 min and 310, 630 and 850 min for 15, 20 and 25 g of
activated tamarind seeds and 15, 25 and 30 g of sawdust respectively. The total time
corresponds to the stoichiometric capacity of the column is found to be increasing from 310
to 640 min and 660 to 1240 min with increase in the mass of adsorbents from 15 – 25 g and
15 – 30 g for activated tamarind seeds and sawdust respectively (Tables 2 and 3). The total
percentage removal of Cr(VI) for the fixed-bed adsorption column increasesd from 39.7 –
50.0% and 59.4 to 74.6% with increase in mass of adsorbent from 15 – 25 g for activated
tamarind seeds and 15 – 30 g for sawdust (Tables 2 and 3). The fraction of unused bed length
at breakthrough point is obtained as approximately same (within the range of 0.64 – 0.67)
using activated tamarind seeds. But it is found to decrease in the range of 0.53 to 0.31 for
sawdust amount of 15 to 30 g (Table 3). It is observed from Figs. 10 and 11 that the
breakthrough curve becomes steeper when mass of adsorbent is decreased. The rate of
adsorbent exhaustion decreases in the range of 13.6 to 11.9 g/L and 4.8 to 3.5 g/L with
increase in mass of activated tamarind seeds and sawdust respectively.
It is evident from Figs. 10 and 11 that with an increase in the amount of adsorbent, the
capacity of the adsorption column to adsorb Cr(VI) increases which results in obtaining the
breakpoint time early.
3.3.3. Effect Of Initial Cr(VI) Concentration

In the adsorption of Cr(VI), a change in initial Cr(VI) concentration affects the operating
characteristics of the fixed bed adsorption column. The breakthrough curves obtained by
changing initial Cr(VI) concentration from 100 to 200 mg/L for activated tamarind seeds and
50 to 100 mg/L for sawdust are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. It is observed from Fig. 12, that as
the initial Cr(VI) concentration increases from 100 to 200 mg/L, the break point time
decreases from 210 to 45 min. Similar trend is observed from Fig. 13 for sawdust where
decrease in break point time is 630 to 280 min. The total time corresponds to stoichiometric
capacity of the column is found to be decreasing from 640 to 210 min and 1080 to 740 min
with increase in the initial Cr(VI) concentration from 100 – 200 mg/L and 50 – 100 mg/L for
activated tamarind seeds and sawdust respectively (Tables 2 and 3). The total percentage
removal of Cr(VI) for the fixed-bed adsorption column is decreasing from 50.0 – 30.4% and
74.5 to 55.6% with an increase in initial Cr(VI) concentration for activated tamarind seeds
and sawdust (Tables 2 and 3). The fraction of unused bed length at breakthrough point is
obtained in the range of 0.67 – 0.78 and 0.42 to 0.62 for sawdust for 100 – 200 mg/L and 50 –
100 mg/L of initial Cr(VI) concentration using activated tamarind seeds and sawdust (Tables
2 and 3). The rate of adsorbent exhaustion increases in the range of 11.5 to 37 g/L and 3.9 to
8.9 g/L with an increase in initial Cr(VI) concentration using activated tamarind seeds and
sawdust respectively.
Table 2. Different parameters for the Cr(VI) removal using activated tamarind seeds in
a fixed-bed adsorption column for different operating conditions
S No Cb0 W (g) Q tt tf tb qt mt S (%) EBRT Ra (g L-1) y

(mg L-1) (mL min-1) (min) (min) (min) (mg) (mg)
1 100 25 10 640 1280 210 640 1280 50.0 2.25 11.9 0.67
2 100 25 15 440 1000 115 690 1500 46.0 1.50 14.5 0.74
3 100 25 20 320 710 80 640 1420 45.1 1.12 15.6 0.75
4 100 20 10 430 930 155 430 930 46.2 1.80 12.9 0.64
5 100 15 10 310 780 110 310 780 39.7 0.76 13.6 0.65
6 150 25 15 300 920 100 675 2070 32.6 1.50 16.6 0.66
7 200 25 15 210 690 45 630 2070 30.4 1.50 37.0 0.78
The increase in initial Cr(VI) concentration led to reach bed saturation earlier and
obtaining breakthrough time quickly due to relatively slower transport due to a decrease in
diffusion coefficient and decreased mass transfer coefficient at low Cr(VI) concentration
(Aksu and Gönen, 2004). Binding sites, quickly filled at higher initial concentration, results in
a decrease in the breakthrough time. It is observed that the adsorbent get saturated faster at
higher concentrations of adsorbate due to the higher rate of adsorbent exhaustion at higher
Cr(VI) concentration. For a low initial Cr(VI) concentration, breakthrough occurs very late
and surface of the adsorbents is saturated with Cr(VI) at a relatively longer time. This fact is
probably associated with the availability of adsorption sites around or inside the adsorbent
particles that are able to capture the Cr(VI) at lesser retention time.
Table 3. Different parameters for the Cr(VI) removal using sawdust in a fixed-bed
adsorption column for different operating conditions
S No Cb0 W (g) Q tt (min) tf (min) tb qt (mg) mt (mg) S (%) EBRT Ra y

(mg L-1) (mL min-1) (min) (s) (g L-1) (-)
1 50 25 10 1080 1450 630 540 725 74.5 20 3.9 0.42
2 50 25 15 860 1240 440 645 930 69.4 13.3 3.8 0.48
3 50 25 20 660 990 240 660 990 66.6 10 5.2 0.63
4 50 30 10 1260 1690 850 630 845 74.6 24 3.5 0.31
5 50 15 10 660 1110 310 330 555 59.4 12 4.8 0.53
6 75 25 10 940 1470 420 705 1102 63.9 20 5.9 0.55
7 100 25 10 740 1330 280 740 1330 55.6 20 8.9 0.62
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2
Q = 10 mL/min
0.1 Q = 15 mL/min
Q = 20 mL/min
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (min)
Figure 8. Effect of flow rate on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using activated tamarind seeds
(C0 = 100 mg/L and W = 25 g)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2 Q = 10 ml/min
Q = 15 ml/min
0.1 Q = 20 ml/min
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (min)
Figure 9. Effect of flow rate on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using sawdust (C0 = 50 mg/L
and W = 25 g)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2 Mass = 15 g
0.1 Mass = 20 g
Mass = 25 g
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (min)
Figure 10. Effect of mass of adsorbent on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using activated
tamarind seeds (C0 = 100 mg/L and Q = 10 mL/min)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2 Mass = 15 g
0.1 Mass = 25 g
Mass = 30 g
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (min)
Figure 11. Effect of mass of adsorbent on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using sawdust (C0 =
50 mg/L and Q = 10 mL/min)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2 Cb0 = 100 ppm
Cb0 = 150 ppm
0.1
Cb0 = 200 ppm
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (min)
Figure 12. Effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using
activated tamarind seeds (W = 25 g and Q = 15 mL/min)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
C/C0
0.4
0.3
0.2 Cb0 = 50 ppm
Cb0 = 75 ppm
0.1
Cb0 = 100 ppm
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time (min)
Figure 13. Effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration on breakthrough curve for Cr(VI) removal using
sawdust (W = 25 g and Q = 15 mL/min)
3.4. Cost Analysis
Cost analysis is the most important criteria for the selection of any treatment process for
the removal of heavy metals. Adsorption process cost is mainly dependent on the cost of
adsorbent used for the removal of metals from wastewater. The most common adsorbent used
for the removal of Cr(VI) is activated carbon which is quite expensive. It becomes more
problematic for developing countries to afford the cost and demand of activated carbon.
Hence, low cost materials are sorely needed which are comparable to activated carbon in
terms of adsorption capacity, economic feasibility and should be locally available. Therefore,
in the present work, an attempt is made to analyze the cost of low cost adsorbents such as
activated tamarind seeds, activated neem leaves, sawdust and activated flyash. The cost for
the preparation of these adsorbents is calculated based on the procedure given in section 2.1.
The breakup cost of each step (including physical and chemical activation procedure) and the
total cost for the preparation of each adsorbent is given in Table 4. The commercially
available adsorbent, activated carbon, is purchased for Rs. 500 per kg in present studies.
Based on adsorption capacity obtained in batch study for all adsorbents, the cost of each
adsorbent is calculated for the removal of 1 g of Cr(VI) from wastewater streams (Table 5).
It is found that the cost of sawdust per gram of Cr(VI) removal is Rs 0.105 which is the
least when compared with the cost of other developed adsorbents. It is due to the fact that no
chemical activation costs are involved in the preparation of sawdust. It is furthermore seen
that it has high adsorption capacity (41.9 mg/g) for Cr(VI) removal thus making it the most
economically feasible adsorbent. The costs for removal of 1 g of Cr(VI) from waste waster
using adsorbents such as activated tamarind seeds, activated neem leaves and activated flyash
are Rs. 1.276, Rs.1.289 and Rs. 1.640 respectively. This indicates that the cost associated
with these adsorbents is quite lesser when compared to that of commercial activated carbon
(Rs 6.97).
Table 4. Breakup and total cost for preparing 1 kg of adsorbent from naturally
available materials
Activated tamarind Activated neem

Sawdust Activated flyash
Seeds leaves
Unit Cost
S No Material Net Net Net Net
(Rs.)
Amount used Price Amount used Price Amount used Price Amount used Price
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
1 HCl 9.84 - - 1.8 kg 17.69 - - - -
348.79
2 Copper solution - - 0.063 kg 21.97 - - - -
per kg
4.329 per
3 H2SO4 1 kg 4.33 - - - - 1 kg 4.33
kg
0.178 per
4 NaHCO3 5 liter 0.89 - - - - - -
liter
0.83 kWh 0.83 kWh 300C for 8 h
5 per 0.83 kWh
6 Cost of Drying 1 (1100C for 5 4.16 (800C for 5 5.0 (normal 4 4.16
kWh (1100C for 5 h)
h) h) conditions)
0.83 kWh 0.83 kWh
5 per 0.83 kWh
7 Cost of drying 2 (1100C for 5 4.16 (1100C for 5 4.16 - - 4.16
kWh (1100C for 5 h)
h) h)
4 kWh 4 kWh
5 per 4 kWh (1500C
8 Cost of heating 1 (1500C for 20 (1500C for 20 - - 20
kWh for 24 h)-
24 h) 24 h)
0.83 kWh
Cost of Heating 5 per
9 - - (800C for 6 5 - - - -
2 kWh
h)
10 Net cost (Rs.) 33.54 73.82 4 32.65
Other overhead
11 costs (10% of net 3.354 7.382 0.4 3.265
cost)
Total Cost (Rs.) 36.89 81.2 4.4 35.92
Table 5. Cost of adsorbent for the removal of 1 g of Cr(VI) from wastewater
Adsorption capacity Cost of Adsorbent Cost of adsorbent for removal

S No Adsorbent
(mg/g) (Rs./kg) of 1 g of Cr(VI) (Rs.)
Activated tamarind
1 28.9 36.89 1.276
seeds
Activated neem
2 62.97 81.2 1.289
leaves
3 Sawdust 41.9 4.4 0.105
4 Activated flyash 21.9 35.92 1.640
5 Activated carbon 71.7 500 6.97
CONCLUSIONS
The solid waste generated from various sources can be re-used or recycled. The solid
waste materials such as tamarind seeds, neem leaves, sawdust and flyash are recycled in the
form of adsorbents and found to be good adsorbents for the removal of Cr(VI) from
wastewater. The maximum adsorption capacity is found for activated neem leaves (62.9
mg/g) among low cost adsorbents which is quite appreciable as compared to commercially
available activated carbon which is showing maximum adsorption capacity of 71.7mg/g. The
maximum adsorption capacity of other developed adsorbents are 30.5 mg/g, 41.9 mg/g and
42.3 mg/g using activated tamarind seeds, sawdust and activated flyash respectively. The
problem of disposal of used adsorbent bed with hazardous metal such as Cr(VI) is
appropriately dealt with. It is found that all adsorbents show a higher desoprtion efficiency by
more than 95% for the removal of Cr(VI) except flyash. A feasible solution is proposed, for
the disposal of contaminant (acid and base solutions) containing high concentration of Cr(VI)
obtained during desorption process. The fixed-bed column experiments are performed using
activated tamarind seeds and sawdust and it is observed that the breakthrough point is
obtained earlier by increasing the flow rate, decreasing the mass of adsorbent and increasing
the initial Cr(VI) concentration. The economic feasibility study carried out of low cost
adsorbents over activated carbon based on a detailed cost analysis showed positive results
pointing to a tremendous potential these low cost adsorbents have for the removal of heavy
metals. Sawdust found to be the cheapest adsorbent for the removal of Cr(VI). This study
demonstrated that the environmental concern about the solid waste management and heavy
metals removal can be solved simultaneously.
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from water by a new CTAB–silica gelatin composite. Journal of Colloid and Interface
Science, 310, 353–361.
Chapter 6
CAN WASTE-TO-ENERGY OF AS-RECEIVED OR PRE-

PROCESSED (RDF/SRF) MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
SUPPORT THE ELECTRICITY GENERATION SECTOR?
EU EXPERIENCE AND A CASE STUDY WITH TWO
DIFFERENT SENARIOS FOR GREECE
C.S. Psomopoulos*
ABSTRACT
The European Union Landfill Directive (1999/31 EC) requires reducing the amount
of wastes landfilled by means of recycling, composting and energy recovery.
Accordingly, the member states are gradually adopting Waste-to-Energy (WTE) and also
mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) methods for the recovery of energy and materials
from municipal solid wastes (MSW). Under these conditions Waste to energy facilities
have a clear dual role in the context of sustainable waste management: From the one
hand, they have to reduce the volume and hazardousness of wastes that can receive no
further treatment prior to disposal; on the other, they have to make the most out of the
energy content of the treated wastes, in order to improve the environmental performance
of the whole process. WTE facilities can combust either as-received MSW (stoker or
“mass burn” technology) or pre-processed “refuse-derived” fuels (RDF or SRF) equipped
with adequate Air Pollution Control (APC) systems. The latter have higher calorific
values and can be used both in dedicated WTE plants and as fuel substitutes in cement
kilns and coal-fired power plants.
This chapter presents firstly an overview of the state-of-the-art in this field,
highlighting the energy recovery part of the procedure as well as the flue gas treatment.
The surveyed technologies fall under the following categorization:
¾ Pretreatment of wastes for subsequent thermal treatment and energy recovery; waste
derived fuels (refuse derived fuel, packaging derived fuel, solid recovered fuel).
* T.E.I. Piraeus, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, 250 Thivon str & P. Rali Ave, GR-12244, Egaleo, Greece, E-mail:
cpsomop@teipir.gr, Tel +302105381182, Fax: +302105381321
162 C. S. Psomopoulos
¾ Conventional incineration of as received wastes and residues with energy recovery

and flue-gas treatment.
¾ Co-firing of waste derived fuels in industrial furnaces.
Secondly this chapter examines the energy generation potential, focusing on

electricity, for two scenarios for waste to energy in Greece, based on the National Plan
for Waste Management of the Ministry of Environment. In the first scenario it is examine
only production and utilization of Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF) and Solid Recovered Fuel
from MSW, and the second scenario the application of the mass burn and the RDF/SRF
options, for managing post-recycling MSW, both in the light of experience gained in E.U.
and the U.S..
1. INTRODUCTION
Economic development is always accompanied by higher consumption of goods and
services and attendant increased generation of solid wastes that need to be disposed somehow.
The waste generation today is higher than the economic growth and different waste
management methods aim to reduce the significant environmental and economic impact of
this fact. In the generally accepted waste hierarchy, the first priority is for waste reduction,
followed by recycling and also composting of clean biodegradable organic wastes (food and
yard wastes). The EU promotes recycling over other waste treatment methods for recovering
materials and energy, the latter either in the form of electricity/heat or production of waste
derived fuels. In this way, physical resources are protected since paper, metals, glass, plastics
that are recovered from the waste stream demand less resources and energy than the use of
“virgin” materials. Also, the energy recovery provides electricity and heat to industrial,
commercial and domestic consumers, and also minimizes the volume of wastes to be
disposed. The goal of combining these approaches, as well as the additional option of
composting, is to minimise the loss of resources to final inert landfill disposal [1-7].
Landfilling is the most common method for waste management in many EU Member
States and in some cases this dependency exceeds 80%. The EU Landfill Directive of 1999
obliges Member States to progressively reduce the amount of organic waste going to landfill
to 35% of the 1995 levels within 15 years aims to reduce such a loss of resources. This clear
policy direction has put emphasis on waste management systems that increase and optimise
the recovery of resources from waste – whether as materials or as energy. Accordingly, the
member states are adopting Waste-to-Energy (WTE) and also mechanical-biological
treatment (MBT) methods for the recovery of energy and materials from municipal solid
wastes (MSW) and non – hazardous industrial wastes. Through the processes involved during
MBT, several output streams are generated, including a compost-like digested material, a
high calorific value fuel stream (15-18 MJ/kg), metals, and residuals. If the procedure
includes anaerobic digesters biogas can be generated also. WTE facilities can combust either
as-received MSW (stoker or “mass burn” technology) or pre-processed in MBT facilities,
“refuse-derived” fuels (RDF or SRF). The latter have higher calorific values than as-received
MSW and can be used both in dedicated WTE plants and as fuel substitutes in cement kilns
and coal-fired power plants. In order to protect the environment from the emissions in energy
recovery facilities, EU adopted the regulation on emission limits from waste incineration
Can Waste-to-Energy of as-Received or Pre-Processed (RDF/SRF)… 163
plants (Directive 2000/76/EC), while the regulation on renewable energy sources (RES)
(Directive 2001/77/EC), includes the biogenic fraction of wastes [1, 8-13].
This chapter presents electricity generation potential from MSW, by examining the
application of mass burn and RDF/SRF utilisation options, as a part of the generation fuel
mix. Furthermore one case study with two scenarios are presented for managing MSW in
Greece (the only EU-Member State along with Ireland that do not have incineration), in the
light of experience gained in E.U. and the U.S., and the National Plan for Waste Management
of the Greek Ministry of Environment. The case studies showed that the potential electricity
generation could be a notable percentage of the total annual electricity consumption.
2. MSW INCINERATION
2.1. Current Status i Europe
The EU Landfill Directive of 1999 obliges Member States to progressively reduce the
amount of organic waste going to landfill to 35% of the 1995 levels within 15 years aims to
reduce such a loss of resources. This clear policy direction has put emphasis on waste
management systems that increase and optimise the recovery of resources from waste –
whether as materials or as energy. Due to these restrictions in landfilling, thermal treatment
plays an important role in European waste management systems, whereas an increasing role
can be expected in the future. Thus, the Waste Incineration Directive is fundamental, as all
EU member states have to meet the same incineration standard from now on. Furthermore, it
is necessary consider the amount energy recovered from MSW incineration, as well the
differences that exist in MSW management infrastructures between the European countries
[1-3, 6-8, 12-17].
100 96.9
%
90
82.6
78.3
80
70
59.7
60 57
48.4 47
50 43.3
41.2
40
30
22.4
20
11.3 10.7 12.7
10 5.7 7.4 7.1 8.4
2.7
0.02
0
Denmark
Sweden
France
Germany
Hungary
Norway
Poland
Spain
Belgium
Portugal
Italy
Czech Republic
Austria
Finland
Slovakia
Latvia
Netherlands
United Kindom
Switzerland
Figure 1. MSW incinerated as percentage of the total produced in European countries.

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the differences of the relevance of waste incineration in the
European countries. While most of the highly industrialized countries of Western and
Northern Europe incinerate more than 40 % of MSW the rate in the new member states is less
than 10 %. Greece and Ireland do not include Waste-to-Energy in their MSW management
systems. In Switzerland nearly the entire amount of MSW is being used in WTE plants [1,8,
11, 14-17].
In Europe, a wide variety of WTE plant sizes and types are operating at present. Finland
and Poland for example have small installations (capacity = 50 kt/a) whereas the Netherlands
have the largest installations with an average capacity of 500 kt/a. The most commonly used
technology for MSW incineration is the grate furnace, but other proven technologies exist as
well, such as fluidized bed furnaces. Figure 3 shows the incineration plants in Europe and
Figure 4 the growth in million ton/y capacities [1, 6-8, 15-118].
0.13
Slovakia 1.02
0.002
Poland 12.74
0.03
Latvia 1.13
0.35
Hungary 4.18
0.21
Czech Republic 2.95
2.64
United Kindom 24.61
1.48
Spain 13.1
0.94
Portugal 4.19
1.78
Italy 24.09
0.08
Finland 1.4
2.5
Switzerland 2.58
1.94
Sweden 2.35
0.39
Norway 0.83
3.75
Netherlands 4.79
9.72
Germany 17.15
9.21
France 22.37
1.85
Denmark 3.1
1.04
Belgium 2.15
0.55
Austria 1.27 Mt/y
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Figure 2. Total and incinerated amount of MSW in European countries

Depending on the design the energy is recovered usually as cogeneration of heat and
electricity, but the each percentage presents significant differences between European
countries. A typical example can be given by comparing Germany and Italy. There were 67
MSW incinerators in operation in Germany at the end of 2005 with total capacity of these
units is approximately 16,5 million ton/y; all wastes are processed in facilities with energy
recovery and heat and/or electricity generation. In Germany, 71,7 % of the total energy
potential was used for heat generation (16370 GWh) and approximately 29,3 % for electricity
generation (6800 GWh). In Italy, the amounts were smaller, where 41 MSW incinerators in
operation at the end of 2005 with total capacity of these units is approximately 3,1 million
ton/y, only 19,6 % of the total energy potential was used for heat generation (575 GWh) while
approximately 80,4 % for electricity generation (2356 GWh). Table 1 shows the number of
incinerators, the MSW quantity incinerated and the energy recovered as heat and electricity,
in selected European countries [1, 6-8, 15-23].
Figure 3. Distribution of Waste-to-Energy plants operating in Europe in the year 2006; numbers of
facilities and millions of tons MSW incinerated annually are also indicated (source : www.cewep.com)
Beside the volume reduction and mineralization of waste, energy recovery has
increasingly become an important objective. Due to the fact that waste has a role as a
renewable energy source, it is attracting more and more attention in this respect. Nevertheless
not all countries considered a part of the MSW as renewable energy source because of the
other materials included in the mixed waste streams [1, 5-8, 15-17, 19-23].
Table 1. Number of incinerators, quantity of MSW (incinerated and total) and energy
recovered as heat and electricity.
Number of Quantity of MSW incinerated (total) Energy Recovered in

EU Member State
incinerators Mton/yr GWh (electricity/heat)
Austria 8 1.46 (3.14) 189/2094
Belgium 1 0.9 (3.38) 320/1800
Germany 67 16.5 (20.5) 6800/16370
Denmark 30 NA (3.4) 1447/6582
Spain 1 1.76 (22.7) 982/640
Italy 47 3.1 (31.1) 2356/575
Holland 11 5.4 (10.2) 2495/2646
Hungary 1 0.3 (4.7) 120/133
Portugal 3 1.1 (4.55) 593/ΝΑ
Sweden 29 3.2 (4.2) 739/855
Czech Republic 3 0.4 (4.4) 17/34
80 72.4
70 64.3
54.9
60
48 50.6 52
50 44.1
40
36.5
40 32.7
30
20
10
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2006 2009
Figure 4. Rise of capacity of incinerator plants in Europe in million ton/y. Greece and Ireland are the
only EU countries that do not have incineration as part of their waste management strategies (source :
Frost & Sallivan)
2.2. Common Used Technologies
MSW incinerators should be burned various waste categories with several characteristics.
This requires specifically designed combustors. On principle, a waste incineration plant
consists of the main thermal process and the flue-gas cleaning. The thermal process usually
includes the following systems: storage, handling and waste feeding, followed by the
combustion in the furnace, as well as the heat recovery with steam and electricity production
[6-8, 13, 14-18, 21-24].
Table 2. New waste-to-energy systems in Europe with increased energy efficiency; the
estimated produced and exported electricity percentages are referred to the energy
input of the waste (source: [24])
Plant Brescia # 1+2 (Italy) Brescia # 3 Amsterdam # 5+6

(Italy) (Netherlands)
Start-up 1998 2004 2007
MARTIN reverse-acting MARTIN reverse-
Combustion system MARTIN horizontal grate
grate acting grate
Intermediate steam
Optimized for high Optimized for high
Special feature superheating and water
efficiency efficiency
condenser
MSW, sewage sludge, Biomass, sewage
Fuel MSW
biomass sludge
Steam pressure (bar) 61 73 130
Superheated steam
450 480 440
temperature (°C)
Gas temperature at boiler 180 (135°C with additional heat
135 135
outlet (°C) recovery)
Electricity (%gross) 27 28 34
Electricity (%net) 24 25 30
The most common technology for the incineration of MSW is the moving grate system.
As an example, in Germany, more than 90% of MSW incinerators are grate firing systems.
These systems require minimal pre-processing and are implemented in facilities of varying
grate size from 2 t/h to more than 40 t/h. A disadvantage of the grate systems is the large
excess of air (λ=1.6-1.8) which leads to energy losses over the stack by the flue gas.
Independent of the incineration system, the combustion temperature has to be in the range of
850-1100 °C. The lower limit guarantees the complete destruction of harmful organic
chemicals and the upper limit should prevent from unacceptable high production of thermal
NOx. The efficiency of MSW incinerators with electricity generation is around 20% and can
go up to 30% usually. Compared to fossil fired plants these values are low caused mainly due
to the low steam parameters of approximately 400°C and 40 bar. Recent technological
improvements have shown that the electricity generation can reach up to 34% while the steam
pressure can reach 130bar 440°C (Table 2) [6-8, 13, 14-18, 21-24].
2.2.1. Mass-Burn Plants

Mass burning of MSW with power generation, in WTE plants is practiced widely in the
EU, US and other developed countries. Requires minimum pre-processing of waste, mainly
removal of bulky items like “white goods”, although in many facilities metals are recovered
after shredding of the garbage bags, prior to charge the incinerator. The rest of the waste is
charged to the furnace by means of a mechanical “claw” that deposits wastes and other items
(most commonly biomass and/or sewage sludge) at the feed end of a metal grate that moves
the waste materials slowly through the combustion chamber. Because of the large size of the
items deposited on the grate mechanism, the oxidation rates are relatively slow. Because of
the low rate of oxidation, a very large combustion chamber and grate are required and the
intensity of combustion (rate of heat generation per unit volume) is correspondingly low.
There have been improvements over the years in combustion efficiency and pollution control
of mass-burn WTE plants, as already mentioned above [6-8, 13, 14-18, 21-27].
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of a typical WTE mass-burn (stoker) facility.
2.2.2. Fluidized-Bed Plants

Another extensively used in Japan and can be found in European countries Waste-to-
Energy method is fluidized bed reactors. This method requires shredding (down to 5 cm) and
removing of inert materials like glass and metals from the received MSW streams prior to the
feed of the fluidized bed reactor. The wastes are fed on top of a fluidized bed of sand or
limestone. Combustion under these conditions is more efficient and results in similar
temperatures and higher energy recovery. The amounts of non-oxidized materials leaving the
combustion chamber are lower and the required excess air is less compare to mass-burn
plants. Fluidized-bed combustors operate at temperatures in the range of 830–910oC and can
use additional fuel as required and thus they can burn materials with very high moisture
content. Because of the lower uniform temperatures, “slagging” and corrosion problems in the
furnace are kept to a minimum [6-8, 13, 14-18, 21-27].
2.2.3. A State-o-Art WTE Plant i US

The SEMASS facility at Rochester, Massachusetts is an indicative example of a state-of-
art WTE plant. The feed material consists of the entire (wet+dry) MSW stream including
Refuse Derive Fuel. The facility serves 50 communities in a 110-km radius. The plant
consists of three parallel combustion units and processes over one million tons per year. The
first two units were built in 1989 and Unit 3 in 1994 [7, 15, 26, 27].
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the SEMASS process at Rochester, Massachusetts, USA.
Waste brought to plant is dumped on a tipping floor (Figure 6). Bulk wastes that could
jam the shredders or hazardous wastes are removed prior to shredding. The wastes are
shredded in one of two large hammermill shredders that produce a blended material of 15-cm
size coarse RDF (figure 7). The shredded material is conveyed under overhead belt magnets
for the first round of ferrous metal recovery and is then stored in bays in a closed building [7,
15, 26, 27].
Figure 6. SEMASS Tipping Floor Waste Receiving.

Figure 7. Shredded wastes and RDF loading.
The shredded MSW fuel is conveyed to bins and from there is ejected through inclined
chutes into the three combustion chambers. The feed rate is adjusted by means of automated
temperature controls (it is critical for the procedure to keep certain temperature limits-low and
high). The bottom of the combustion chamber consists of a moving grate that collects inert
materials and heavy combustibles after they are blown into the boiler. These materials settle
on the end of the grate away from the feed end and gradually move towards the feed end. An
upward airflow through the grate is provided for completing combustion, during the first two
thirds of the travel. With the same airflow the ash towards the end of the travel, is partially
cooling of. This heat exchange mode allows good heat recovery and eliminates the need for
quenching the bottom ash with water [7, 15, 26, 27].
2.3. Emissions
MSW incineration plants are often subject of controversy, usually because of their flue-
gas emissions. Due to public health issues central governments adopted very strict emission
limits from waste incineration facilities, as it is proven that the burning of wastes is
responsible for a significant number and volume of hazardous substances. The adopted
emission limits required significant investmens in flue-gas treatment devices like acid-gas
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators or baghouse filters. Figure 8 presents the flue-gas
cleaning system of the SEMASS Waste-to-Energy Plant. As it can be seen the gas control
system consists of dry scrubbing, activated carbon Injection and fabric filter bag-house Table
3 presents the limits for Waste Incineration Plants in Germany. The amount of dioxins in
Germany dropped from 1990 to 2000 to 1/1000. In 1990 one third of all dioxin emissions in
Germany came from waste incinerator plants, whereas for the year 2000 the contribution was
less than 1% as shown in Table 4 [4, 7-8, 13, 15-18, 23-27].
Table 3. Emission limits for waste incineration in Germany
Parameter Unit Emission limit

Dust mg/Nm3 10
TOC mg/Nm3 10
HCl mg/Nm3 10
HF mg/Nm3 1
SO2 mg/Nm3 50
NOx mg/Nm3 200
CO mg/Nm3 50
Cd+Tl mg/Nm3 0.05
Hg mg/Nm3 0.03
Metals mg/Nm3 0.05
Dioxins/furans ng TE/Nm3 0.1
Figure 8. Air Cleaning System of SEMASS WTE facility (Energy Answers Co.)
Table 4. PCDD/F emission sources in Germany (www.umweltbundesamt.de)
sources Emission per year in g TE

1990 1994 2000
metal industry 740 220 40
sintering plants 575 168 < 20
iron and steel production 35 10 <5
waste incineration 400 32 < 0,5
municipal solid waste 399 30 < 0,4
hazardous waste 2 0,04
medical waste 0,1 0,0002
sewage sludge < 0,1 0,03
power plants 5 3 <3
industrial combustion facilities 20 15 < 10
domestic stoves 20 15 < 10
traffic 10 4 <1
crematoria 4 2 <2
Depending on the waste composition MSW consists of a biogenic or renewable part from
57 % to 73 % by weight. The main biogenic fractions are yard and kitchen waste, paper,
cardboard and wood. Considering the fossil carbon content and the respective heating values,
the emission factors for MSW and selected fossil fuels are given in Table 5. It is obvious that
the emission factors (related to the energy content) of the waste types are clearly below those
of the fossil fuels but this does not mean that the waste incineration with energy recovery
always obtains a CO2 reduction. The reduction potential by WTE plants depends on the fuel
and the efficiency of the energy production compared to the alternative use as, for example,
RDF in power plants [4, 7-8, 13, 15-20, 23-27].
Table 5. Waste–to–Energy and Fossil Fuel Power Plants – Comparison of Air Emissions
(O’Brien, 2006)
Fuel Air Emissions (kg/MWh)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen Oxides
MSW (fossil-C) 379.66 0.36 2.45
Coal 1020.13 5.90 2.72
Oil 758.41 5.44 1.81
Natural Gas 514.83 0.04 0.77
3. RDF AND SRF PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION

3.1. RDF and SRF Definitions
Refuse derived fuels cover a wide range of waste materials which have been processed to
fulfil guideline, regulatory or industry specifications mainly to achieve a high calorific value.
Waste derived fuels include residues from municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling,
industrial/trade waste, sewage sludge, industrial hazardous waste, biomass waste, etc [8-11].
Refuse is a general term for municipal solid and commercial wastes and the terms
‘Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)’ and ‘Solid Refuse Fuel (SRF)’ usually refer to the segregated
high calorific fraction of MSW, commercial or industrial process wastes. RDF and SRF are
produced during Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) of wastes. Other terms are also
used for MSW derived fuels such as Recovered Fuel (REF), Packaging Derived Fuels (PDF),
Paper and Plastic Fraction (PPF) and Process Engineered Fuel (PEF). REF, PDF, PPF and
PEF usually refer to a source-separated, processed, dry combustible MSW fraction (e.g.
plastics and/or paper) which are too contaminated to be recycled. It has a higher calorific
value, lower moisture content and lower ash content (on combustion) than RDF derived from
mixed waste fractions. Table 6 presents typical properties of RDF, and Table 7 shows
theoretical characteristics of RDF. The calculations are based on screening (screen only) as
well as screening and separation of heavy materials (screen+heavy). Screening sizes are 40
mm (medium) and 100 mm (coarse). [8-11, 18, 28-33].
Table 6. Typical ranges of RDF properties
Chemical Properties Mechanical Properties

Calorific Value 11-18 MJ/kg Particle size 10-300 mm
moisture 10-30 % wt Bulk density 120-300 kg/m3
ash 10-20 % wt
Cl 1,0-1,8 % wt
S 0,3-0,8 % wt
Table 7. Theoretical calculation of levels of harmful substances in RDF
Theor. RDF Theor. RDF Theor. RDF Theor. RDF

(All values for dry
(medium) (screen (coarse) (screen (medium) (coarse)
matter)
only) only) screen+heavy screen+heavy
Cl overall in % 0.89 1.89 0.77 0.59
S overall in % 0.26 0.33 0.3 0.28
Pb in mg/kg 1600 3770 130 170
Cd in mg/kg 3.3 7.5 1.8 1.0
Cr in mg/kg 290 340 66 86
Hg in mg/kg 2.55 3.87 0.23 0.14
The terms ‘Secondary Fuel, Substitute Fuel and Substitute Liquid Fuel (SLF)’ are used
for processed industrial wastes which may be homogeneous or mixed to specification.
Examples of these fuels include waste tyres, waste oils, spent solvents, bone meal, animal
fats, sewage sludge and industrial sludge (e.g. paint sludge and paper sludge). These terms
can also refer to non-hazardous packaging or other residues from industrial/trade sources (e.g.
plastic, paper and textiles), biomass (e.g. waste wood and sawdust), demolition waste or
shredded combustible residues from scrap cars [8-11, 18, 31, 32].
3.2. RDF and SRF Production
RDF and SRF produced from MSW through a number of different processes consisting
in general of: [8-11, 31, 32]
3 Sorting or mechanical separation

3 Size reduction (shredding, chipping and milling)
3 Separation and screening
3 Blending
3 Drying and pelletising
3 Packaging and Storage.
Typically, the waste material is processed to remove the recyclable fraction (e.g. metals),
the inert fractions (such as glass) and separate if it is possible the fine wet organic fraction
(e.g. food and garden waste) containing high moisture and high ash material before being
pulverised. This procedure was described extensively by Keldenich and Marzi. The wet
organic materials can then undergo further treatment such as composting or anaerobic
digestion, and can be used as a soil conditioner for landfill restoration work or be landfilled.
In some cases, the putrescible fraction is kept in place to enable the mass of material to be
dried through biological treatment (the process of ‘dry stabilisation’) [8-11, 31].
The coarse fraction is either rejected or returned to the pulveriser. The medium fraction,
consisting of paper, card, wood, plastic and textiles can either be burnt directly as coarse fuel
or dried and pelletised into dense RDF. The decision as to whether or not to pelletise is
usually based upon the location of the RDF manufacturing facility relative to the combustion
facility [8-11, 18, 30-33].
There are two technologies which have been developed and which produced from MSW
a high calorific fraction which can be used as RDF
3 Mechanical Biological Treatment plant and

3 Biological Drying Process.
In a mechanical biological treatment plant (MBT), metals and inerts are separated out and
organic fractions are screened out for further stabilisation using composting processes, either
with or without a digestion phase. It also produces a residual fraction which has a high-
calorific value as it is composed mainly of dry residues of paper, plastics and textiles. Tables
8 and 9 present the RDF production and composition from MSW in selected EU Member
States, respectively [1, 6, 8-11, 16, 18, 30, 31, 34].
RDF and SRF can also be produced through a ‘biological drying’ process, in which
residual waste are effectively dried (and stabilised) through a composting process, leaving the
residual mass with higher calorific value and suitable for combustion. The inerts and metals
are removed through mechanical process before or after the bio-drying depending of the
technology applied for bio-drying [6, 8-11, 16, 18, 30-34].
Table 8. RDF production from MSW in selected EU Member States, 2001 (source : [8-
11].
Waste input Fuel output

Type and Number
Country Capacity Quantity processed Quantity produced
of plant
(x103Mg/y) (x103 Mg/y) (x103 Mg/y)
Austria 10 MBT+ (2) 340+ (60) 340 ¹ 70
Finland 12 + (8) 200-300 140-300f) 40-90*
Germany 14 1100 330*
Italy 16MBT +6 + (3) 1500 1000 300*
Netherlands 13 + (12) 2000 (+1300) 2000 700
UK 3MBT 250 250 90
Total EU >50 > 5500 >3700 ≈ 3000
Notes: Plants producing RDF planned or under construction are given into brackets
* Assuming a RDF production rate of 30%
¹ Including MSW, sewage sludge, waste wood and commercial waste
Table 9. RDF composition (typical) from different EU regions, (source : [8-11, 31])
Greece UK Italy Flemish Region

Waste Fraction MBTC Plant Sorting Process MBT
(%) (%)
(%) (%) (%)
Printed material 37,0
Remaining Papers 6,60 84,0 44,0 13,0 64,0a)
Printed packing 18,10
Plastic packing 22,90
11,0 23,0 31,0 9,0
Remaining plastic 1,70
Textile 10,80 12,0 14,0
Wood 0,40 5,0c) 4,5 12,0 27,0b)
Organic -others 1,30 16,5 30,0
a) Includes paper, textile, wood
b) Includes rubber, synthetic material
c) Includes glass, wood, textiles and metals
Italy 13,00% Sweden 4,00%

UK 4,00%
Netherlands
18,00%
Germany 36,00% Austria 7,00%

Belgium6,00%
2000 : 1.4 MT produced Finland 12,00%
Compound annual growth rate = 54%
2005 : 12.4 MT produced
Sweden 4.00%
Ireland 4.00%
Spain 8.00% Netherlands
UK 2.00%
Greece 4.00% 12.00%
France 8.00%
Austria 4.00%
Portugal 4.00%
Belgium 2.00%
Italy 13.00% Finland 3.00%
Sources : CEN/FEAD estimates Germany 30.00%
Figure 9. Projected growth in RDF and SRF production volumes, selected EU countries, 2000 – 2005
(source [8]-[10], [23]).
Common to most RDF and SRF production concepts is a certain degree of size reduction
and removal of organic and inert material. As a result, RDF has, on average, higher heating
value, lower ash content, and a lower bulk density compared to untreated waste. Note that the
majority of pollutants such as chlorine, sulphur and heavy metals are not affected by the pre-
treatment, even though the metals removal systems minimize the present of metal in the
produced fuel. Wide variations in the properties and composition of RDF and SRF – even
when it is produced by one particular system – have been observed and the term seems to
cover at least as wide a variety of fuels as the term ‘biomass’ [6, 8-11, 18, 31].
The production of RDF and SRF, from household and business waste has grown from
2000 to 2005 from 1.4 million to 12.4 million tons/year as shown in Figure 9. Up to the year
2007 the total amount of RDF produced in Europe can be estimated to 15x106 t/y,
approximately, of which Germany alone produced approx. 7 million. The incineration of this
amount of RDF is not easy. In Germany roughly one million tons of RDF is kept on stock
without the chance to be burned in the next few years. The lack of capacity for the
incineration of RDF has a number of reasons with fuel quality being the most important. [6,
8-11, 31]
3.3. RDF and SRF Utilisation
The RDF is a fuel with very diverse qualities therefore needs to be handled in different
ways. Table 4 compares SRF from MBT process of MSW with typical fossil fuels. The
production of steam and/or electricity can be done in power plants or specially designed
fluidized bed reactors. Also, RDF can be used to produce cement, asphalt or bricks. Every
application demands a different quality in the RDF production. Chlorine and heavy metals are
limiting factors, but already these fuels are in use for energy production in many sectors,
including power generation and cement industry, in EU (Table 5) and around the world [1, 8-
11, 18, 21, 30-33].
Table 10. Comparison of CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels and Secondary
Derived Fuel produced by processed MSW (MBT process).
Calorific Total CO2 Renewable energy CO2 emission

Fuel Type Value emission content loading
MJ/kg g CO2/kg % renewable Mg CO2 / TJ
Lignite 8.6 955 0% 111
Pit Coal 29.7 2762 0% 93
Heating Oil 35.4 2620 0% 74
Natural Gas 31.7 1775 0% 56
MSW 8-9 1170 50.0% 45
14-18,
SRF from MBT 1067 66.8% 24
15 aver.
Table 11 compares several refuse-derived fuels with the characteristics of primary energy
fuels and the demands of the cement industry. A comparison between Table 7 and Table 11
highlights the fact that a further reduction in the level of harmful substances is feasible.
Practical tests have confirmed these theoretical calculations.
Table 11. Characteristics of primary and secondary fuels
RDF Dry stabilized

RDF in the RDF Velsen
(All values for Brown coal Brown coal Herne residues
cement
dry matter literature VEAG (Bünsow and Dobberstein, (Heering et al.,
industry
1985) 1999)
Calorific value kJ/kg 8,000-20,000 8,496-8,854 13,000 14,560 –14,820 13,130 16,000
Chlorine overall in % < 0.06 0.01-0.02 <1.5 0.76-0.97 0.56 0.44
S overall in % 0.3-5 0.56-0.7 <0.4 0.15-0.19 0.14 0.45
Pb in mg/kg 7.9-34.1 1.3-7.1 <150 212.4-401.8 138.1 230
Cd in mg/kg 0.1-0.23 0.2-4.5 <10 5.32-6.12 4.45 2.2
Cr in mg/kg 28.1-91.1 6.12-13.5 <150 90.5-127.8 67.1 60
Hg in mg/kg 0.07-0.19 0.1-0.54 <1.5 0.84-1.08 1.25 0.75
Table 12. Utilisation of RDF from MSW in selected EU Member States, 2001 (source :
[8-11]).
Country Number Quantity/ Capacity (x103Mg/y)

Dedicated plant
Italy (2) C
Sweden 1400
United Kingdom 1 30
Power plant
Italy (3) T (1200)
United Kingdom 1 50
Paper mill
Finland 200
District heating plant
Finland 50 50
Cement kiln
Belgium 1 15
Italy 5 300
Denmark 1 2.6
Notes: Figures into brackets are referring to quantities for which information was incomplete or
uncertain
Τ : in trial, C : In construction
According to several studies carried out around the world, the following options for the
utilisation and conversion of RDF and SRF from MSW to energy have been already used or
could be used in the future: [1, 6-11, 18, 21, 26-38]
3 on-site in an integrated thermal conversion device, which could include grate or

fluidised bed combustion, gasification or pyrolysis
3 off-site at a remote facility employing grate or fluidised bed combustion, gasification
or pyrolysis
3 co-combustion in coal fired boilers
3 co-incineration in cement kilns
3 co-gasification with coal or biomass.
The total quantities of RDF from processed MSW used in Europe in dedicated waste to
energy installations, in power generating plants, district heating plants and industrial
processes such as paper mills and cement kilns has been estimated to amount to more than 2
million tonnes per year in 2001. It was reported that it is not always possible to secure an
outlet for RDF and in Germany for example, quantities have to be stored. The quantities of
RDF burnt are expected to increase in the future with planned increased capacity for RDF
utilisation mainly in Belgium, Italy and in the UK. There are also plans for using RDF from
MSW in other processes such as gasification and pyrolysis [8, 11, 18, 21, 26-38].
Power plants, based on hard coal or lignite, use their fuel in powdered form, briquettes or
in form of small milled grain. The types of furnace are optimized in respect of the used type
of coal or lignite. These circumstances determine the quality of RDF used in different kind of
power plant. In Table 13 the specifications of RDF of different power plants in Germany are
listed. The power plants have the biggest potential for co-incineration of RDF if one
calculates a substitution of 5 to 10 % for coal and lignite. But in reality, most power plants
did not burn the authorized amount of secondary fuel from MBT and sorting plants due to
mainly the technical risks, low quality of RDF/SRF, etc. New developments are the
gasification of RDF combined with a power plant or cement kiln. The main problem with this
combined plant is the availability of the gasification units [8-11, 28, 30, 32, 33].
Germany is a representative example supporting the above. Currently, a total of 6.1
million tonnes per year of high calorific waste (i.e. calorific value > 11 MJ/kg) is available in
Germany. Part of this is produced by MBT facilities, part of it concerns commercial waste.
Nearly 2.1 million tonnes per year, mainly the fraction with a heating value in excess of 18
MJ/kg, is used for co-combustion coal fired power plants. But in reality, most power plants
did not burn the authorized amount of secondary fuel from MBT and sorting plants, as only
38% of the authorized capacity was used. In addition, 2.8 million tonnes per year, with a
heating value typically between 11 and 15 MJ/kg, are treated in Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
plants. The remaining, amounting to 1.3 million tonnes per year, is put in temporary storage
or exported. Long term prognoses of the market volume show an increase until 2010,
followed by a small and gradual decline towards 2020 [8-11, 28, 30, 32, 33].
Table 13. RDF specification of different power plants in Germany (Eckardt, 2005)
Parameter Hard coal Lignite

water content 10-20 % 20-25 %
ash content 10-25 % 5-40 %
Sulphur 0.5-1.0 % 0.4 -2.0 %
Chlorine 0.4-1.0 % 0.4-1.0 %
Fluorine 0.05-0.2 % 0.05-0.2 %
Cadmium 0.1-10 mg/kg
Mercury 1.0 mg/kg
Chromium 150 mg/kg
The RDF/SRF from MSW utilisation in cement kilns is rather small mainly due to the
following reasons :
1. Quality specifications are not met (chlorine content too high, heating value too low,
metal content too high).
2. The additional investment for storage, handling and chlorine by-pass is too high.
3. The RDF ashes do not match the recipe for high quality cement
Germany which is among the major producers and consumers of RDF/SRF from MSW
utilizes in cement kilns less than 10 % of RDF from MBT and sorting plants is used as energy
substitute. Germany have the permit to burn 2,673 million tons/y of secondary fuel, 22 % of
the energy demand of the cement producing industry is covered by secondary fuel, with
commonly used wastes including waste tyres, waste oil, waste wood, plastic and textile
wastes.
Here, it must be stressed that co-incineration of waste in plants that were not designed to
incinerate waste should not be allowed to cause higher emissions of polluting substances in
the stack gas of such operations than those permitted for dedicated incineration plants and,
therefore, should be equipped with adequate Air Pollution Control (APC) systems [3, 4, 8-11,
14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25].
Because of the difficulties of acceptance of RDF in power plants and in cement kilns, a
number of specially designed plants for RDF have been built around EU, using fluidized bed
reactors and grate firing plants. Most of these incineration plants are connected with industrial
plants with a high demand of steam and electricity on a 24h-basis (e.g. paper mills), in order
to optimize the energy utilisation. In Germany for example 530,000 tons/y RDF are currently
burnt in fluidized bed reactors (60%) and grate firing plants (40%) [8-11, 18, 21, 30, 32].
As proven technologies both grate and fluidized bed are able to incinerate RDF/SRF from
MSW. The water-cooled grate is the right choice for this material; whereas both the
Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) as well as the stationery bed is used for RDF. The main
restriction of fuel from waste to be incinerated in the fluidized bed is the particle size. To
ensure that the incineration process is working without problems, the particle size should not
exceed 100 mm and no metal or heavy material like stone, glass etc. should be present in the
fuel. On the other hand in the grate technology, particle size can be bigger and the restriction
on the feed material is normally less strict. The fluidized bed has a higher efficiency and
fewer problems with NOx and volatile heavy metal, but often more problems with erosions.
Both plant types have problems with high temperature corrosion depending on the amount of
chlorine in the RDF. The classic solutions are cladding of the boiler tubes, flue gas
recirculation and/or reduction of steam parameters [8-11, 18, 21, 30, 32, 33].
4. THE CASE STUDY OF GREECE

4.1. MSW Production and Management in Greece
MSW production in Greece is increasing over the years, as everywhere in the world.
Figures 10 and 11 present this growth as well as the mean composition of MSW respectively,
as it has been reported by the Greek Ministry of Environment, Planning and Public Works. A
constant increase over the past years is observed and is estimated to continue in the
foreseeable future. A large fraction of the MSW tonnage is generated in the Regions of Attica
(39%) and Central Macedonia (16%), where the largest cities, Athens and Thessaloniki are
situated. The composition of MSW in Greece is similar to the European average with the only
differences being a higher organic fraction and moisture content up to 40%. The MSW
management methodologies in Greece, as they were applied in 2004, were landfilling (91.8%)
and recycling (8.2%). At present, there is no WTE capacity in Greece, while some mechanical
treatment units, producing RDF or SRF, are operating or are under construction [1, 7, 39-44].
4,5
3,5
2,5
1,5
0,5
0
1991 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
kg/d & res 0,83 0,97 1,03 1,06 1,09 1,14
Mtons/year 3,2 3,95 4,08 4,26 4,45 4,56
Figure 10. Annual production of MSW in Greece; Source: Ministry of Environment, National Plan for
Solid Waste Treatment 2003
Lether - Wood -
Metal 3,00% Rubber 2,00%
Other 9,00%
Organic 40,00%
Glass 3,00%
Plastic 14,00%
Paper/Cardboard
29,00%
Figure 11. Mean composition of MSW in Greece; Source: Ministry of Environment, National Plan for
Solid Waste Treatment 2003
Table 14. Input and output streams as per initial design of plant and average
composition of RDF produced at Ano Liossia MBTC Plant in 2006-2008(source [12-15]).
Input Stream Output Stream RDF Mean Composition

Materials Quantity (t/day) Materials Quantity (t/day) Materials Quantity (%)
MSW 1200* Compost 300 Printed Paper 37.80
Sewage sludge 300 RDF 360 Other Papers 4.90
Green wastes 130 Fe 35 Paper packing 16.50
Al 5 Plastic packing 26.20
Wastes 330 Other plastics 1.30
Water 500 Textiles 11.00
Volatiles 100 Wood 0.40
Organic 0.80
*at present, the MSW feed to this plant is reported to be 700 tons/day.
Table 15. Potential for processing MSW to SRF/RDF in Greece, as per the MSW
Management Strategic Plan of Greece [11-13,15].
Waste Quantities SRF Quantities

Regions / Prefectures Plants
(x103 t/y) (x103 t/y)
MBTC I 495 148.5*
Attica
MBTC II 660 198.0*
NW Thessaloniki MBT 180¹ 180² 360³ 54†
SA Thessaloniki MBT 120¹ 180² 240³ 36†
Serres MBT 90¹ 90² 100³ 27†
Central
Imathia MBT 50¹ 55² 60³ 15†
Macedonia
Pellas 30² 35³ 9‡
Pierias 30² 35³ 9‡
Kilkis 35³ 10.5
Western Macedonia MBT 150# 106# 19.5
Peloponnese 255 76.5
Chania MBT 70 +
Crete
Iraklio ¦ BioDry 70 210 35
Notes : The quantities have been calculated with factor 0.3 based on existing MBTC Plant operating in
Ano Liossia, with the exceptions noted below or on the Table.
* : The quantities have been calculated considering that 120x103 t/y in MBTC I and 160x103 t/y in
MBTC II of sewage sludge will be treated also.
¹,²,³ : planned quantities for the years 2010, 2013, 2020 respectively
†, ‡ : The quantities have been calculated for the years 2010, 2013 respectively
#
: 150x103 t/y is the scheduled capacity, 106x103 t/y is the foreseen processed quantity for 2011 and the
SRF production rate is around 18%.
¦ : In Iraklio Prefecture of Crete a Bio-drying Plant producing SRF with approximately 50% SRF in the
output stream is under construction with capacity 70x103 t/y, which is planned to be increased in
210x103 t/y in 2010.
As of November 2006, the MSW Mechanical Biological Treatment and Composting

(MBTC) Plant at Ano Liosia (Attica) has produced 220000t per annum of RDF of 27.4%
moisture, and Cl content of 0.4%. Table 14 presents the main composition of the produced
RDF and shows the input and output streams as were planned for the MBTC Plan in Ano
Liossia. The production of this fuel justified the investment of the MBTC facility and was
projected to be financially advantageous to the conventional approach of mass-burning of

solid wastes. Nevertheless this fuel has not as yet been used in cement production or power
generation, even though the utilisation potential is quite high [6-11, 15-16, 31-33].
The National Plan for Waste Management for 2007-13 (Ministry of Environment,
Planning and Public Works), foresees a number of Plants for RDF/SRF production in several
areas of Greece, but does not mention the need for RDF-dedicated WTE facilities, because it
is assumed that this material would be co-combusted in existing industrial plants. However, if
this route does not materialize, as it did not for the MBTC of Ano Liossia, it would be
necessary to build combustion plants fuelled by RDF [39-41].
According to the National Plan for Waste Management as was published by the Greek
Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works for 2007-2013 a number of
Plants for RDF and SRF production is foreseeing, in several areas of Greece. Table 15 gives
the Regions/Prefectures where the RDF/SRF production plans are foreseeing, and their annual
capacity. It must be noted that MSW Processing Plants have also been included in the
National Plan for MSW for the Regions of Western Greece, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus,
East Macedonia and Thrace; however, the number and capacities of such plants have not been
defined to this date. As it can be seen, the potential production of RDF/SRF is quite high,
especially in the cases of Attica and Central Macedonia Regions where the expected annual
quantities are 345000t and 132000t respectively [39-41].
4.2. Electricity Generation Potential from Waste Combustion in Greece
The direct combustion of “as-received” MSW (mass burn) is widely used through the
developed world and it is less costly to implement than the combination of an RDF generating
facility (e.g., like the MBTC facility at Ano Liossia) followed by an RDF-dedicated power
plants However, the RDF option offers advantages in cases where the RDF can be co-
combusted with lignite in existing industrial plants equipped with Air Pollution Control
systems that can meet the EU standards for volatile metals, dioxins, and particulate matter.
Another possibility is the implementation of distributed small RDF/SRF plants that reduce the
weight of MSW processed and produce a higher calorific value fuel that can then be
transported easier to a regional WTE facility. The advantage of such a configuration would be
that a few WTE facilities, strategically located across Greece, may be less costly to
implement than many small WTE plants [3, 4, 7-11, 18, 19, 21, 22, 28, 36-41].
In the case of co-combustion (direct method, where RDF/SRF is blended with coal or
other fuel and supplies the burner directly) and co-gasification (indirect method where RDF is
gasified in a separate chamber and then the produced gas mixture is injected in the
combustion chamber (European Commission, 2003) of SRF with lignite, significant research
has been conducted already. Figure 12 illustrates the location of lignite power plants in
Greece, as they should be considered as potential future recipients of RDF/SRF. Some of
these studies have indicated that the SRF quantities to-be-produced in Western Macedonia
can be utilised by the Kardia Power Plants, by substituting 2-3% of lignite in one of the three
300MW units. The same scenario has been proposed for the SRF production in Peloponnese,
by using the Megalopolis III Thermal Power Station where a new desulphurisation unit, under
construction, is projected to reduce current emissions substantially [28, 32, 36-38, 42].
Figure 12. Location of coal- fired power plants in Greece.
Nevertheless the possibility for toxic emissions from co-combustion exists due to the
wastes composition and the fact that these plants were not designed to incinerate waste or
RDF/SRF. Thus these plants should not be allowed to cause higher emissions of polluting
substances in the stack gas of such operations than those permitted for dedicated incineration
plants. Presumably, most of the objects that contain volatile metals will be removed during
the RDF preparation process. An analysis of the RDF produced at Ano Liosia has shown that
it contains very low concentrations of these metals [35]. However, the typical MSW contains
0.5% chorine, half of which derives from organic wastes and salt, and half from chlorinated
wastes. Recent works showed that the RDF produced from MSW in Greece will contain
almost the same concentration of chlorine [35]. Even very small concentrations of chlorine
lead to the in-situ formation, during cooling of the combustion gases, of the toxic compounds
that are called dioxins and furans. All modern WTE plants are equipped with activated carbon
injection (ACI) so that any volatile metals or dioxin/furans molecules in the process gas are
attached to the carbon particles and are then removed from the gas stream in the subsequent
fabric filter baghouse. The final concentration of dioxins/furans in the stack gas must be,
according to EU and US regulations be less than 0.1 Toxic Equivalent nanograms per
standard cubic meter. The EU and US WTEs plants emit less than 0.03 TEQ ng/Nm3.
Therefore, lignite power plants that will co-combust RDF must be equipped with adequate
Air Pollution Control (APC) system [3, 4, 7, 8, 13-16, 26, 27, 30, 42-43].
4.2.1 Scenario 1: RDF/SRF Utilisation for Electricity Production

Based on the above studies, it may be feasible to utilise the SRF produced by the Western
Macedonia and Peloponnese facilities in the nearby thermoelectric power plants. On the basis
of this scenario and the results of studies that indicate that 1 kg of SRF can substitute 1kg of
lignite and, also, reduce fossil carbon emissions by 1kg CO2 per kg of SRF, co-combustion of
SRF in lignite power plants may reduce use of lignite by 20000t per year in Western
Macedonia and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by the same amount; also, there would be a
saving of 76000t of lignite per year and 76000t of CO2 emissions avoided in Peloponnese
[35-38, 42-44].
Table 16. Potential for electricity production and lignite savings in Greece by RDF/SRF
utilisation.
Region Electricity Production

Remarks
/ Lignite Savings
1 dedicated RDF/SRF utilization plant of at least
Attica 221x106 kWhe/y
345Kt/y capacity
6 1 dedicated RDF/SRF utilization plant of at least
Central Macedonia 85.8x10 kWhe/y
132Kt/y capacity
6 1 dedicated RDF/SRF utilization plant of at least
Crete 70x10 kWhe/y
105Kt/y capacity
3 Co-combustion / co-gasification on existing coaled
Western Macedonia 20x10 t/y
fired power plants
Peloponnese 76x10 t/y
fired power plants
MBT Plants in Epirus and co-combustion/co-
Epirus*† 32x103t/y gasification on existing coaled fired power plants in
Western Macedonia
Western Greece* 60x10 t/y
fired power plants
Central Greece* 6 1 dedicated RDF/SRF utilization plant of at least
65x10 kWhe/y
Thessaly* 100Kt/y capacity
Eastern Macedonia – 3 Co-combustion / co-gasification on existing coaled
60x10 t/y
Thrace* fired power plants
* : The quantities have been calculated based on existing data of 1997, increased from 1997 by 20%,
with a recycling rate of 25% (150% increased from the present one, following the target values of
the Ministry).
† : The quantities have been calculated with factor 0.3 based on existing MBTC Plant operating in Ano
Liosa
For the case of Crete a dedicated utilisation plant is foreseen in the National Plan for
Solid Waste Treatment. The quantities foreseen after 2010 are in the average of the dedicated
plants as they are 105x103 t/y. Based on the international experience, such a plant could
provide at least 70GWhe, assuming that 1t SRF provides to the grid 650kWhe, in the island of
Crete covering a significant part of electricity needs [2, 6, 35-38, 42-44].
The cases of Attica and Central Macedonia are complicated due to the public acceptance.
The quantities are quite high and thus based on international experience the best method for
utilisation is the dedicated plants in each region. Following the same assumption as above,
that 1t SRF provides to the grid 650kWhe, the production of electricity would be at least
221GWhe and 85.8GWhe, for Attica and Central Macedonia respectively. Based on the fact
that because of the small distance that these power plants will have from the consumers
(Athens and Thessaloniki) the benefit is even higher due to lower network losses from the
construction of these plants. In addition a significant volume of wastes will be treated in a
way that reduces their volume, reducing the landfilling requirements for waste management.
The benefit is quite high both in electricity supply and to the environment, in these regions
[34]-[40].
These plants based on the fact that 1 kg CO2 emissions/kg SRF can be prevented, can
reduce the GHG emissions of the Power Generation Sector by a significant number of MtCO2
and reduce the dependency from imported fossil fuels, supporting the efforts for economic
growth of Greece. The potential benefits are huge: Over 0.5 billion kWhe/y, almost 1% of the
total electricity production of Greece in 2006 will be generated, and over 248000 t of lignite
will be saved annually [6-9, 35-44].
4.3.2. Scenario 2: Mass-Burn and RDF/SRF Utilisation for Electricity Production

Based on the above studies, it may be feasible to utilise the SRF produced by the Western
Macedonia and Peloponnese facilities in the nearby thermoelectric power plants. On the basis
of this scenario and the results of studies that indicate that 1 kg of SRF can substitute 1kg of
lignite and, also, reduce fossil carbon emissions by 1kg CO2 per kg of SRF, co-combustion of
SRF in lignite power plants may reduce use of lignite by 20000t per year in Western
Macedonia and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by the same amount; also, there would be a
saving of 76000t of lignite per year and 76000t of CO2 emissions avoided in Peloponnese
[35-38, 42-44].
For the case of Crete, a dedicated RDF-combustion plant is foreseen in the National Plan
for MSW Treatment that would combust 105000t per year of RDF. Based on the international
experience (about 650kWh/t RDF), such a plant would generate about 70GWh of electricity
annually [35-38, 42-44].
The cases of Attica and Central Macedonia are more complicated due to public
acceptance. The quantities of produced MSW are very high and thus, based on international
experience, the best method for energy recovery seems to be mass-burn WTE combined with
RDF/SRF streams produced at communities far away from the WTE facility. Following the
same assumption as above, that 1 tonne of SRF combusted can generate about 700kWhe for
the grid, and one tonne of MSW as-received 650kWhe, Table 17 shows the proposed
scenarios for electricity production for all mainland regions in Greece, including those for
which there are no data presented in the National Strategic Plan. Due to the fact that the major
WTE power plants will be close to the consumers (Athens and Thessaloniki), the benefit is
even higher due to lower electricity network losses. Combustion with energy recovery will
also result in a 90% reduction in the volume of wastes to be landfilled, in case that beneficial
uses of WTE ash are not developed. The resulting benefit will be quite high, both in terms of
electricity supply and environmental quality in regions that are facing major problems in
managing their wastes [6-9, 15, 16, 25, 26, 36-38, 42-44].
Implementation of the above scenario will reduce the GHG emissions of the Power
Generation Sector in Greece and reduce the nation’s dependence on imported fossil fuels,
thus supporting the efforts for economic growth of Greece. These additional benefits to the
ones already mentioned prove that the use of MSW and RDF/SRF for energy production will
provide significant benefits not only to the environment but also to the economy and Power
Generation Sector in Greece. The potential benefits are huge: Over 1.5 billion kWhe/y, almost
2.5% of the total electricity production of Greece in 2006, will be generated, and over 128000
t of lignite will be saved annually [6-9, 15, 16, 25, 26, 36-38, 42-44].
Table 17. Potential for electricity production and lignite savings in Greece by WtE
(mass-burn and RDF/SRF utilisation).
Region Electricity Production /

Remarks
Lignite Savings
WtE facilities of at least 1Mt/y capacity for mixed
Attica 650x106 kWhe/y
streams of MSW and RDF/SRF
Central WtE facility with 0.5Mt/y capacity for mixed streams
325x106 kWhe/y
Macedonia of MSW and RDF/SRF
1 dedicated RDF/SRF utilization plant of at least
Crete 70x106 kWhe/y
105Kt/y capacity
Western Co-combustion / co-gasification on existing coaled
20x103t/y
Macedonia fired power plants
Co-combustion / co-gasification on existing coaled
Peloponnese 76x103t/y
fired power plants
MBT Plants in Epirus and co-combustion/co-
Epirus*† 32x103t/y gasification on existing coaled fired power plants in
Western Macedonia or W. Greece
1 WtE facility with 0,2Mt/y capacity for mixed
Western Greece* 130x106 kWhe/y
streams of MSW and RDF/SRF produced locally
Central Greece* 1 WtE facility with 0,3Mt/y capacity for mixed
195x106 kWhe/y streams of MSW and RDF/SRF produced locally in
Thessaly*
the Regions
Eastern
1 WtE facility with 0,2Mt/y capacity for mixed
Macedonia – 130x106 kWhe/y
streams of MSW and RDF/SRF produced locally
Thrace*
* : The quantities have been calculated based on existing data of 1997, increased from 1997 by 20%,
with a recycling rate of 25% (150% increased from the present one, following the target values of
the Ministry).
† : The quantities have been calculated with factor 0.3 based on existing MBTC Plant operating in Ano
Liosa
5. CONCLUSION
The use of MSW, in mass burning WTE facilities, or in the form of SRF/RDF in
dedicated combustion facilities or as fossil-fuel substitute in lignite-fired power results in
significant energy-security and environmental benefits. Countries that have included energy
recovery (either as heat or as electricity) from MSW have reduced their dependency on fossil
fuels and at the same time are complied with the EU Directives in waste management.
Southern EU countries mainly are focused on electricity generation for MSW incineration,
fact that supports the role of WTE facilities in electricity generation sector. The case study
presented in this chapter, concerns an EU country without any WTE facility in operation, and
where still the WTE role in electricity generation and management of MSW haven’t been
proved yet, beyond any doubted both for the public and the stakeholders. The current
conditions, the volume and energy content of MSW generated, and the National Plan for
Solid Waste Treatment in Greece indicate that the potential for electricity production from
MSW is quite high even though the calculations were based on rather low efficiency factors
in electricity generaton. The results of past studies show that there it may be possible to use
SRF in existing power plants of Macedonia and Peloponnese, while Athens, Thessaloniki,
Thessaly and Western Greece require mass burn WtE facilities in combination with SRF/RDF
facilities. In Crete, an RDF/SRF utilisation in dedicated power plant is foreseen. Significant
environmental benefits would be derived, including reduced need for fossil fuels, decreasing
dependence on import fuels, reducing the Greenhouse Gas emissions of the Power Generation
Sector, and avoidance of landfilling. Therefore, it is imperative that Greece should take into
full consideration the ramifications of using MSW as a fuel, either in mass burn WTE
facilities or in the form of RDF combusted in dedicated facilities or co-combusted in lignite
thermoelectric power plants equipped with adequate Air Pollution Control (APC) systems.
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pollutants into the air from large combustion plants.
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produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market.
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[8] Karagiannidis, A.; Bilitewski, B.; Tchobanoglous, G.; Themelis, N.J.; Wittmaier, M.;
Tsatsarelis, Th. In Waste Management Research Trends; Golus T.V.; Nova Science
Publishers; N.York, NY, 2008; pp 105-163.
[9] Archer, E., Baddeley, A., Klein, A., Schwager J. & Whiting, K. Mechanical-Biological-
Treatment: A Guide for Decision Makers Processes, Policies and Markets. (Juniper
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[10] European Commission – Directorate General Environment: “Refuse Derived Fuel,
Current Practice and Perspectives (B4-3040/2000/306517/Mar/E3), Final Report”,
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[11] Glorius, T., Van Tubergen, J., & Waeyenbergh E. (2005). Classification of Solid
Recovered Fuels. www.erfo.info
[12] European Commission, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Reference
Document on “Best Available Techniques for the Waste Treatments Industries”,
August 2006.
[13] European Commission, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, Reference
Document on “Best Available Techniques for the Waste Incineration”, August 2006
[14] Confederation on European Waste to Energy Plants (CEWEP). (2006). Statement on
the Waste Framework Directive. http://www.cewep.com
[15] http://www.wtert.gr, (accessed March, 2008)
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[17] Reimann, D.: ‘CEWEP Energy Report (Status 2001-2004). Results of Specific Data for
Energy, Efficiency Rates and Coefficients, Plant Efficiency Factors and NCV of 97
European W-t-E Plants and Determination of the Main Energy results’, Bamberg
October 2005, Update July 2006.
[18] Wilén, C., Salokoski, P., Kurkela, E., & Sipilä, K. (Helsinki 2004). Finnish expert
report on best available techniques in energy production from solid recovered fuels,
Technical Research Centre of Finland. www.environment
[19] Otoma, S.; Mori, Y.; Terazono, A.; Aso, T.; Sameshima, R. Resources Conservation
and Recycling, 1997, 20, 95–117.
[20] Murphy, J.D.; McKeogh, E. Renewable Energy, 2004, 29, 1043–1057.
[21] Hernandez-Atonal, F.D.; Ryu, C.; Sharifi, V.N.; Swithenbank, J. Chemical Engineering
Science, 2007, 62, 627 – 635.
[22] Marsh, R.; Griffiths, A.J.; Williams, K.P.; Wilcox, S.J. Fuel Processing Technology,
2007, 88, 701–706.
[23] Kleis H., & Dalager S. (2004). 100 Years of Waste Incineration in Denmark : From
Refuse Destruction Plants to High – Technology Energy Works. www.wte.org
[24] Gohlke O.; Martin J. Waste Manage Res, 2007, 25, 214–219
[25] Bilitewski, B. Proc. Int. Conf. Envir. Manag. Eng. Plan. Econ. (CEMEPE), Skiathos,
Greece, June 2007, 1549-1554.
[26] Psomopoulos, C.S.; Bourka, A.; Themelis, N.J. Waste Management, 2009, 29, 1718 -
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Engineering”, IT3, Montreal, Canada, 2008.
[28] Hilber, T.; Maier, J.; Scheffknecht, G.; Agraniotis, M.; Grammelis, P.; Kakaras, E.;
Glorius, T.; Becker, U.; Derichs, W.; Schiffer, H-P.; De Jong, M.; Torri, L. J. Air Waste
Manag. Assoc., 2007, 57(10), 1178-89.
[29] Garg, A.; Smith, R.; Hill, D.; Simms, N.; Pollard, S. Environ. Sci Technol., 2007,
41(14), 4868-74.
[30] Bilitewski, B. Proc. Int. Conf. Envir. Manag. Eng. Plan. Econ. (CEMEPE), Skiathos,
Greece, June 2007, 1543-1548.
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Environmental Safety and Energy Technology Umsicht.
[32] RECOFUEL; TREN/04/FP6EN/S07.32813/503184; http://www.eu-projects.de/
recofuel .
[33] CERTH/ISFTA, 2002. Co-gasification of coal and wastes for power generation,
THERMIE-SF/08/98/DE, Final Report.
[34] Grammelis, P.; Kakaras, E.; Skodras, G. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc., 2003, 53(11),
1301-11.
[35] Kakaras, E.; Grammelis, P.; Agraniotis, M.; Derichs, W.; Schiffer, H-P.; Maier, J.;
Hilber, T.; Glorius, T.; Becker, U. Thermal Sci. J., 2005, 9, 17-30.
[36] Koukouzas, N.; Katsiadakis, A.; Karlopoulos, E.; Kakaras, E. Waste Management,
2008, 28, 1263–1275.
[37] Envitec, S. A., The MSW Recycling and Composting Plant in Ano Liosia, Information
brochure, 2004
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Project: Composition and physicochemical properties of MSW of Attica 2006-2008.
Presentation in Environmental Protection Committee of The Greek Parliament, January
29, Athens, Greece.
[39] Economopoulos, P.: Methodology for Development of an Optimized Waste Treatment

Plan in the Attica Region, Presentation TEE, December 2004.
[40] Theochari Ch., Aravossis K., Varelidis P., Diavatis I., Ziogas, Ch. Iatrou, S., Bourka A.,
Economopoulos A., Papagrigoriou S., Pantelaras P., and Frantzis, I.: ‘Solid waste
management in Greece, The Attica case’, Technical Chamber of Greece, Athens,
November 2006, Final Report.
[41] Statistical Data About Solid Waste Treatment in Greece, Ministry of Environment,
Department of Environmental Planning, Section of Solid Waste Treatment: Record Nr.
109947/3120, December 2004
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Greece, June 2008, 1-8.
[43] Psomopoulos C.S.; Themelis, N.J. Proc. of the 2nd Int.CEMEPE & SECOTOX Conf.,
Mykonos, Greece, June 21-26, 2009, II, 1121-1126
[44] Psomopoulos, C.S.; Batakis, A.; Daskalakis, J. 6th Mediterranean Conference and
Exhibition on Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IET Hellas
(MedPower 2008), Thessaloniki, 2-5 November 2008, Paper No145, 1-6.
Chapter 7
THE USE OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE FOR THE

PRODUCTION OF NEW BLENDED CEMENT
M. C. Bignozzi*
ABSTRACT
Industrial waste of different origins and nature can be used as unconventional
constituents for the preparation of new blended cements. This study collects different
researches previously carried out with the aim to highlight the feasibility of this recycling
route that can be considered highly rewarding for the cement industry. Chemical,
physical and mechanical properties of the new blended cements are reviewed and
compared with the requirements set by EN 197-1 for common cements.
INTRODUCTION
The worldwide cement production in 2007 was 2.77 billion tons [1]: Asia is the first
producer (70%), followed by European Union countries (9.5%). Indeed, cement industry can
be considered strategic: in fact, from one side, it produces an essential product in building and
civil engineering for the construction of safe, reliable and long lasting buildings and
infrastructures. On the other side it is very important from the economic point of view (for
example Indian cement industry is playing a very import role in the economic development of
the country). However, cement industry environment-wise is also responsible for a large use
of not renewable raw materials (clays and calcium carbonate) and fossil fuels (e.g. clinker, the
main cement constituent, is obtained at T= 1500°C) resulting in heavy emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in atmosphere. In fact, in 2006, the European cement industry used an energy
equivalent of about 26 Mt of coal for the production of 266 Mt of cement [2] and it is
estimated that 1 ton of CO2 is emitted for each ton of cement produced. This induces cement
industry to consider the possibility to introduce waste of different nature and origin in cement
* Dipartimento di Chimica Applicata e Scienza dei Materiali, Facoltà di Ingegneria, Università di Bologna, Italy,
mchiara.bignozzi@mail.ing.unibo.it
192 M. C. Bignozzi
productive process. Two routes are currently taken into consideration: one involves the use of
waste as alternative fuel, the other considers waste as a new cement constituent. However,
both routes generate concerns. Using waste as an alternative fuel, it must be excluded the
possibility that dangerous volatile compounds such as dioxins can be emitted into the
environment during clinker production. Using waste as new cement constituent, it must be
ascertained the absence of substances that can negatively interfere with cement reaction.
European standard EN 197-1 [3], providing a complete classification of cements valid in
Europe, confirms that a constituent of cement can also be a waste. In fact, except the ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) constituted by 95% of clinker (CEM I), blended cements contain,
besides clinker, other constituents coming from waste of different productive processes. Blast
furnace slag, silica fume and fly ash respectively derive from iron ore processing for cast iron
and steel production, from silicon and ferrosilicon alloys production and from coal
combustion for electric energy production. Cement classification based on the different
constituents is reported in Table 1. It has been proved that the addition of waste such as blast
furnace slag, silica fume and fly-ash leads to several advantages for the relevant cements: (i)
the lower content of clinker compare to OPC allows to classify these binders as low-heat
cements; (ii) the development of cement mechanical strength, although it is slower at the
early curing age, noteworthy increases with time, even after 28 days; (iii) durability behavior
improves due to a less content of Portlandite, usually formed during OPC hydration reactions.
Moreover, blended cements always need less clinker for their production thus involving a
minor use of natural raw materials and fuels, less quarries exploitation and lower CO2
emission. When the new cement constituents are waste, benefits as the safeguard of disposal
sites and saving of natural raw materials must be added at the above quoted list.
Not all the cement types reported in Table 1 are usually manufactured: so far, as a
consequence to produce less clinker, CEM II is the most produced cement with a percentage
of 80.8 and 56.1 over the total production, in Italy and Europe respectively. Figure 1 shows
how CEM II is fractioned on the market [4,5]: although Portland-limestone cement is the
most popular, CEM II based on waste (blast furnace slag, silica fume, fly ash, with an amount
ranging from 6 to 35%) is 48.2% in Europe, thus meaning that recycling is already
successfully adopted in cement industry.
With the aim to pursue waste suitable to work as new cement constituents, several
researches have been carried out specifically studying ground glass [6-8], matt waste [9,10],
rice husk ash [11], municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash [12], ceramic waste [13],
ferroalloy industry waste [14], electric-arc furnace slag [15], etc..
In this work industrial waste and relevant new blended cement constituted by 25 wt%
waste and 75 wt% CEM I, previously separately investigated [9,10,13,15], are collectively
reported and compared.
The Use of Industrial Waste for the Production of New Blended Cement 193
Table 1. Cement classification according to EN 197-1 (wt%) (Minor additional

constituents (0-5%) are not reported for brevity sake).
Main Notations Main Constituents

types Clinker Blast Silica Pozzolana Fly ash Burnt Limestone
K Furnace fume shale
nat natural Sil. Calc.
slag
calcined L LL
D T
P Q V W
S
CEM I Portland
CEM I 95-100 - - - - - - - - -
Cement
Portland CEM II/
80-94 6-20 - - - - - - - -
slag A-S
cement CEM II/
80-94 21-35 - - - - - - - -
B-S
Portland
CEM
silica-fume 90-94 - 6-10 - - - - - - -
II/A-D
cement
CEM
80-94 - - 6-20 - - - - - -
II/A-P
Portland CEM
65-79 - - 21-35 - - - - - -
pozzolan II/B-P
cement CEM
80-94 - - - 6-20 - - - - -
II/A-Q
CEM
65-79 - - - 21-35 - - - - -
II/B-Q
CEM
80-94 - - - - 6-20 - - - -
II/A-V
Portland CEM
CEM II fly-ash 65-79 - - - - 21-35 - - - -
II/B-V
cement CEMII/A-
80-94 - - - - - 6-20 - - -
W
CEMII/
65-79 - - - - - 21-35 - - -
B-W
Portland CEMII/
80-94 - - - - - - 6-20 - -
burnt shale A-T
cement CEMII/
65-79 - - - - - - 21-35 - -
B-T
CEM
80-94 - - - - - - - 6-20 -
Portland II/A-L
limestone CEM
65-79 - - - - - - - 21-35 -
cement II/B-L
CEM
80-94 - - - - - - - - 6-20
II/A-LL
CEM
65-79 - - - - - - - - 21-35
II/B-LL
Portland CEM
80-94 6-20
composite II/A-M
cement CEM
65-79 21-35
II/B-M
CEM Blast CEMIII/A 35-64 36-65 - - - - - - - -
III furnace CEMIII/B 20-34 66-80 - - - - - - - -
cement CEMIII/C 5-19 81-95 - - - - - - - -
CEM Pozzolan CEMIV/A65-89 - 11-35 - - -
IV cement CEMIV/B 45-64 36-55 - - -
CEM V Composite CEMV/A 40-64 18-30 - 18-30 - - - -
cement CEMV/B 20-38 31-50 - 31-50 - - - -
194 M. C. Bignozzi
Figure 1. Italian and European market division (%) for the different types of CEM II [4,5].
Their chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics are discussed in the framework
of the requirements imposed by the European standard EN 197-1. The industrial waste
considered is matt waste (MW), which derives from purification processes of cullet coming
from separated glass waste collection, polishing (PR) and glazing (GR) residues, coming from
porcelain stoneware polishing and glazing sludge, respectively, and ladle electric-arc furnace
slag (LS), generated in the refining process of electric-arc furnace steels production. The four
types of waste, coming from glass, ceramic and steel industry, are produced in large amount
(6000 ÷ 25000 t/y), thus ensuring a noteworthy quantity of recyclable material for cement
production.
THE CHEMICAL-PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE

INVESTIGATED WASTE
A highly representative batch of each of the investigated waste was collected: MW was
kindly supplied by Sasil, Gruppo Minerali (Novara, Italy), LS by Acciaieria di Rubiera
(Casalgrande, Reggio Emilia, Italy), porcelain stoneware polishing and glazing sludge by
S.A.T. S.p.A. Service for the Environment (Sassuolo, Modena, Italy) and by different glazing
lines of a single Italian manufacturer, respectively. All the materials were submitted to some
treatments before their use. Porcelain stoneware polishing and glazing sludge were dried
(T=105°C for 24-36 h) to obtain solid residues (PR and GR) and ground in a laboratory ball
mill to reach a grain size distribution close to that of commercial cement. MW was also
ground for the same reason. Ladle slag, although is produced as a very fine powder, was
sieved to eliminate the fraction greater than 0.106 mm. Figure 2 collectively reports the grains
size distributions of MW, LS, PR, GR and that of a commercial OPC CEM I 52.5 R: the
average size, ranging from 6 to 20 μm, increases in this order: LS > CEM I > GR > PR >
MW.
A chemical and mineralogical characterization of the materials was then carried out to
establish the main oxide constituents and mineralogical phases. The results are summarized in
Tables 2 and 3: SiO2 is the main constituent of MW, GR and PR, but while MW has the
typical chemical-mineralogical composition of soda-lime glass (about 10 and 13 wt% content
of CaO and Na2O, respectively, and amorphous silica phase), GR and PR are also rich in
Al2O3 (15-20 wt%) and ZrO2 (1-3 wt%), minerals such as zircon, quartz and albite deriving
from glazing and porcelain stoneware body, respectively. The main constituents of LS are
CaO (55 wt%), SiO2 (24 wt%) and Al2O3 (13wt%) with mineralogical crystalline phases as
calcium silicates and aluminates.
Figure 2. Grains size distribution of the investigated industrial waste.
Table 2. Chemical analysis (main oxide, wt%) of the investigated industrial waste (x-ray
fluorescence spectrometer, XRF, PW 1414, Philips).
MW LS GR PR
Oxide
(%) (%) (%) (%)
SiO2 71.04 23.85 52.36 62.19
Al2O3 2.02 13.69 19.37 15.75
TiO2 - 0.20 0.45 0.34
Fe2O3 0.35 3.85 0.84 0.59
CaO 10.58 55.24 5.73 2.24
MgO 1.75 3.22 2.43 6.75
K2O 0.75 0.22 1.32 1.46
Na2O 13.52 0.31 3.90 3.71
ZrO2 n.d. <0.10 3.01 1.19
MnO n.d. 0.32 <0.10 <0.10
ZnO n.d. <0.10 0.99 0.12
BaO n.d. <0.10 0.54 <0.10
196 M. C. Bignozzi
Table 3. Main mineralogical phases of the investigated industrial waste (x-ray

diffractometer with Ni-filtered Cu Kα (λ = 1.54 Å) radiation, XRD PW 1840, Philips).
MW LS GR PR
olivine (γ−C2S), ghelenite,
quartz, zircon, quartz, albite
Crystalline phase n.d. mayenite, iron silicates, iron
albite calcian
magnesium calcium silicate
Amorphous phase silica n.d. silica silica
EN 197-1 sets specific requirements concerning the amount of chloride and sulphate in
cement; loss of ignition (LOI) must be also limited to a value ≤ 5.0%. These limitations are
necessary to ensure that deleterious reactions, such as steel bar corrosion and/or delayed
ettringite formation, induced by Cl- and SO4-2 respectively, do not occur in cement base
materials.
Table 4 reports the values determined according to EN 196-2 [16] for the investigated
materials and OPC CEM I 52.5R. MW, LS and GR values agree with all the limits sets,
whereas PR exhibits a higher Cl- content and slightly overcomes the limit LOI value. Cl-
derives from the salts (AlCl3, FeCl3) used as flocculants in the separation process and from
the magnesium chloride matrix of abrasive tools used for polishing. The LOI value is mainly
related to the presence of calcite phase and SiC, coming from the abrasive tools. However,
both the data can be acceptable as PR is going to be used mixed with CEM I 52.5 R (25 and
75% respectively), hence the overall Cl- % and LOI will be inside the limits required for
cement.
Besides chemical requirements, physical properties such as setting time and soundness
[17] are very important to establish if a cement based binder is suitable to be adopted in the
building industry. Setting time is a measurement of the time required by a cement paste to
start hydration reactions thus leading to a loss of workability at the fresh state; soundness test
allows to determine if volume expansion of cement paste occurs under accelerated curing
conditions. Deleterious expansion phenomena are usually caused by the presence of free CaO
and MgO in the binder. Table 5 reports the results obtained on the new blended cement based
on the investigated waste, having the general composition: 75 wt% CEM I 52.5 R + 25 wt%
waste. The results determined for 100 wt% CEM I 52.5 R are reported for comparison as well
as the limits set by EN 197-1. Soundness results of all the new blended cement are
comparable with that of CEM I and well below the limit; the same can be observed for the
initial setting time, except for that of the binders containing MW and GR, which are slightly
higher than 107 min. Such increase, although still acceptable for cement binder, has been
ascribed by organic impurities (≤ 1%) that leads to a slight slow down of initial setting
reactions.
The chemical and physical parameters obtained for MW, LS, GR and PR allow their use
as new constituent for cement production according to the restrictions reported by the
European standard.
Table 4. Chemical analysis results of the investigated industrial waste and CEM I 52.5 R
(average of 2 measurements). Limits set by EN 197-1 for cement are also reported.
CEM ILimits set by EN 197-1

MW LS GR PR
52.5 R for cement
Chloride (wt %)
0.04 ≤ 0.01 ≤ 0.01 0.24 0.04 ≤ 0.1
EN 196-2
Sulfate (SO3 wt %)
≤ 0.01 0.38 0.06 0.09 0.65 ≤ 3.5
EN 196-2
Loss of Ignition (wt %)
0.8 2.7 2.9 5.2 3.6 ≤ 5.0
EN 196-2
Table 5. Physical properties of the investigated binder based on industrial waste and
CEM I 52.5 R (average of 2 measurements). Limits set by EN 197-1 for cement are also
reported.
Initial setting time Soundness

binder
(min) (mm)
CEM I 52.5 R 107 0.2
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% MW 134 0.3
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% LS 106 0.4
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% GR 117 0.2
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% PR 105 0.2
32.5 R ≥ 75
Limits set by EN 197/1 for cement 42.5 R ≥ 60 ≤ 10
52.5 R ≥ 45
THE BEHAVIOR OF THE NEW BINDERS AT THE FRESH AND

HARDENED STATE
Two parameters are extremely important for a binder involved in concrete production:
workability and compressive mechanical strength determined at the fresh and hardened state
respectively. For the binders under studying, workability was measured by minislump test
[18] on paste sample prepared with a water/binder ratio equal to 0.5. The results, reported in
Table 6, shows that workability increases in this order: CEM I > MW-binder > LS-binder >
GR-binder > PR-binder. Workability is strictly related to waste average size, shape and its
tendency to form particles agglomerates.
As far as concern mechanical requirements, EN 197-1 sets for each kind of cement
reported in Table 1 a division based on cement mechanical strength: three classes (32.5, 42.5
and 52.5 N/mm2 determined at 28 days of curing) are identified and each class can have a
normal (N) or rapid/early (R) strength development (Table 7).
Compressive strength was determined on mortar samples prepared, by Hobart planetary
mixer, according to the normalized mix-design (binder, sand and water in a weight ratio of
1:3:0.5) and procedure for cement mechanical strength determination (EN 196-1, [19]).
198 M. C. Bignozzi
Mortar samples were named M, followed by the acronym of the waste type used; mortar
prepared with CEM I 52.5 R was identified as MREF. Figure 3 collectively reports the
compressive strength at 2, 7 and 28 days and the following observation can be drawn: (i) all
the new blended cements exhibit a compressive strength lower than that of CEM I 52.5 R at
all curing times; (ii) according to the limits reported for cements, all the new blended binders
overcome the threshold values at 2 and 28 days required for 42.5 R strength class; (iii) only
the PR based binder reaches the limits required to be classified in the 52.5 R strength class.
Table 6. Workability results at the fresh state (average of 2 measurements).
water/binder minislump
binder
ratio (mm)
CEM I 52.5 R 0.5 80
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% MW 0.5 70
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% LS 0.5 62
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% GR 0.5 55
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% PR 0.5 45
It is usual that the addition of a constituent with a different chemical composition from
clinker may decrease the development of mechanical strength in the first 28 days of curing,
however pozzolan and blast furnace slag constituents usually lead to a continuative increase
in the mechanical properties with curing, even after 28 days. A useful tool to understand if a
new constituent is involved in mechanical strength development at long curing time is the
determination of the activity index (AI). This index, reported in EN 450-1 [20] for concrete
fly ash, is the compressive strength ratio between samples containing 75% CEM I 52.5 R +
25% waste and reference mortar with 100% CEM I 52.5 R, cured at 28 and 90 days. Values
of AI ≥ 75 and 85% at 28 and 90 days, respectively, mean that the new constituent is active in
the strengthening development. The data, collected in Table 7, show that the activity index of
the investigated waste increases with this order: PR>MW>GR>LS.
LS and GR exhibit a lower/almost equal AI than the limit at 90 days, thus indicating that
their action as cement constituent is limited to a filler effect. Activity index of MW and PR
largely overcomes the limit, thus meaning that MW and PR actively participate in mechanical
strength development.
Table 7. Cement classification based on the development of compressive strength.
Compressive strength (MPa)

Strength class
2 days 7 days 28 days
32.5 N ≥ 16.0 ≥ 32.5
32.5 R ≥ 10.0 - ≤ 52.5
Limits set by EN 197-1 42.5 N ≥ 10.0 ≥ 42.5
for cement 42.5 R ≥ 20.0 - ≤ 62.5
52.5 N ≥ 20.0
≥ 52.5
52.5 R ≥ 30.0 -
70
2 days 7 days 28 days
Compressive strength (MPa) 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
MREF MMW MLS MGR MPR
Figure 3. Compressive strength at different curing time of mortar samples prepared with the
investigated binders.
Clearly, the different behavior of the industrial waste is strictly related to their nature: the
amorphous phase of MW makes it similar to an artificial pozzolan constituent (fly ash, silica
fume), whereas PR, containing both amorphous and crystalline phases, contributes to the
formation of two different types of gels during hardening process, as previously ascertained
[13]. Both MW and PR are thus chemically involved in clinker hydration reactions, leading to
matrices with very compact microstructures [9,13].
Table 8. Activity index for the investigated industrial waste.
Activity index
Binder
28 days 90 days
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% MW 84 92
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% LS 80 67
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% GR 84 88
75% CEM I 52.5 R + 25% PR 90 101
Limits set by EN 450-1 ≥ 75% ≥ 85%
CONCLUSIONS
The investigated waste is chemically, physically and mechanically suitable as 25 wt%
constituent for the production of new blended cements. PR blended cement can be classified
as 52.5 R strength class, whereas MW, GR and LS blended cement belong to 42.5 R strength
class. The waste behaviour is different:
200 M. C. Bignozzi
− GR and LS work more as inert addition (filler effect) than as active constituents of
the relevant blended cements. The reason can be found in the crystalline phases
characteristic of the two types of waste that are not able to take part/collaborate to the
clinker hydration process.
− PR and MW have an active role in the relevant blended cement: activity index of
both waste at 90 days is close to 100, thus indicating that compressive strength of
mortar samples increases with curing time, event after 28 days.
More investigations concerning microstructure of the mortar samples prepared with MW,
LS, GR and PR and their comparison with an OPC mortar, are reported elsewhere [9,13,15].
REFERENCES
[1] Activity Report of 2007, The European Cement Association, www.cembureau.eu, 2008.
[2] Sustainable cement production, The European Cement Association,
www.cembureau.eu, 2009.
[3] EN 197-1, 2004. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common
cements.
[4] Data from The European Cement Association, www.cembureau.eu, 2005.
[5] Data from AITEC, www.aitecweb.com, 2006.
[6] T. D. Dyer, R. K. Dhir, Chemical reactions of glass cullet used as cement component, J
. Mater. Civ. Eng. 13, 412–417 (2001).
[7] C. Shi, Y. Wu, C. Riefler, H. Wang, Characteristics and pozzolanic reactivity of glass
powders, Cem. Concr. Res., 35, 987–993 (2005).
[8] M. C. Bignozzi, “Glass and concrete: together for sustainability in construction
industry” in Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of Recycling and Reuse of
Materials, July 17-19th, 2009, Kottayam, India.
[9] M. C. Bignozzi, A. Saccani, F. Sandrolini, Matt waste from glass separated collection:
An eco-sustainable addition for new building materials, Waste Management, 29, 329 –
334, (2009).
[10] [10] M. C. Bignozzi, A. Saccani, F. Sandrolini, Matt waste from glass separated
collection: A reactive addition to cement, submitted to Building and Construction.
[11] M. Anwar, T. Miyagawa, M. Gaweesh, Using rice husk ash as a cement replacement
material in concrete, Waste Management Series, 1, 671-684 (2000).
[12] A. Saccani, F. Sandrolini, F. Andreola, L. Barbieri, A. Corradi, I. Lancellotti, Influence
of the pozzolanic fraction obtained from vitrified bottom-ashes from MSWI on the
properties of cementitious composites, Materials and Structures, 38, 367-371 (2005).
[13] F. Andreola, L. Barbieri, M. C. Bignozzi, I. Lancellotti, F. Sandrolini, New Blended
Cement from Polishing and Glazing Ceramic Sludge, International Journal of Applied
Ceramic Technology, DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7402.2009.02368.x.
[14] [14] M. Frıas, C. Rodríguez, “Effect of incorporating ferroalloy industry wastes as
complementary cementing materials on the properties of blended cement matrices,”
Cement & Concrete Composites, 30, 212–219 (2008).
[15] M.C. Bignozzi, F. Sandrolini, F. Andreola, L. Barbieri, I. Lancellotti, Recycling

Electric Arc Furnace Slag as Unconventional Component for Building Materials,
submitted for the Proceeding of 2nd International Conference on Sustainable
Construction Materials and Technologies, 28-30 June 2010, Ancona (Italy).
[16] EN 196-2, 2005. Methods of testing cement - Part 2: Chemical analysis of cement.
[17] EN 196-3, 2005. Methods of testing cement Part 3: Determination of setting times and
soundness.
[18] D. L. Kantro, Influence of water reducing admixtures on properties of cement paste. A
miniature slump test, Cem. Concr. Aggreg. 2, 95 (1980).
[19] EN 196-1, 2005. Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength.
[20] EN 450-1, 2007. Fly ash for concrete - Part 1: Definition, specifications and conformity
criteria
Chapter 8
OLIVE MILL WASTEWATER:

TREATMENTS AND VALORISATION
Manuela Taccari* and Maurizio Ciani
ABSTRACT
Olive mill wastewaters represent a serious environmental problem in Mediterranean
countries, as the high concentrations of phenols, lipids and organic acids can have
phytotoxic effects. On the other hand, this waste also contains valuable compounds, such
as a large amounts of organic matter and a wide range of nutrients that could be recycled.
In this chapter, the most interesting physico-chemical and biological processes for the
treatment of these effluents are presented. Remediation by means of physical and
chemical methods are generally expensive, and they do not often provide complete
purification. Indeed, despite the effectiveness of such techniques, few of them have been
applied on an industrial basis. Biological processes for the treatment of olive mill
wastewaters have seen worldwide applications, and they are considered to be
environmentally friendly, reliable and, in most cases, cost effective. Moreover, some
biological treatments are effective for the valorisation of this organic waste.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Olive Oil Extraction Systems and the Wastes Produced
Olive oil production is one of the most important agro-food sectors in the whole of the
Mediterranean area, and it is still of primary importance for the economy of several
Mediterranean countries. Spain is the main World producer of olives, followed by Italy,
Greece, Turkey, Syria and Tunisia. Among these countries, the European Union (i.e. Spain,
Italy, Greece) provide about 75% of the World production. However, many other countries,
* Dipartimento S.A.I.F.E.T., sez. di Microbiologia Alimentare, Industriale e Ambientale, Università Politecnica

delle Marche,Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy, m.ciani@univpm.it
204 Manuela Taccari and Maurizio Ciani
such as Argentina, Australia and South Africa, are newly emergent producers, since they are
promoting intensive olive tree cultivation.
There are two main olive oil production systems: (i) the traditional pressing system that
has been used for many centuries with only minor modifications; and (ii) the continuous,
three-phase and two-phase systems that were introduced over the last few decades in order to
increase the processing capacity and the extraction yield (Fig. 1) (Alburquerque et al., 2004).
Traditional system Three-phase system Two-phase system
Olives Olives Olives

(100 kg) (100 kg) (100 kg)
Washing Washing Washing

(Cold) (Cold) (Cold)
Milling and beating Milling and beating Milling and beating

Hot water
(50- 85 L)
Olive cake Olive wet
Mechanical pressing Centrifugation Centrifugation cake
(three-phase decanter) (30-60 kg) (two-phase decanter) (70-80 kg)
Washing water
(10-50 L) Washing water Washing water
Decanting Waste
separation by gravity Oil washing/ recovery of OMW water
Oil washing
or by centrifugation the oil in the liquid fraction (70-100 L) (0-18 L)
Olive oil Olive oil Olive oil

(≈20 kg) (≈21 kg) (≈20 kg)
Figure 1. The olive oil extraction processes (Alburquerque et al., 2004; IMPEL 2003).
The traditional system is still being used by some olive oil producers. After the extraction
by the pressing of the olive husk, a solid by-product is obtained, along with an emulsion that
contains the olive oil and the vegetation water, known as the olive mill wastewater (OMW);
these are separated by decanting or using a vertical centrifuge.
The three-phase system generates three fractions at the end of the process: olive oil,
vegetation water and a solid residue composed of the olive skin and stones (olive husks).
Even though this system has advantages when compared to traditional pressing (e.g.
continuous, automated, high percentage of oil extraction, better oil quality), it has some
disadvantages too (e.g. greater water and energy consumption, higher wastewater production)
(Roig et al., 2006).
In both of these systems (traditional and three-phase), the environmental problems lie in
the large volumes of water that have to be added and in the elimination of the substantial
quantity of waste that is generated. This wastewater is characterised by high organic matter
concentrations and phytotoxicity, and despite current legislation, it is frequently discharged
into rivers and the soil without prior treatment. This practice can lead to serious
environmental problems in the Mediterranean area.
In recent years, a new, “ecological”, two-phase extraction process has been introduced in
modern mills. This has reduced the amounts of water needed and the waste produced during
Olive Mill Wastewater: Treatments and Valorisation 205
olive oil extraction (Azbar et al., 2004). This two-phase process generates two fractions: the
olive oil and a new semi-solid by-product that is often referred to as “pomace” or “alperoujo”,
and is characterised by a high moisture content (from 55%-70%). Although this new system
has environmental advantages, the management of the by-products that contain considerable
amounts of lipids, organic acids and phenols has became a serious problem for olive mills
(Alfano et al., 2008; Baeta-Hall et al., 2005; García-Gómez et al., 2003). Usually, this solid
waste is dried and subjected to a subsequent extraction with organic solvents, which improves
the yield of oil and produces a dry olive residue. The fact that with considerably less water is
required for this two-phase system, this has encouraged its widespread adoption in Spain and
Croatia. However, it has not significantly penetrated olive oil production in the other
countries, probably due to the difficulties involved in the handling of the waste (Fig. 2)
(McNamara et al., 2008).
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Spain Italy Greece Portugal Croatia
press 3-phase 2-phase
Figure 2. Olive oil extraction technologies used by European olive oil mills (IMPEL, 2003).
1.2. Olive Mill Wastewater Characteristics
The composition and chemical characteristics of OMW are not constant (Table 1), either
qualitatively or quantitatively, and they can vary according to the climatic conditions and the
olive varieties, ripeness, cultivation methods, and oil extraction procedure (Filidei et al. 2003;
Martines-Garcia et al. 2007; Paredes et al. 2005; Piperidou et al. 2000; Vlyssides et al. 2004).
Typically, the weight composition of OMW is 83% to 96% water, 3.5% to 15.0% organics
and 0.5% to 2.0% mineral salts. The organic fraction is composed of sugars (1.0%-8.0%), N-
compounds (0.5%-2.4%), organic acids (0.5%-1.5%), fats (0.02%-1.0%) and phenols and
pectins (1.0%-1.5%) (Martinez-Garcia et al., 2009). The maximum biological oxygen demand
(BOD5) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) of OMW are as high as 100 and 220 g l-1,
respectively (Azbar et al., 2004; Sabbah et al., 2004).
Another characteristic of this kind of waste is the ease with which it can ferment during
storage, which gives rise to substantial changes in its composition, although this does not
necessarily result in its complete biodegradation.
Table 1. Chemical characteristics of olive mill wastewater across several studies in the
literature.
Parameters (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Dry matter (%) 6.35 n.d 1.9 n.d 7.1 7.19 n.d
pH 4.8 5.1 5.5 5.04 4.93 5.17 5.46
EC (dS/m) 12.0 8.9 0.53 n.d 7.3 5.50 n.d
OM (g l-1) 57.4 n.d 13 n.d n.d 46.5 n.d
TOC (g l-1) 39.8 25.5 n.d 29.2 n.d 34.2 n.d
TN (g/l) 0.76 0.6 n.d n.d 0.62 0.63 1.35
P2O5 (g l-1) 0.53 0.03 0.1 0.23 n.d 0.31 0.72
K2O (g l-1) 2.37 8.8 1.2 n.d n.d 4.46 4.44
Na (g l-1) 0.30 0.94 n.d n.d n.d 0.11 n.d
Ca (g l-1) 0.27 1.2 n.d n.d n.d 0.30 n.d
Mg (mg l-1) 50 187 n.d n.d n.d 129 n.d
Fe (mg l-1) 32 32 41 n.d n.d 68.5 n.d
Cu (mg l-1) 6 n.d 1 n.d n.d 1.5 n.d
Mn (mg l-1) 12 n.d 1 n.d n.d 1.1 n.d
Zn (mg l-1) 12 n.d 4 n.d n.d 4.1 n.d
d (g/cm3) 1.048 n.d n.d n.d n.d 1.02 n.d
Lipids (g l-1) 1.64 n.d n.d 0.02 8.6 3.1 n.d
Polyphenols (g l-1) 10.7 9.2 n.d 0.7 0.98 1.6 7.18
Carbohydrates (g l1) 16.1 n.d n.d n.d 4.8 8.79 n.d
COD (g l-1) 93 72 n.d 90 67 n.d 100
BOD5 (g l-1) 46 13 n.d n.d n.d n.d 29.4
EC, Electrical Conductivity; OM, organic matter; TOC, total organic carbon; TN, total nitrogen; d,
density; COD, chemical oxygen demand; BOD5, biological oxygen demand; n.d., not determined.
Data extracted from (a) Vlyssides et al. (2004); (b) Mekky et al. (2009); (c) Paredes et al. (2005); (d)
Martines-Garcia et al. (2007); (e) Filidei et al. (2003); (f) Piperidou et al. (2000); and (g) Dhouib et
al. (2006).
For the phenols in OMW, these are usually low-molecular-weight compounds

(hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, catechol, methylcatechol, caffeic acid), along with the polyphenols
that result from polymerisation of the simple phenolic compounds (Tziotzios et al., 2007).
The concentrations of phenolic compounds in OMW can vary greatly, from 0.5 to 24.0 g l-1
(Paraskeva, and Diamadopoulos, 2006). The toxicity, antimicrobial activity and consequent
difficult biological degradation of OMW is essentially linked to this phenolic fraction
(Aggelis et al., 2003; Mekki et al., 2006), which is characterised by its great complexity, with
more than 20 different phenolic compounds having been identified (Bianco et al., 2003).
Indeed, olives are very rich in phenolic compounds, although just 2% of the total phenolic
content of olives remain in the oil phase; the remaining phenolic contents of the olives is lost
in the OMW (53%) and the pomace (45%) (Rodis et al., 2002). Nevertheless, polyphenols are
not necessarily solely responsible for the phytotoxic properties of OMW. Capasso et al.
(1992) demonstrated that OMW remained phytotoxic to vegetable marrow and tomato plants
even after the total extraction of the polyphenols, while Pérez et al. (1986) reported that
totally removing the organic matter from OMW did not avoid the phytotoxicity toward barley
and tomato germination and early plant growth. These studies suggest that other factors
contribute to the phytotoxicity of OMW. According to Paredes et al. (1999), the phytotoxic
activity of OMW is also related to its low pH and low salt levels, in addition to the phenols.
1.3. Olive Oil Production and the Environment
In the olive oil production process, the disposal of OMW represents the main
environmental problem. In total, Mediterranean countries produce around 30 million m3 of
OMW annually. Due to the importance of OMW as a pollutant, its disposal constitutes a
serious problem, and the development of effective treatment technologies remains a priority,
particularly as in many countries OMW is still discharged directly into the environment,
without any treatment. Indeed, at present there is no European legislation regulating olive mill
discharges, as it has been left to individual countries to specify their own standards. In
Morocco, OMW is often illegally spread on the soil, poured directly into the sewage system,
or evaporation in lagoons to reduce its volume (El Hassani et al., 2009; Zenjari et al., 2006).
For other countries, the only “treatment” process used in Tunisia is atmospheric
evaporation in open-air ponds under natural conditions (Hachicha et al., 2009 a), although
Greece regulation requires that liquid OMW disposal is carried out in septic tanks or in
subterranean irrigation. The prefectures also often demand the neutralisation of OMW, with
the addition of lime prior to its disposal in surface water (Kapellakis et al., 2006). In Spain, a
law has prohibited the discharge of OMW into public waters since 1983, which has pushed
olive mill operators to avoid the three-phase centrifugation system that involves OMW
production (Sierra et al., 2001). One alternative that is economically advantageous is the
controlled land application of OMW. In Italy, although under restricted conditions, the law
allows the spreading of up to 50 m3 ha-1 and 80 m3 ha-1 per year for OMW that is generated by
the pressing and continuous centrifugation methods, respectively (Law N°. 574, 1996). In this
respect, OMW is considered as a useful, low-cost adjunct and fertiliser, which at the correct
application rate is not harmful to crops and can be disposed of without causing environmental
damage.
Several studies have investigated the effects of spreading OMW directly on agricultural
soils, with contradictory results. An increase in productivity in response to OMW spreading
was seen in soil cultivated with different types of cereal crops (Rinaldi et al., 2003;
Montemurro et al., 2004). Other studies explored the impact of OMW on various chemical
properties of the soil and showed a temporary decrease in soil pH, with increased salinity and
elevated phenol concentrations (Paredes et al., 1999; Zenjari et al., 2001). In a recent study,
Di Serio et al. (2008) reported an increase in the soil total microflora and a reduction of the
total content of phenols in the soil after OMW spreading in soil cultivated with olive trees.
Another study reported that OMW additions without pre-treatment resulted in a modification
of physicochemical characteristics of the soil (Mekki et al., 2006). Indeed, the same authors
confirmed more recently that OMW treatment is necessary before its application to the soil, to
limit the negative impact on the biological activities of the soil (Mekki et al., 2009).
Thus these data are somewhat contradictory, and the practice of spreading OMW onto
agricultural soil has until now been a subject of great controversy in the scientific community.
2. OMW TREATMENT AND VALORISATION

In recent years, many different processes have been proposed for the treatment and
valorisation of OMW, including the use of physical, chemical, biological and combined
technologies. In addition to being technically feasible, any OMW treatment processes must be
efficient and provide a cost-effective solution. Remediation by means of physical and
chemical methods are generally expensive, and they often do not provide full purification of
OMW, and despite the effectiveness of some of these techniques, few of them have been
applied on an industrial basis.
Biological processes for the treatment of OMW have seen worldwide applications and
they are considered environmentally friendly, reliable and, in most cases, cost effective. Such
treatments include aerobic activated sludge and anaerobic digestion. Aerobic treatments have
been proposed based on the actions of various microorganisms, such as filamentous fungi,
yeasts and aerobic bacteria, for the reduction of the organic load and to remove phytotoxic
compounds and the dark coloration. Anaerobic digestion treatments have also been carried
out successfully on OMW. These result in biogas production and much less waste sludge, but
their costs do not make them economical for small-scale olive mills (Filidei et al., 2003;
Marques, 2001; Hamdi, 1996; Rozzi and Malpei, 1996).
2.1. Physico-Chemical Treatments
Simple physico-chemical processes, such as dilution, evaporation, combustion,

coagulation and flocculation, have been used to treat OMW. However, none of these
processes alone can reduce the organic load and the toxicity of OMW to acceptable limits
(Paraskeva, P., and Diamadopoulos E., 2006). Dilution is often used prior to biological
treatments, to reduce toxicity to the microorganisms responsible for the organic matter
decomposition (Asses et al., 2000; Ben Othman et al., 2008; Fadil et al., 2003; Tziotzios et
al., 2007).
The use of evaporation ponds reduces the volume of OMW without treating the
pollutants in the wastewater, and a black, foul-smelling sludge is produced that is difficult to
remove. Moreover, this method needs large areas and produces several problems, such as bad
odours and permeation (Ginos et al., 2006; Kapellakis et al., 2006; Jarboui et al., 2008; Saez
et al., 1992).
Irreversible thermal treatments, such as combustion, have also been attempted as a means
of recovering energy for co-fuelling the olive oil extraction plant. Combustion has the
advantage that it can overcome the problems of the concentrated residue produced by
evaporation treatment, and it provides the possibility of energy recovery. However, this
requires expensive facilities and gives rise instead to atmospheric pollution due to the toxic
products (Paraskeva et al., 2006).
Coagulation with materials such as lime, alum, ferric chloride and ferrous sulphate has
also been used for OMW treatment. Jaouani et al. (2005) demonstrated a two-stage process
that comprised aerobic degradation followed by lime coagulation, while Beccari et al. (1999)
proposed a pre-treatment by lime coagulation and adsorption on bentonite, followed by
anaerobic digestion; they also indicated that this pre-treatment considerably enhanced the
anaerobic treatability of the original effluent.
A new technology that has been developed consists of the flocculation of the organic
matter of OMW with several cationic and anionic poly-electrolytes (Sarika et al., 2005). This
process produces water that can be used for irrigation and a solid fraction that can be
composted with other agricultural by-products (Negro and Solano, 1996; Garcia-Gomez et al.,
2003). This technology has provided encouraging results, despite the relatively high cost of
poly-electrolytes compared to lime and other inorganic materials.
2.2. Biological Treatment of OMW
2.2.1. Aerobic Treatment
Heterotrophic Aerobic Bacteria

A number of different bacteria belonging to the species Bacillus pumilus (Ramos-
Cormenzana et al., 1996), Pediococcus pentosaceus (Ben Othman et al., 2008), Lactobacillus
plantarum (Ayed and Hamdi, 2003) Arthrobacter sp.(Knupp et al., 1996), Azotobacter
vinelandii (Costantinos et al., 1999; Balis et al., 1996; Piperidou et al., 2000), Pseudomonas
putida and Ralstonia sp.(Di Gioia et al., 2001a, b) and various bacterial consortia (Borja et
al., 1995; Zouari and Ellouz,1996; Tziotzios et al., 2007) have been indicated as being
suitable for aerobic biodegradation and detoxification of OMW (see also Table 2). These
studies now focus on the degradation of the phenolic compounds, with heterotrophic aerobic
bacteria shown to be very effective against some phenolic compounds, but relatively
ineffective against others. For example, Ramos-Cormenzana et al. (1996) showed that
Bacillus pumilus cannot degrade tyrosol, while another study reported the complete
transformation of tyrosol by Arthrobacter sp. (Knupp et al., 1996).
Several studies of bioremediation of OMW have focused on A. vinelandii, a free-living,
N2-fixing bacteria that has been shown to degrade phenolic compounds and to use them as
carbon and energy sources. A strain of A. vinelandii isolated from soil repeatedly treated with
OMW (Papadelli et al., 1996) was used as an inoculum for aerobic treatment of OMW
(Ehaliotis et al., 1999; Piperidou et al., 2000). These investigations have shown that the
phytotoxicity of OMW can be reduced by over 90% after an adaptation phase where the
presence of the phenolic compounds limits the A. vinelandii growth. In a recent study, some
polyphenolic compounds, such as protocatetic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid, were
demonstrated to facilitate the growth of Azotobacter chroococcum (Juárez et al., 2008).
Lactic acid bacteria have also been proposed for the removal of phenolic compounds
from OMW. Pediococcus pentosaceus was tested to determine its ability to decolorise OMW
and to remove phenolic compounds (Ben Othman et al., 2008). This study indicated that there
was indeed removal of high molecular weight and simple phenolic compounds. Similar
results were seen with Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei growth on fresh
OMW, resulting in polyphenols hydrolysis and an important pH decrease (Ayed and Hamdi
2003; Aouidi et al., 2009).
Bioremediation of OMW using bacterial consortia coming from activated sludge (Borja
et al., 1995; Benitez et al., 1997), soil and wastewater (Zouari and Ellouz, 1996), and using
olive fruit bacteria (Tziotzios et al., 2007) have provided significant reductions in the COD of
up to 80%, along with a decrease in the phytotoxic compounds.
Filamentous Fungi and Yeasts

The activity of ligninolytic fungi for aerobic OMW bioremediation has been extensively
demonstrated. Basidiomycetes fungi belonging to the “white-rot” group that has been shown
to be active for the reduction of the phytotoxic and antibacterial activities of OMW. While
monomeric phenols show phytotoxic and antimicrobial activities (Capasso et al., 1992),
polymeric phenols have a lignin-like structure as their most recalcitrant fraction, and these are
mainly responsible for the typical colour of OMW (Hamdi, 1993).
It is generally believed that the ligninolytic enzymes lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese
peroxidase (MnP) and laccase that are characterised by low substrate specificities are
involved in fungal degradation of the polyphenols in OMW (Sayadi et al., 1995; Vahabzadeh
et al., 2004). In this context, lignocellulosic substrates, such as wheat straw or hemp woody
core, have roles as inducers in the production of ligninolytic enzymes (Arora et al., 2002;
Kapich et al., 2004).
Several studies have investigated the potential applications of white-rot fungi for the
decoloration and detoxification of OMW (Aloui et al., 2007; Garcìa Garcìa et al., 2000;
Jaouani et al., 2003; Kissi et al., 2001). Among the white-rot fungi, Phanerochaete
chrysosporium has been described as the most efficient OMW decolorising strain (Dias et al.,
2004; Ahmadi et al., 2006; Kissi et al., 2001). Other studies have demonstrated that the edible
white-rot fungus Pleurotus can degrade OMW (Aggelis et al., 2003; Fountoulakis et al., 2002
Olivieri et al., 2006; Kissi et al., 2001; Tsioulpas et al., 2002). The white-rot fungi thus appear
to be quite effective, as they can achieve removal rates as high as 88% for the COD, 100% for
phenolics, and 81% for coloration. In a comparative study of aerobic pretreatment of OMW,
the use of two white-rot fungi (Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Geotrichum candidum )
and two species of Aspergillus (A. niger and A. terreus) was investigated (Garcia Garcia et
al., 2000). This study indicated that G. candidum can grow in OMW and decrease its organic
charge, but here G. candidum did not affect the phenolic content, while for the other
organisms tested, their efficiencies for the removal of total phenols showed the following
order: Phanerochaete chrysosporium > Aspergillus niger > Aspergillus terreus. In a recent
study, Afify et al. (2009) used Aspergillus wentii, Aspergillus niger and Pleurotus ostreatus
for the biological treatment of OMW, and they showed that the optimum OMW dilution was
10-fold, where the maximum COD removal (62.2%) and maximum phenolic compound
reduction (80.9%) by A. wentii were obtained.
A comparative study on the biodegradation of fresh OMW and stored black OMW by G.
Candidum indicated that a reduction of COD (65%) and colour (75%) occurred when the G.
Candidum was grown in fresh OMW, while no decoloration was seen for the stored black
OMW (Assas et al., 2002). The reduction of COD and colour removal after this treatment of
OMW is thus different, even with the same microorganism and operating conditions, because
of the variable polymerisation of the phenolic compounds in the OMW during storage, which
can cause difficulties for the biodegradation.
Recently, several investigations have evaluated the ability of yeast to detoxify OMW, as
well as to produce biomass and/or other valuable products, such as enzymes and organic acids
(D’Annibale et al., 2006a, b; Lanciotti et al., 2005; Papanikolaou et al., 2008; Scioli and
Vollaro, 1997). Indeed, yeast are well adapted for growth in OMW, since they can resist the
high concentrations of phenols and the low pH (Amaral et al., 2008; Shivarova et al., 1999;
Yan et al., 2005). Moreover, yeast appear to be the dominant microorganisms in the OMW, as
compared to bacteria and moulds (Ben Sassi et al., 2006). Yeast species such as Candida
tropicalis, Candida cylindracea and Yarrovia lypolitica have been shown to be suitable for
aerobic biodegradation and detoxification of OMW (Crognale et al., 2006; D’Annibale et al.,
2006; Gonçalves et al., 2009; Lanciotti et al., 2005; Martinez-Garcia et al., 2007; Martinez-
Garcia et al., 2009; Scioli and Vollaro, 1997). Recently, Gonçalves et al. (2009) reported that
Candida cylindracea was the best species relative to lipase production and for COD
reduction, while catechol was shown to be the most inhibitory phenolic compound for this
yeast. Several strains with different origins and belonging to Yarrovia lypolitica, a lipolytic
yeast species, have been tested for their ability to grow in OMW and to metabolise its lipid
fraction (Lanciotti et al., 2005). From the screening carried out, some strains are good
candidates for the reduction of polyphenol content and for the production of enzymes and
metabolites, such as lipase and citric acid.
Summarising the results of these investigations, it is possible to conclude that instead of
thinking in terms of “disposal”, a better approach for OMW would be to consider this waste
as a possible resource to be valorised. Indeed, OMW can be considered as a useful growth
medium for various biotechnological fungal applications, e.g. metabolite production and/or
biotreatment, that can also aim at improving its characteristics as a potential fertiliser.
Table 2. COD and phenol effects of treatment of olive mill wastewater with various
aerobic cultures.
COD reduction Phenol reduction

Culture (%) (%) References
Candida cylindracea 70 27 Gonçalves et al., 2009

Candida tropicalis 62 51 Martinez-Garcia et al., 2009
Lactobacillus paracasei 16 22.7 Aouidi et al., 2009
Aspergillus niger > 60 > 60 Hamdi et al., 1992
Geotrichum candidum 65 - Assas et al., 2002
Geotrichum candidum 60 - Asses et al., 2009
Pleurotus ostreatus - 95 Olivieri et al., 2006
Phanerochaete chrysosporium 45 90 Dias et al., 2004
Phanerochaete chrysosporium 50 90 Ahmadi et al., 2005
Geotrichum spp. 55 46.6
Aspergillus spp. 52.5 44.3 Fadil et al., 2003
Candida tropicalis 62.8 51.7
2.2.2. Anaerobic Treatment

Anaerobic digestion can be defined as the biological conversion of organic material into a
variety of non-biodegradable end products, including “biogas”, the main constituents of
which are methane (65%-70%) and carbon dioxide. The advantages of anaerobic digestion
include low levels of biological sludge, a high efficiency, and the production of methane,
which can be used for production.
A variety of anaerobic methods have also been applied to the treatment of OMW, such
as: use of granular activated carbon (Bertin et al., 2004); an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactor (Boari et al.,1984; Ubay et al., 1997); a silica beads packed bioreactor (Bertin et al.,
2004); and anaerobic filters (Mechichi et al., 2005). A reduction in COD from 70% to 89%
has been achieved for anaerobic processes (Borja et al., 1996; Marques et al., 1997; Marques,
2001). For example, Dalis et al. (1996) used a two-stage anaerobic reactor with the inoculant
undergoing large reductions (>75%) in both toxic phenols and volatile fatty acids. However,
the major limitation of these treatments is the inhibition of methanogenic bacteria by the
phenolic compounds (e.g., condensed tannins; Zouari and Ellouz, 1996) and the long-chain
fatty acids in OMW (Hwu and Lettinga, 1997). One possible approach to resolve this problem
is to dilute the OMW to reduce the concentrations of phenolics and fatty acids, although this
method was still found not to be satisfactory (Gharsallah, 1994).
Another approach is the use of an aerobic pretreatment of OMW to remove the toxic
compounds, thus rendering the effluent more amenable to subsequent treatments. Ruiz-Ordaz
at al. (1998) and Martinez-Garcia et al. (2007) used C. tropicalis for aerobic pre-treatment
prior to anaerobic digestion. This method does not require dilution and achieves a reduction
in the phenol (54%) and COD load.
Fungi have also been used in the pretreatment of OMW prior to anaerobic digestion.
Gharsallah et al. (1999) showed that pretreatment of OMW with P. chrysosporium reduced
COD but had little effect on the polyphenolics, which remained in the effluent and inhibited
subsequent methane production. Different results were obtained by Dhouib et al. (2006), who
showed that a pretreatment with P. chrysosporium or Trametes versicolor can lead to a large
removal of organic matter, and a decrease in the COD/BOD5 ratio and the toxicity of OMW.
The subsequent anaerobic digestion of the OMW pretreated with white-rot fungi showed
higher methanisation yields.
Aerobic pretreatment with G. candidum provided a reduction in COD and the phenolic
and fatty acid contents of OMW, and an increased substrate uptake during anaerobic digestion
was obtained (Martin et., 1993). Furthermore, pretreatment of OMW with the different
microorganisms Geotrichum candidum, Azotobacter chroococcum and Aspergillus terreus
was shown to reduce the phenolic concentrations and the toxicity of OMW by 59%, 87% and
79%, respectively (Borja et al., 1998). It is also interesting to note that while white-rot fungi
appear to be the most effective microorganisms in these aerobic treatment processes, they are
sometimes the least effective organisms for pretreating OMW for anaerobic digestion.
2.2.3. Composting
Composting is a widely used treatment for organic wastes, and the composting of OMW
to obtained organic fertilisers could be an economical and ecological solution. During the
composting process, the organic fraction is aerobically degraded by microorganisms, to give
carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts and a stable organic material containing humic-like
substances (Paredes et al., 2005). Under optimal conditions, composting proceeds through
three phases: (1) the mesophilic phase; (2) the thermophilic phase, which can last from a few
days to several months; and (3) the cooling and maturation phase, which lasts for several
months (Tuomela et al., 2000). The composting process requires adequate conditions of pH,
temperature, moisture, oxygenation and nutrients, to allow the development of the microbial
population (Vlyssides et al., 1996). Therefore, changes in these conditions during the process
will affect the proliferation of certain microflora that have different enzymatic activities, and
which control the organic matter degradation.
The aerobic composting technologies consist of the windrow (turned pile), aerated static
pile and in-vessel techniques, with the first two being the most commonly used. These
technologies vary in the methods for the air supply, temperature control, mixing/turning of
the material, and time required for composting (Baeta-Hall et al., 2005; Cayuela et al., 2006).
The OMW has to be absorbed into a solid substrate before processing it by composting, and
various suitable materials have been used as bulking agents, including olive husks (Abid and
Sayadi 2006, García-Gómez et al., 2003), wheat straw (Taccari et al., 2009), barley straw
(Zenjari et al., 2006), cotton-gin waste (Paredes et al., 2005), poultry manure (Hachicha et al.,
2009a) and sesame bark (Hachicha et al., 2009b).
Co-composting OMW sludge with other organic residues so as to provide adequate
chemical composition (particularly for the C/N, C/P and N/P ratios) can reduce the phytotoxic
effects of the phenolic and lipid compounds in OMW sludge. The resulting compost has
shown a high degree of humification, no phytotoxicity effects, and improved mineral nutrient
content (Abid et al., 2006; Hachicha et al., 2009 b; Paredes et al., 2002; Zenjari et al., 2006).
The application of OMW as a compost to soil has produced positive effects on physical,
chemical and biological properties of the soil and a crop production that was comparable to
inorganic fertilisation (Hachicha et al., 2008; Paredes et al., 2005). The microbial activity has
the main role in the transformations that occur during composting. The inoculation with
proper microorganisms may activate the biodegradation of organic matter and improve the
quality of the compost. Moreover, ligninolytic microorganisms appear to be the best to
conduct the humification process when the substrates being composted are of agricultural
origin (Zeng et al., 2009). Taccari et al. (2009) showed that inoculation of P. chrysosporium
during compost maturation provided both degradation of the soluble phenols in the OMW and
release of water-soluble phenol substances, resulting in a consistent reduction in phytotoxicity
after 36 days of colonisation. P. chrysosporium can be profitably used during compost
maturation of mixtures of OMW and agricultural wastes (rich in lignocellulose compounds),
so as to improve compost maturity and to reduce the phytotoxic effects of the phenols.
3. CONCLUSIONS
OMW production is an environmental problem of great concern in countries where olive
oil production is an important economic activity. However, treatment of OMW is a complex
problem that has not been satisfactorily resolved yet. Safe and economical disposal of OMW
by effective bioremediation can result in significant reductions in COD, phenolic compounds
and colour .
Different factors should be considered when selecting the valorisation method: the
seasonality of olive oil production, the highly variable chemical composition of the waste, the
investment required to perform the treatment, and the local laws. In recent years, many of the
management solutions proposed for the valorisation of OMW have been aimed at a reduction
in its phytotoxicity and for its re-use for the recycling of organic matter for agricultural
purposes. Among these technologies, composting is one of the most promising for the
transformation of this waste material into a valuable organic additive. Through the use of
substrates of agricultural origin, inoculation of OMW with ligninolytic fungi can be a useful
tool for the acceleration of humification and to improve the compost maturity. Moreover, the
valorisation of OMW using yeast species has been shown to be suitable for aerobic
biodegradation and detoxification of this OMW waste, while at the same time producing
biomass and/or other valuable products, such as enzymes and organic acids.
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Chapter 9
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR ASSESSING

HUMAN HEALTH RISKS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
PLANTS. EXPERIENCES FROM CATALONIA (SPAIN)
Martí Nadal* and José L. Domingo
ABSTRACT
Because of the concern among the population, much attention has been paid in recent
years on the impact that waste management facilities, and particularly incinerators, might
have on the environment and the human health. As a consequence, the number of studies
to evaluate the exposure to pollutants potentially released by waste treatment plants has
notably increased. This book chapter presents a review of studies on human health risk
assessment of waste management plants located in Catalonia (Spain). Different
methodological approaches are presented, while a number of case-studies is summarized.
Among them, environmental monitoring studies are, by large, the most frequently used,
although biomonitoring and environmental modeling are also good alternatives. All they
have been proven to be suitable complementary methods to assess the environmental and
human health risks, as well as to evaluate the efficiency of new cleaning systems.
INTRODUCTION
On the most crucial issues of modern societies is the disposal of waste, while
guaranteeing the environment and the human health. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is
increasingly generated in big quantities, although its content may change along time.
Moreover, concern is not only on MSW but also on other waste typologies such as hazardous
waste (HW) and medical waste, whose generation volumes are lower but they may be highly
toxic. The European Union has published different directives for waste management to
* Corresponding author: Phone: +34 977 759325; Fax: +34 977 759322; e-mail: marti.nadal@urv.cat. Laboratory of
Toxicology and Environmental Health, IISPV, “Rovira i Virgili” University, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus,
Catalonia, Spain
224 Martí Nadal and José L. Domingo
protect the environment and the human health in waste treatment processes. These regulations
are based on three principles: waste prevention, recycling and reuse, and finally, improvement
of the final disposal. Among the different alternatives, incineration with energy recovery
seems to be one of the best options. However, all waste management facilities in general, and
incinerators in particular, have been traditionally affected by the NIMBY (Not In My Back
Yard) syndrome (Pol et al., 2006; Schively, 2007). Thus, in many countries the potential
health risks associated with stack emissions, especially those of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-
dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), have become a cause of great controversy and
concern. However, other waste treatment facilities such as MSW landfills or composting
plants have also been NIMBY-affected as they potentially release chemical and biological
pollutants to the environment which may have an ultimate notable impact for the health of the
population living nearby (US EPA, 1994; Chen and Kao, 2008).
Catalonia (NE of Spain) covers an approximate surface of 32,000 km2 and has a
population of over 7 million inhabitants (data of 2009). With a similar tendency to other
developed countries, in 2008 the mean amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated by
the Catalan population was calculated in 1.59 kg/person·day. The treatment of MSW is done
in different facilities, including landfills, incinerators and anaerobic digestion plants. Because
of the public opposition to the sitting and permitting of MSW management plants, and
particularly but not only incinerators, since mid-90s various studies have been performed in
Catalonia to assess the environmental and human health risks of a number of facilities, as well
as to evaluate the efficiency of new cleaning systems. Therefore, a huge amount of
information is now available regarding the pollution state and the temporal trends of
contamination near MSW and HW incinerators, together with other waste treatment plants.
This book chapter presents a review of studies on human health risk assessment of Catalan
waste management plants published in the literature. Different methodological approaches,
which may be applied elsewhere, are presented, while a number of examples of each method
are summarized.
HUMAN BIOMONITORING
Biomonitoring (or biological monitoring) is the analytical measurement of biomarkers in
specified units of human tissues or body products (Albertini et al., 2006), generally called
biomonitors. These represent an integration of the total exposure to specific chemicals from
all routes of uptake and all sources, which are relevant making it an ideal instrument for risk
assessment and risk management (Angerer et al., 2007). Data from biologic monitoring
studies are more advantageous than other obtained through indirect methodologies, such as
the environmental monitoring, particularly at the individual level. In fact, biomarkers are
often used, when available, as a better substitute of environmental monitoring (Manno et al.,
2009). Handicaps of this method are, for instance, that sampling is usually more difficult, as
well as the complexity to discriminate among different sources of exposure. Although a
varied number of biomonitors has been used to evaluate the human exposure to chemicals,
blood is one of the most recurrent. However, there exist other alternatives, such as urine, hair,
nails, breast milk, and adipose tissue, among others. The choice of a specific biomonitors
depends basically on two main factors: a) physical-chemical and bioaccumulation properties
Methodological Approaches for Assessing Human Health Risks… 225
of the target chemical; and b) simplicity to obtain samples. Bimonitoring has a fundamental
role in occupational risk assessment, but is not limited to that, as it has been gaining an
increasing interest to assess non-occupational exposure to environmental pollution.
Human biological monitoring studies have been largely performed worldwide to assess
the occupational exposure and the health risks for workers of waste treatment plants, and
particularly, waste incinerators (Linzalone and Bianchi, 2009). Since 1999, a continuous
surveillance program of the occupational exposure in the hazardous waste incinerator (HWI)
of Constantí (Tarragona County, Catalonia, Spain) is being carried out. Concentrations of a
number of metals and organic substances, such as hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), PCDD/Fs, chlorophenols, and 1-hydroxypyre, in blood and urine samples
are determined yearly. In the baseline study (1999), the body burden of the target chemicals
was evaluated in individual samples from 28 volunteer participants (Domingo et al., 2001b).
The pollutant exposure of workers in specific workplaces was studied in detail. In subsequent
studies, composite samples were obtained to register temporal trends of pollutants in the same
biomonitors (Schuhmacher et al., 2002a; Agramunt et al., 2003). According to the results
from the most recent campaign of the surveillance program (2007), the HWI do not show
evident signs of occupational exposure to a number of metals and organic substances, with
values similar or even lower than the respective baseline levels. In fact, a significant reduction
of PCDD/Fs in plasma of plant workers was observed (from 26.7 pg I-TEQ/g lipid to 2.5 pg
I-TEQ/g lipid after 8 years of regular operations). This decrease would be in agreement with
the notable reduction in the dietary intake of PCDD/Fs recently noted for the population of
the same area (Martí-Cid et al., 2008).
Complementarily to the biomonitoring of workers of the HWI of Constantí, a wide
biomonitoring program to assess the non-occupational exposure for the population living
nearby was initiated three years before the plant started regular operations (Schuhmacher et
al., 1999a,b,c). This program was mainly focused on determining the human health risks
derived from the emissions of the HWI through both biological and environmental
monitoring. Plasma, breast milk and adipose tissue samples from individuals living in the
vicinity of the facility were used as monitors of PCDD/Fs. In turn, blood, human hair and
other human tissues (brain, bone, kidney, liver, and lung autopsy samples) were collected to
analyze the intake of heavy metals. In 2002, after approximately 3 years of regular operations,
a new survey was again carried out using samples of the same biological monitors. A
significant reduction of PCDD/F levels in plasma, breast milk and adipose tissue was noted
(Schuhmacher et al., 2004c; Schuhmacher et al., 2004b; Agramunt et al., 2005), probably due
to a lower ingestion of dioxins and furans through food consumption (Bocio and Domingo,
2005a). Metal concentration in the body burdens also decreased (Bocio et al., 2005b). The
biomonitoring is still continuing and, in 2007, new human biological samples were collected
from the local population (Ferré-Huguet et al., 2009). The results of the last campaign
indicated that the emissions of pollutants from the HWI should not mean a significant
additional exposure for the people living near the facility (Nadal et al., 2008). The use of
complementary monitors revealed the suitability of plasma as a better biological indicator
with respect to others (Nadal et al., 2009b). In recent years, only another biomonitoring study
to evaluate the occupational and non-occupational exposures to PCDD/Fs and PCBs has been
performed. This investigation was aimed at assessing the impact of the municipal solid waste
incinerator (MSWI) of Mataró (Barcelona, Spain) on the human health of the population
(Gonzalez et al., 1998). Since 1995, concentrations of the abovementioned pollutants have
been analyzed in blood samples from workers as well as from subjects living near and far the
incineration plant (Gonzalez et al., 2000). The results of the 5th phase of the study showed a
reduction of the PCDD/F levels in plasma in the period 1999-2005, in contrast with the slight
increasing tendency observed between 1995 and 1999. The most updated results were
actually lower than those obtained in the baseline survey.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
As stated, sampling is one of the most difficult issues when carrying out biomonitoring
studies. In order to solve that problem, the analysis of environmental monitors may be a good
alternative. In fact, the easiness to get environmental samples has meant that this kind of
investigations has been very frequently applied to assess the environmental impact of not only
waste management plants, but also other industrial facilities, densely-populated areas, etc.
Among the different possibilities of environmental monitors, soils have been the most widely
used, although levels in air, vegetation and sediments are also usually studied. Soil and
herbage have been determined to be good long- and short-term environmental monitors,
respectively, while air sampling is ideal to represent point atmospheric conditions (Nadal et
al., 2009a). Further, the pollutant concentrations in environmental monitors may be used to
indirectly determine the exposure to chemicals through various pathways such as soil
ingestion, dermal absorption and air inhalation to, ultimately, assess the human health risks.
Because of the concern of the population and the local authorities, much attention has been
paid on waste incinerators. The presence of a MSWI and a HWI in the area of Tarragona
(Catalonia) has led to obtain a large amount of data regarding the environmental
concentrations of some pollutants potentially emitted by both facilities, and very particularly
PCDD/Fs and metals in soil and vegetation. The first environmental surveillance program of
an incineration plant in Catalonia was done in mid-90s. In 1996, a wide surveillance program
was initiated to provide information on the environmental impact of the MSWI of Tarragona
(Schuhmacher et al., 1997b). Soil and vegetation samples were collected before (1996-1997)
and after (1999) the implementation of new cleaning measurements (Llobet et al., 1999;
Schuhmacher et al., 1999d). In 2002, a second campaign was initiated. During a period of 4
years (2002-2005), soil and vegetation samples were periodically collected and analysis of the
levels of metals and PCDD/Fs was performed. According to the results obtained, it was
concluded that no significant health risks might be expected for the population living in the
neighborhood of the facility due to stack emissions (Mari et al., 2007a). However, a raise of
the concentration of some specific PCDD/F congeners was noted. A detailed study of the
results associated that episode with a forest fire occurred in the zone immediately before
sampling, evidencing the incidence of other potential sources in the area. This reasserted the
necessity to make a drift in the environmental surveillance program to discriminate the
influence of the MSWI under evaluation with respect to these other sources in the same zone
(Vilavert et al., 2009a). Therefore, a change in the monitoring program was implemented by
including the monitoring of ambient air samples through active and passive sampling devices,
together with those of soil and vegetation. The preliminary results of the on-going program
indicate that the environmental impact of the MSWI of Tarragona is not significant, with
relatively low concentrations in comparison with other areas under the influence of emissions
from waste incinerators. Reported immission PCDD/F levels were 12.04 and 15.21 fg WHO-
TEQ/m3 in 2007 and 2008, respectively.
In addition to the occupational and the non-occupational exposure surveillance programs
of the HWI of Constantí, since 1996 a large environmental monitoring study has been being
developed to assure that the potential stack emissions of PCDD/Fs and metals would not
mean a health risk for the local population. In 1996-1998, a pre-operational survey was done
by analyzing the levels of those chemicals in soil and vegetation from 40 different locations
around the plant (Schuhmacher et al., 1997a; Llobet et al., 2000; Schuhmacher et al., 2002b).
Since then, the annual variation of the levels of PCDD/Fs and metals in soil and/or vegetation
are investigated. Subsequently, the risks of the local population derived from an exposure to
PCDD/Fs and metals are also being controlled (Ferré-Huguet et al., 2006). The most recent
investigations show that the HWI do not either mean additional significant risks for the health
of the individuals living in the vicinity of the facility (Ferré-Huguet et al., 2007; Mari et al.,
2007b).
From 1975 to 2004, a MSWI was operating in Montcada (Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain).
In 1999, measures were taken to reduce notably PCDD/F emissions and a modernization of
the flue gas cleaning system was carried out. An acid gas (HCl/SO2) and metal emission limit
equipment was installed and an active-carbon adsorption filter was added to the fabric filter.
As a consequence, PCDD/F emissions dropped, on average, to 0.086 ng I-TEQ/Nm3, which is
below the legal limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/Nm3 (Schuhmacher and Domingo, 2006a). To establish
the environmental levels in the area under potential influence of the MSWI, as well as to
assess the suitability of new filtering measures, metals and PCDD/Fs were analyzed in soil
and herbage samples in 1996-1998 and 2000-2000, before and after the introduction of the
air-cleaning device, respectively (Meneses et al., 1999; Domingo et al., 2001a). Additionally,
airborne PCDD/F levels were determined by means of passive air devices (Schuhmacher et
al., 2006b). A substantial and continuous decrease of the PCDD/F levels in vegetation
through time was noted. However, from an accurate inspection of the PCDD/F congener
profiles, it was also concluded that emissions of PCDD/Fs were neither the only nor the main
responsible for the presence of these pollutants in soil and vegetation samples collected in the
area under direct influence of the plant (Domingo et al., 2000a), while other PCDD/F
emission sources in the same area seemed to have a notable environmental impact (Nadal et
al., 2002). Although the results of that study indicated that the human health risks of
PCDD/Fs for the population living in the vicinity of the facility after introduction of a modern
technology were in fact negligible in comparison with the dietary exposure, the population of
Montcada maintained the perception of health risks due to the previous situation. Therefore,
local authorities decided to cease the activities of the MSWI of Montcada, which was
definitively closed in September 2004 (Schuhmacher et al., 2006a).
Environmental monitoring studies have also been performed in the vicinity of other waste
incinerators located in Barcelona County. Since 1975, a MSWI has been operating in Sant
Adrià del Besòs (Barcelona). Between 1998 and 1999, an environmental monitoring study
was carried out to determine the state of pollution in the surroundings of the plant. PCDD/F
levels in soils and vegetations were monitored, and the temporal trend was established
(Domingo et al., 2000b; Schuhmacher et al., 2000). Just after the 1999 collection, an
adaptation to the EU legislation on pollutant emissions from the stack was carried out in this
facility (Domingo et al., 2002b). In 2000 and 2001, new samples of the same monitors were
collected and the PCDD/F levels were again determined. A significant (30%) decrease was
found in the levels of PCDD/F in herbage samples collected in the vicinity of the MSWI, as a
result of the technical improvements of the incinerator (Domingo et al., 2002a). A few years
later (2005-2006), a new monitoring campaign was executed in the same area of Sant Adrià
del Besòs (Mari et al., 2008a). Because of the increasing urbanization, soil and vegetation
samples had to be changed by samples of ambient air. Active air devices were used to
examine the concentrations of PCDD/Fs, PCBs and polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) as
well as a number of metals around the MSWI and in a background/control area. These data
were used to validate the suitability of passive samplers to determine persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) concentrations in air in areas with various potential emission sources (Mari
et al., 2008b). On the other hand, an environmental monitoring survey was initiated near the
MSWI of Mataró (Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain) complementarily to the biomonitoring study
which is being carried out for workers and non-occupationally exposed populations. Air and
soil concentrations of PCDD/Fs and metals were analyzed as a first step to evaluate the health
risks for the population living near and far the incineration plant [unpublished results].
Although incinerators are the waste management facilities which have traditionally
received more pressure, the shift in the model of the treatment of waste, as well as the drastic
reduction of the influence of MSWIs on the state of pollution of specific zones, has given
place to implement monitoring programs to other waste treatment facilities. In recent years,
the Autonomous Government of Catalonia is reinforcing new methodologies to reduce the
percentage of MSW deposited on landfills. In the metropolitan area of Barcelona, various
MSW management facilities (known as Ecoparcs) are being built. Three facilities are
currently already operative. Ecoparcs are set up to get a valorization of energy and materials
through two operation lines to treat the MSW organic fraction, and the remaining fraction. In
spite of the advantages of these systems, human health risks due to the release of chemical
and biological agents may be of importance from the point of view of workers and people
living around (Domingo and Nadal, 2009). Because of that, new investigations have been
done in Ecoparcs, as well as in composting and mechanical-biological treatment (MBT)
plants. Very recently, the occupational exposure to chemical and biological agents was
evaluated for workers of the Ecoparc-2 of Montcada i Reixac (Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain).
The total concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as well as bacteria and fungi
(at 25 °C and 37 °C), including Aspergillus fumigatus, were determined on a 3-month basis in
various areas of the composting plant (Nadal et al., 2009c). According to the results, a series
of recommendations was given to prevent the exposure to biological and chemical agents,
such as the use of P3 filter masks and gloves, and the humectation of waste and the
installation of biofilters. Other studies consider the analysis of VOCs and bioaerosols in
ambient air around new composting facilities. A new MBT plant is planned to be constructed
adjacently to the MSWI of Tarragona. In order to evaluate its potential impact and to
differentiate the impacts of MSWI from those of the MBT when the latter is operative, a pre-
operational survey was initiated by determining the concentrations of VOCs and some
microbiological pollutants in airborne samples around the MSWI (Vilavert et al., 2009b). The
compilation of these data, together with those concerning to PCDD/Fs and heavy metals, will
allow to carry out a complete human health risk assessment in the area under study.
Although landfills are only considered as the last alternative for waste management, some
processes such as incineration or sintering, continue to generate a residual fraction which
cannot be valorized and has to be safely deposited in hazardous waste landfills (HWLs) due
to its toxic potential. Therefore, environmental monitoring programs are also suitable to
assess the impact for the human health of these facilities. Since 1984, a class III hazardous
waste landfill (HWL) has been operating in Castellolí (Barcelona Province, Catalonia). In
1998, it started to receive hazardous input materials such as municipal waste incinerator fly
ashes (characterized by their high content of heavy metals and PCDD/Fs), asbestos, as well as
other inert wastes. Although the HWL operates according to the regulation, the population
living nearby is worried about the potential release of pollutants into air, water, and soil, as
well as about the consequences that those eventual discharges may have on the ecosystems
and the human health. Because of that concern, since 2007, the concentrations of metals and
PCDD/Fs are being monitored in air and soil samples from the landfill and close towns. In the
first campaign, metal and PCDD/F levels were relatively low in air and soil samples (Mari et
al., 2009), indicating that it is highly unlikely that there are any additional non-carcinogenic
and carcinogenic risks for the population living near the HWL.
ENVIRONMENTAL MODELING
When no information from biological and environmental monitoring is available, the
application of fate and transport models may be useful to get estimative values of pollutant
concentrations in the environment. These can be estimated using an air dispersion model,
which simulate the atmospheric dispersion using meteorological and topographic information
of the area under evaluation (Meneses et al., 2004). Air dispersion modeling has been
executed to assess the environmental impact of waste management plants, with a special
emphasis on waste incinerators (Cangialosi et al., 2008). Models are fed with site-specific
information such as stack emission rates, meteorological data, stack parameters, and
cartographic data (Schuhmacher et al., 2004a). In addition, several models of uptake of
organic chemicals by plants and soils have been reported in the literature (Meneses et al.,
2002).
In 2000, an investigation was conducted near the MSWI of Montcada i Reixac
(Barcelona, Spain) to establish the potential reduction on human health risks as a consequence
of the adaptation to the EU legislation on pollutant emissions from the MSWI stack (Meneses
et al., 2004). Predicted results were obtained by means of a simple-compartment-multimedia
model (air-soil-vegetation model), and compared with analytically measured PCDD/F
concentrations in soils and vegetation to validate the model. Emissions of PCDD/Fs
decreased, on average, from 111.39 ng I-TEQ/Nm3 to 0.036 ng I-TEQ/Nm3, after the
installation of the new cleaning gas system. The modeling results indicated that the reduction
had not been as great as it could be expected according to the very pronounced decreases in
PCDD/F emissions from the stack. The application of atmospheric dispersion models of
pollutants has been executed in other MSWIs of Catalonia, such as that of Campdorà
(Girona). Recently, an exhaustive study to determine the temporal trends of air pollutant
concentrations in ambient air around that facility was performed (Serra and Ubach, 2008).
Immission levels of several inorganic gasses, such as NO2, SO2, CO and HCl, as well as
particulate matter (PM) were modeled through time. The authors concluded that the
progressive installation of methodological improvements resulted in a substantial reduction of
the levels of those contaminants around the incineration plant.
CONCLUSION
An important number of human health risk assessment studies have been performed and
are being performed in Catalonia in recent years. Most investigations have been aimed at
evaluating the risks of occupational and non-occupational exposures to chemicals, with a
special emphasis on PCDD/Fs and heavy metals potentially released by incinerators.
Additionally, the influence of other facilities such as landfills and MBT plants for the
surrounding environment has also been studied. Examples of different approaches have been
presented, highlighting their advantages and inconveniences. Human health risk assessment
can be done by applying different complementary tools according to the needs of decision-
making stakeholders. Because of the easiness in sampling and chemical analysis, the most
frequently used method is, by large, the environmental monitoring, while biomonitoring and
environmental modeling are not so usually applied. However, to the best of our knowledge,
no epidemiological investigations have been carried out in Catalonia to evaluate the incidence
of waste management plants on human health, although observational studies are sometimes
used (Giusti, 2009). It must be taken into account that the difficulty of developing reasonably
good epidemiological investigations is an important disadvantage when assessing human
health risks derived from the exposure to chemicals, which may otherwise be successfully
covered by other methods such as biological and environmental monitoring.
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INDEX
ash, 4, 13, 18, 23, 25, 35, 45, 74, 139, 170, 172, 173,
176, 178, 185, 192, 193, 198, 199, 200, 201
A Asia, 191
Asian countries, 99, 136
acid, 27, 137, 140, 141, 144, 145, 157, 170, 206, Aspergillus terreus, 210, 212, 217
209, 211, 212, 219, 227 assessment, 2, 6, 10, 13, 19, 21, 30, 31, 32, 94, 100,
activated carbon, 26, 137, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 102, 106, 110, 112, 113, 117, 118, 217, 225, 230,
148, 155, 156, 157, 158, 170, 183, 211, 215 233
active site, 143 atoms, 143
adaptation, 209, 227, 229 Australia, 69, 104, 204
adipose, 224, 225, 232, 233 Austria, 166, 174
adipose tissue, 224, 225, 232, 233 authority, 121, 125, 126, 128, 133, 134
adsorption, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, authors, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102,
148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 208, 110, 207, 229
227 autopsy, 225, 230
adsorption isotherms, 143 availability, 82, 84, 85, 91, 92, 93, 95, 152, 178
aerobic bacteria, 208, 209, 216 awareness, vii, 133
aesthetics, 34
Afghanistan, 73
age, 32, 129, 192 B
agricultural market, 84
agricultural sector, 85, 99 bacteria, 209, 210, 211, 212, 220, 228
agriculture, 84, 85, 97, 99 bacterial strains, 216
air emissions, 2, 23, 26, 230 barley, 207, 213
alcohol, 92 barriers, 28, 87, 99, 116, 117
alcohol production, 92 batteries, 65, 68
alternatives, 109, 223, 224 behavior, 148, 192, 199
aluminium, 13, 18, 43, 63, 157 Belgium, 74, 114, 166, 177, 178
ambient air, 226, 228, 229, 232 bicarbonate, 140
anaerobic digesters, 162 binary decision, 108
anaerobic sludge, 211, 217 binding, 87, 143
analytical framework, 101 bioaccumulation, 224
APC, 4, 13, 18, 25, 28, 161, 179, 183, 187 biodegradability, 12
aqueous solutions, 157, 158 biodegradable materials, 45
Argentina, 204 biodegradation, 20, 21, 75, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213,
Aristotle, 81 214, 216, 221
aromatic compounds, 216, 221 biodiesel, 84, 92
asbestos, 65, 229 bioelectricity, 110
236 Index
bioenergy, 32, 85, 94, 99, 101, 102, 108, 109, 110, City, 25, 29, 76, 79, 125, 127
112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120 classification, 105, 106, 192, 193, 198
biofuel, 84, 88, 89, 99, 120 Clean Air Act, 25
biological activity, 3, 12, 217 cleaning, 36, 37, 40, 65, 66, 166, 170, 223, 224, 226,
biological processes, 203 227, 229
biomarkers, 224 climate change, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 82, 86, 119
biomass, 24, 27, 29, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, CO2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21, 82, 84, 85, 86,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 88, 97, 102, 112, 172, 176, 183, 185, 191, 192
101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, coagulation, 208, 217, 218
112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 158, 167, coal, 4, 13, 14, 18, 19, 23, 25, 26, 45, 82, 86, 94,
172, 173, 176, 177, 210, 214 100, 109, 137, 139, 161, 162, 177, 178, 182, 183,
biomaterials, 86 188, 191, 192
biomonitoring, 223, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231 combustion, 2, 4, 7, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 23, 25,
bioremediation, 209, 210, 213 40, 50, 71, 74, 77, 88, 90, 92, 96, 97, 102, 108,
blood, 138, 224, 225, 231, 233 113, 114, 118, 139, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 174,
bone, 37, 173, 225 177, 178, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192, 208
Botswana, 122, 134, 135 commodity, 57, 84
brain, 225 community, 23, 25, 86, 104, 106, 207
Brazil, 134, 135 compatibility, 2, 31
breast milk, 224, 225, 233 competition, 82, 85, 100, 118, 134
breeding, 74, 77 competitiveness, 85, 113
Brno, 76, 77 complexity, 76, 82, 93, 95, 97, 110, 206, 224
burn, 161, 162, 163, 168, 178, 179, 182, 185, 186, compliance, 34, 82
187 components, 35, 41, 49, 57, 72, 77, 81, 83, 89, 101,
burning, 26, 97, 125, 137, 167, 170, 182, 186 122, 129
buyer, 133 composition, 4, 13, 15, 16, 17, 31, 33, 34, 35, 41, 43,
by-products, 87, 101, 113, 114, 205, 209, 221 44, 45, 48, 77, 78, 91, 172, 174, 175, 176, 179,
180, 181, 183, 194, 196, 198, 205, 206, 213
compost, 4, 35, 40, 69, 74, 75, 77, 162, 213, 214,
C 219, 220, 221
composting, 1, 3, 10, 12, 17, 21, 24, 28, 36, 37, 38,
calcium, 191, 195, 196
41, 45, 49, 71, 74, 75, 138, 161, 162, 173, 174,
calcium carbonate, 191 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 221, 224, 228,
Cambodia, 135 231
Canada, 69, 101, 117, 188
compounds, 40, 65, 138, 183, 192, 203, 205, 206,
candidates, 211
208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 221
carbon, 16, 17, 18, 23, 86, 88, 90, 97, 115, 137, 143, computing, 101
145, 155, 156, 157, 158, 172, 183, 185, 191, 206,
concentration, 33, 97, 137, 142, 143, 144, 145, 148,
209, 211, 212, 227
149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157, 183, 221, 225,
carbon dioxide, 23, 88, 97, 184, 185, 191, 211, 212 226
carbon monoxide, 90 concrete, 197, 198, 200, 201
carrier, 86
configuration, 3, 4, 10, 83, 99, 109, 182
case study, 30, 32, 95, 96, 104, 109, 115, 118, 119,
conformity, 200, 201
137, 163, 186, 218, 230, 231 consensus, 121, 122, 124
case-studies, 223 conservation, vii
cast, 36, 192
construction, 25, 35, 36, 86, 108, 125, 138, 174, 177,
categorization, 161
180, 181, 182, 184, 191, 200, 232, 234
cellulose, 3 consultants, vii
cellulose fibre, 3 consumers, 82, 99, 101, 162, 179, 184, 185
ceramic, 192, 194
consumption, 5, 17, 18, 32, 41, 76, 84, 96, 101, 114,
chemical properties, 40, 207
162, 163, 225
China, 36, 119 contaminant, 137, 157, 234
chlorine, 176, 178, 179, 183
contamination, 35, 38, 72, 74, 77, 126, 224
chromium, 137, 138, 139, 145, 157, 158
Index 237
control, 103, 110, 128, 168, 170, 212, 213, 228 dioxin, 26, 170, 183
conversion, 18, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, directives, 34, 86, 87, 223
98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, discharges, 207, 229
110, 117, 118, 120, 177, 211 discrimination, 128
cooling, 110, 170, 183, 212 distilled water, 140, 141
corn, 89, 104, 111, 119 distribution, 18, 93, 100, 101, 102, 103, 119, 120,
corrosion, 168, 179, 196 129, 194, 195
cost accounting, 30 district heating, 74, 94, 95, 101, 103, 108, 109, 118,
cost saving, 2, 85, 95 178
cost-benefit analysis, 102 diversification, 84, 122, 134
costs, 21, 40, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, diversity, vii, 85
101, 102, 104, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 117, 118, division, 73, 79, 194, 197
155, 156, 208 dry matter, 173, 177
cotton, 89, 91, 95, 101, 103, 104, 108, 109, 115, 119, drying, 2, 3, 4, 7, 12, 17, 20, 28, 48, 90, 140, 141,
213 156, 174, 181
covering, 85, 123, 184 dumping, 36, 37, 68, 138
Croatia, 205
crop production, 213
crops, 24, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 92, 100, 104, 111, E
115, 207
crystalline, 195, 199, 200 earnings, 130, 133, 134
cultivation, 139, 204, 205 East Asia, 117
curing, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 Eastern Europe, 120
customers, 85, 109 economic activity, 213
Czech Republic, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 56, economic development, 85, 138, 191
66, 68, 74, 77, 78, 79, 166 economic efficiency, 108
economic evaluation, 102, 108
economic growth, 48, 162, 185
D economics, 48, 95, 99, 110, 135
ecosystem, 139
data collection, 124 EDSS, 101, 102, 110
ecision making, 33, 48, 98, 100 EEA, 18, 29, 187
decision-making process, 81, 83, 97, 112 effluent, 137, 139, 143, 148, 149, 209, 212
decisions, 21, 84, 88, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105, effluents, 203, 215, 220
106, 110, 112, 123 electricity, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 18, 22, 23, 24,
decomposition, 40, 50, 90, 97, 208 25, 27, 35, 49, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92, 94, 99,
definition, 12, 24, 33, 34 102, 104, 110, 114, 115, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167,
degradation, 3, 12, 20, 75, 82, 206, 208, 209, 210, 176, 179, 184, 185, 186, 187
212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 221 electroplating, 157, 158
delivery, 103, 108, 109, 113, 116, 117, 118, 125, 133 emission, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
Denmark, 29, 166, 177, 188 26, 27, 31, 38, 40, 82, 87, 88, 114, 162, 170, 171,
density, 89, 94, 128, 173, 176, 206 172, 176, 192, 227, 228, 229, 232
Department of Agriculture, 116 employment, 84, 85, 122, 129, 134
Department of Energy, 28 energy consumption, 85, 90, 94, 103, 109, 204
desorption, 137, 145, 157 energy density, 94
developed countries, 28, 38, 69, 73, 86, 167, 224 energy efficiency, 88, 167
developed nations, 84 energy recovery, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 18, 20, 23, 29,
developing countries, vii, 28, 31, 84, 122, 123, 135, 31, 76, 88, 161, 162, 165, 168, 172, 185, 186,
136, 155 208, 224
developmental process, vii energy supply, 82, 84, 85, 86, 92, 101, 108, 112, 114,
dibenzo-p-dioxins, 224, 230, 231 115, 117, 119
dietary intake, 225 England, v, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 28, 29, 31, 38
digestion, 12, 31, 174, 208, 209, 211, 212, 215, 216, entrepreneurs, vii, 122, 124
217, 218, 219, 224
238 Index
environment, vii, 2, 25, 29, 32, 33, 34, 37, 40, 41, 43, food, 24, 33, 35, 63, 84, 85, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130,
48, 79, 82, 83, 85, 88, 96, 97, 98, 106, 114, 128, 162, 173, 203, 225
129, 134, 135, 138, 139, 145, 162, 185, 188, 191, food production, 85
207, 217, 220, 223, 229, 230 forest resources, 95
environmental effects, 123 formal sector, 126, 127, 133, 134
environmental impact, 2, 21, 25, 27, 32, 33, 39, 76, fossil, 1, 2, 5, 12, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 27, 81, 82, 84,
83, 96, 97, 102, 103, 106, 226, 227, 229, 231 86, 94, 96, 97, 99, 112, 167, 172, 176, 183, 185,
environmental issues, 48 186, 191
environmental protection, 87 France, 30, 70, 116
Environmental Protection Agency, 28, 79, 234 frost, 45
environmental standards, 102 fuel, 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 30, 32, 81, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90,
enzymes, 210, 214 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 109,
EPA, 2, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 41, 79, 224, 234 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 118, 161, 162, 163, 168,
epidemic, 38 170, 172, 174, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182, 186, 192
equilibrium, 143, 149, 150, 158 fungi, 208, 210, 212, 213, 216, 217, 218, 228
estimating, 18, 41, 99, 109 fungus, 90, 210, 217, 221
ethanol, 92, 94, 100, 102, 119, 120 furan, 26, 27
EU, v, 1, 17, 31, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 43, 48, 76, 84,
85, 86, 87, 88, 113, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 174,
175, 176, 177, 179, 182, 183, 186, 187, 227, 229 G
Europe, 35, 36, 40, 79, 84, 87, 113, 117, 163, 164,
165, 166, 167, 176, 178, 187, 192 garbage, 32, 35, 37, 41, 167
European Commission, 29, 30, 84, 113, 114, 182, gases, 90, 183
187 gasification, 12, 23, 92, 102, 108, 113, 116, 177,
European Community, 34 178, 182, 184, 186, 188
European Parliament, 84, 86, 87, 88, 114 gasoline, 94
European Union, 77, 84, 88, 114, 161, 191, 203, 217, GDP, 48
223 generation, 7, 8, 13, 22, 34, 40, 41, 44, 48, 73, 74,
evaporation, 207, 208, 220 77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 86, 92, 94, 96, 99, 101, 104,
expertise, 34, 99 108, 110, 112, 113, 117, 119, 123, 138, 162, 163,
exploitation, vii, 87, 91, 100, 110, 115, 116, 192 165, 167, 176, 182, 186, 188, 223
exposure, 138, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 230, Germany, 4, 20, 30, 32, 38, 43, 68, 113, 115, 165,
231, 232, 233 166, 167, 170, 171, 174, 176, 178, 179
external environment, 99 germination, 207, 219
extraction, 18, 204, 205, 206, 208, 214, 221 goods and services, 162
governance, 135
government, iv, 69, 82, 86, 88, 99, 121, 170
F government policy, 121
grains, 89, 194
family, 44, 49, 129 grass, 45, 75, 84, 94, 95, 109, 111, 118, 138, 219
family support, 129 grasses, 89, 233
farmers, 90, 99, 104, 111 Great Britain, 38, 78
fatty acids, 212 Greece, v, 1, 2, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 28, 30,
fermentation, 102, 214 31, 32, 81, 101, 108, 109, 112, 115, 119, 120,
fertilizers, 139 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 175, 179, 180, 181, 182,
financial institutions, vii 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 203, 207, 218
Finland, 164, 174, 177, 188 greenhouse gases, 82
fires, 35, 122 group interactions, 143
First World, 115, 116 groups, 2, 27, 48, 49, 138, 139, 144, 145
flexibility, 75, 85, 91, 110 growth, 6, 10, 17, 85, 96, 97, 138, 164, 175, 179,
flocculation, 208, 209, 218, 220 207, 209, 210, 211, 219
flue gas, 40, 161, 167, 179, 227 Guangdong, 119
fluidized bed, 23, 96, 102, 118, 164, 168, 176, 179 guidance, 99, 112
focusing, 89, 100, 106, 110, 162
Index 239
industrial wastes, 82, 162, 173

H industrialized countries, 92, 164
industry, 7, 23, 32, 69, 84, 85, 102, 111, 119, 171,
Haiti, 73
172, 176, 177, 179, 191, 192, 196, 200, 216, 217
harassment, 122, 128
infancy, 28, 81, 83
hardening process, 199
infection, 138
harmful effects, 138
informal sector, 123, 126, 127, 135, 136
harvesting, 84, 85, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 100, 104, 110,
infrastructure, 10, 82, 91, 99, 102, 134
115
ingestion, 225, 226
hazardous materials, 65
inoculation, 213, 220
hazardous substances, 170
inoculum, 209
hazardous wastes, 34, 35, 68, 169
insects, 73, 74, 77
hazards, 74, 77, 130
institutions, 35
health, vii, 2, 3, 25, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 75, 82, 90, 96,
insulation, 71
114, 127, 137, 138, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228,
integration, 1, 28, 40, 86, 121, 123, 124, 128, 133,
229, 230, 231, 232
224
health problems, 36, 137
interactions, 123, 124
heat, 3, 4, 6, 11, 15, 23, 49, 50, 74, 82, 87, 90, 92,
interdependence, 94, 104
94, 101, 110, 112, 113, 115, 162, 165, 166, 167,
interference, 127, 134
168, 170, 186, 192
internet, 36, 37
heating, 3, 11, 45, 49, 50, 90, 99, 101, 108, 109, 110,
interrelationships, 94
156, 172, 176, 177, 178
intervention, 81
heavy metals, 2, 40, 50, 65, 75, 139, 155, 157, 176,
interview, 124
225, 228, 229, 230, 232
investment, 15, 75, 88, 98, 99, 101, 104, 110, 119,
height, 142, 148
179, 181, 213
hexachlorobenzene, 225
investment appraisal, 119
households, 4, 13, 34, 35, 48, 69, 75, 125
investors, 81, 83, 97
housing, 49, 50, 129
ion-exchange, 144
human exposure, 224
ions, 139, 143, 144
humidity, 50
Ireland, 163, 164, 166
Hungary, 166
iron, 171, 192, 196
Hunter, 112
isolation, 94
hydrogen peroxide, 217
isotherms, 143, 144
hydrolysis, 209
Italy, 32, 74, 79, 165, 166, 167, 174, 175, 177, 178,
hygiene, 36, 37
191, 192, 194, 201, 203, 207, 219
I J
ideal, 224, 226
Japan, 30, 38, 74, 168
Impact Assessment, 2
jobs, 129
implementation, 2, 23, 26, 110, 112, 119, 182, 226
jurisdiction, 134
imports, 87, 88
imprisonment, 37
impurities, 140, 141, 196 K
incentives, 81, 83, 87
incidence, 226, 230 kinetic model, 220
income, 37, 122, 128, 129, 133, 134 kinetic studies, 141, 158
independence, 82 kinetics, 157, 215
India, 122, 136, 200
indicators, 50, 79
Indonesia, 122 L
industrial emissions, vii
industrial revolution, 33 labor, 36, 104
240 Index
land, 2, 25, 27, 35, 37, 73, 74, 77, 87, 90, 96, 120, market, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 20, 21, 37, 40, 87,
207 88, 93, 94, 97, 99, 114, 120, 132, 133, 135, 141,
land disposal, 37 178, 187, 192, 194
land use, 2, 25 marketing, 87, 97, 114
landfills, 1, 10, 12, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27, 35, 38, 71, markets, 2, 86, 118, 126, 129, 132, 133, 134
74, 122, 134, 224, 228, 230 mass spectrometry, 215
landscapes, 135 mathematical programming, 106
land-use, 96, 120 matrix, 196
language, 71, 109 maturation, 212, 213, 220
laws, 34, 38, 213 MBI, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 22, 23, 28
LDCs, 73 measurement, 196, 224
learning process, 99 measures, 10, 21, 26, 87, 88, 98, 99, 125, 128, 134,
legislation, 10, 12, 28, 88, 204, 207, 227, 229 227
life cycle, 18, 40, 76, 115 mechanical properties, 198
lifestyle, 34, 41 media, 125, 219
lifetime, 96, 101 Mediterranean, 189, 203, 204, 207, 231
lignin, 3, 210, 214, 220, 221 Mediterranean countries, 203, 207
limestone, 168, 192, 193 mercury, 2, 25, 26, 27, 158
limitation, 88, 114, 212 Mercury, 26, 27, 32, 178
linear programming, 108, 113 metabolites, 211
lipids, 203, 205 metal recovery, 25, 169
liquid chromatography, 215 metals, 3, 4, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 22, 25, 36, 40, 50, 51,
liquid fuels, 92, 110 65, 72, 75, 125, 129, 139, 155, 157, 162, 167,
liquids, 90, 115 168, 173, 174, 175, 176, 182, 183, 225, 226, 227,
livestock, 36, 112, 113 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234
local authorities, vii, 122, 125, 130, 133, 226, 227 microorganism, 210
local government, 69 Microsoft, 124
logging, 89, 104, 118 microstructure, 200
logistics, 15, 81, 82, 83, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, microstructures, 199
103, 106, 108, 109, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 119 mineral water, 71
Louisiana, 31 miniature, 201
low risk, 91 mining, 23, 35, 139
Luxemburg, 29 mixing, 213
model, 4, 5, 6, 13, 16, 17, 18, 30, 89, 95, 96, 100,
101, 102, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 115, 117,
M 118, 119, 120, 214, 228, 229
modeling, 82, 83, 94, 95, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110,
Macedonia, 32, 108, 179, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 112, 115, 117, 223, 229, 230, 233
186, 187 models, 76, 85, 97, 99, 103, 104, 106, 110, 111, 120,
machinery, 89, 94, 104, 118 229, 232
magnesium, 196 modernization, 227
maintenance, 25, 75, 114 moisture, 3, 12, 16, 75, 89, 90, 102, 168, 172, 173,
management, 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 27, 28, 180, 181, 205, 212
30, 31, 33, 34, 37, 38, 41, 48, 73, 75, 76, 77, 82, moisture content, 89, 90, 102, 168, 172, 180, 205
83, 87, 91, 94, 97, 103, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, molecular weight, 209, 220
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, molecules, 143, 183
162, 163, 164, 180, 186, 205, 213, 218, 223, 224, movement, 41, 73, 90
228
manganese, 210, 214, 220, 221
Manju, 140, 158 N
manufacturer, 194
manufacturing, 71, 174, 215 nation, 38, 185
manure, 37, 92, 100, 213, 217 natural gas, 86
natural resources, vii
Index 241
NCV, 13, 16, 18, 28, 187 PCDD/Fs, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231,
Netherlands, 113, 164, 167, 174 232, 234
network, 23, 83, 89, 93, 95, 98, 99, 101, 106, 108, permit, 121, 126, 127, 130, 133, 179
109, 110, 115, 129, 184, 185 Perth, 69
NGOs, 123, 133, 134 PET, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 61, 62, 68, 72
Nigeria, 135 pH, 137, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 206, 207, 209,
nitrogen, 50, 206, 215, 219 211, 212
nodes, 100, 108, 110 phenol, 157, 207, 211, 212, 213, 217, 220, 221
noise, 65, 96 physical and mechanical properties, 191
North America, 40, 84 physical properties, 196
nutrients, 203, 212 physicochemical properties, 188
physics, 158
pigs, 36
O planning, 21, 32, 38, 94, 97, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
106, 110, 111, 112, 118, 119, 135
occupational health, 122, 133, 232 planning decisions, 97
occupational risks, 128 plasma, 225, 230, 233
OECD, 30, 41, 57, 79, 84, 85, 118 plastics, 25, 43, 49, 61, 63, 68, 72, 86, 129, 139, 162,
oil, 23, 49, 65, 82, 84, 86, 88, 179, 203, 204, 205, 172, 174, 181
206, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221 Poland, 164
oil production, 203, 205 police, 122, 128
oils, 173 policy makers, 102, 123
olive oil, 204, 205, 207, 208, 213, 214, 215, 216, pollutants, 88, 114, 138, 176, 187, 208, 223, 224,
217, 218, 219, 220, 221 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 233
operator, 124 pollution, vii, 25, 40, 41, 82, 139, 168, 208, 220,
optimization, 95, 101, 103, 104, 108, 112, 113, 115, 224, 225, 227, 228, 231
117, 119 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 225
optimization method, 108 polychlorinated dibenzofurans, 230
order, 1, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 20, 36, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, polyphenols, 206, 209, 210, 215
89, 90, 91, 95, 97, 100, 103, 109, 123, 139, 148, polyurethane, 120
161, 162, 179, 194, 197, 198, 204, 210, 226, 228 polyurethane foam, 120
organic chemicals, 167, 229 population, 10, 35, 37, 135, 138, 212, 216, 223, 224,
organic compounds, 25, 40, 65, 228, 234 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233
organic matter, 17, 24, 50, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, population growth, 138
209, 212, 213, 217 Portugal, 166, 214
organic solvents, 205 power, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
oxidation, 168, 217 74, 82, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 100, 101,
oxides, 23, 144 104, 108, 109, 112, 113, 117, 119, 120, 126, 139,
oxygen, 205, 206 161, 162, 167, 171, 172, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183,
184, 185, 186, 188
P power plants, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26,
100, 101, 109, 119, 139, 161, 162, 171, 172, 176,
Pacific, 78 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187
packaging, 15, 40, 43, 49, 50, 51, 58, 61, 62, 63, 68, precipitation, 145
72, 161, 173 prediction, 43, 157
Pakistan, 122, 135 preference, 10, 126
parameter, 2, 27 present value, 101
parameters, 2, 45, 82, 94, 96, 100, 103, 108, 109, pressure, 2, 3, 84, 167, 228
111, 138, 142, 149, 151, 152, 167, 179, 196, 197, prevention, 38, 123, 224
215, 229, 233 price changes, 84
Parliament, 86, 87, 88, 188 prices, 84, 99, 133
particles, 139, 140, 152, 183, 197 primary data, 76
passive, 226, 227, 228, 232 primary school, 129
242 Index
producers, 97, 179, 204 reprocessing, 34, 35, 137, 139

product design, 138 residues, 4, 13, 14, 17, 18, 24, 82, 84, 85, 89, 92, 97,
production technology, 81, 82 99, 101, 104, 109, 111, 115, 117, 138, 157, 162,
productivity, 117, 207 172, 173, 174, 177, 194, 213, 214, 219
profit, 99, 101, 112, 126 resource allocation, 109
profitability, 94, 103, 106 resources, 3, 34, 48, 74, 81, 83, 84, 87, 95, 99, 100,
program, 85, 104, 225, 226, 234 102, 104, 118, 162, 163
public administration, 48 revenue, 41, 108
public health, 2, 27, 74, 77, 122, 125, 127, 139, 170 rice, 192, 200
public policy, 122 rice husk, 192, 200
pulp, 84, 220 risk, 37, 68, 97, 116, 117, 129, 137, 138, 223, 224,
purification, 194, 203, 208, 218 227, 228, 230, 231, 232
purity, 68, 75 risk assessment, 223, 224, 228, 230, 231, 232
PVC, 50 risk management, 97, 224
pyrolysis, 12, 92, 96, 102, 120, 177, 178 room temperature, 140, 141
routing, 96
rubber, 24, 50, 139, 175
Q rural areas, 33, 35, 37, 65, 84
Russia, 92
quality standards, 92
quartz, 194, 196
quotas, 88, 99 S
safety, 74, 77, 90, 96, 133, 136

R salt, 183, 207
salts, 196, 205, 212
radiation, 196 sampling, 33, 43, 44, 48, 224, 226, 230
radioactive waste, 73 saturation, 150, 152
range, 12, 33, 65, 90, 102, 110, 133, 140, 141, 144, savings, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 18, 19, 20, 21, 39, 95, 184,
145, 151, 167, 168, 172, 203 186
raw materials, 40, 81, 83, 89, 104, 191, 192 sawdust, 137, 140, 141, 143, 145, 147, 150, 151,
reactivity, 200 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 173
reality, 42, 178 Scandinavia, 92
reason, 43, 68, 144, 145, 150, 194, 200 scheduling, 96, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 115,
recognition, 121, 123, 124 118
recovery, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 23, 24, 27, 31, 34, 36, seasonality, 81, 82, 93, 213
38, 40, 49, 71, 73, 77, 123, 161, 162, 163, 167, Second World, 37, 115
170, 185 security, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 112, 114, 124, 125, 126,
recycling, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 13, 14, 18, 21, 22, 24, 26, 128, 129, 186
27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45, 48, sediments, 226
68, 69, 71, 75, 76, 77, 88, 121, 123, 124, 126, sensitivity, 9, 20, 21
127, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 161, 162, 172, 180, separation, 3, 12, 38, 41, 71, 77, 123, 126, 134, 172,
184, 186, 191, 192, 213, 224 173, 196, 217
regeneration, 145, 157 septic tank, 207
region, 32, 48, 78, 83, 95, 96, 100, 101, 104, 108, sewage, vii, 35, 36, 37, 111, 167, 171, 172, 173, 174,
116, 135, 139, 184 181, 207
regulation, 127, 162, 207, 229 shade, 140, 141
regulations, 2, 26, 36, 48, 73, 87, 183, 224 shape, 148, 197
regulators, 81, 83, 97 side effects, 82
relationship, 133, 134 SIGMA, 107
relevance, 87, 164 silica, 159, 192, 193, 194, 196, 199, 212, 215
remediation, 158, 219 simulation, 95, 101, 103, 109, 110, 115, 118, 158
renewable energy, 24, 81, 85, 86, 87, 93, 112, 114, sintering, 171, 228
163, 165, 187 SiO2, 194, 195
Index 243
skin, 138, 204 supply, 3, 11, 49, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91,
slag, 192, 193, 194, 198 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
sludge, 35, 111, 157, 167, 171, 172, 173, 174, 181, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115,
194, 208, 209, 211, 213, 215, 216, 217, 219 116, 117, 119, 120, 138, 185, 213
smoke, 125 supply chain, 81, 82, 83, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,
social change, 48 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109,
social responsibility, 85 110, 111, 112, 116, 117, 119, 120
soil, vii, 12, 25, 35, 36, 37, 74, 75, 89, 174, 204, 207, supply curve, 101
209, 213, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 226, 227, 228, surface area, 139, 141, 144
229, 231, 232, 234 surface properties, 139, 143
solid state, 214 surveillance, 225, 226, 227, 232, 234
solid waste, vii, 10, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 38, 41, 43, sustainability, 83, 99, 101, 102, 106, 113, 121, 123,
45, 65, 71, 73, 75, 77, 78, 95, 122, 123, 135, 136, 134, 200
137, 138, 139, 140, 156, 158, 161, 162, 171, 172, sustainable development, vii, 39, 135
182, 192, 205, 223, 224, 225, 230, 231, 232, 233, Sweden, 74, 103, 109, 166, 177
234 Switzerland, 74, 164
solvents, 173 Syria, 203
South Africa, 103, 204
Southeast Asia, 135
space, 3, 11, 90, 91, 95, 100, 133 T
Spain, vi, 118, 166, 203, 205, 207, 223, 224, 225,
227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234 tannins, 212
spatial information, 119 targets, 10, 15, 21, 87, 88
species, 89, 209, 210, 211, 214, 219 tax cuts, 88, 98
specific heat, 3 taxonomy, 82, 83, 106, 110, 112
specific surface, 144 television, 43, 68
spectroscopy, 215 temperature, 25, 29, 50, 90, 140, 141, 144, 167, 170,
Spring, 45 179, 212, 213
stabilization, 4, 38, 99, 218 textiles, 36, 173, 174, 175
stack gas, 179, 183 thermal energy, 23
stakeholders, 81, 83, 97, 112, 121, 122, 133, 134, thermal properties, 34
186, 230 thermal treatment, 3, 10, 20, 30, 161, 163, 208
standard deviation, 143 threat, 33, 84, 85, 129
standards, 26, 182, 207 threats, 37, 127, 135
statistics, 68, 124 timber, 85, 87, 89, 91
steel, 86, 171, 192, 194, 196 time frame, 5, 18
steel industry, 194 timing, 98, 104, 106, 108
stock, 37, 90, 91, 141, 176 total energy, 96, 165
storage, 41, 65, 66, 73, 77, 79, 81, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, total product, 192
94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103, 104, 106, 108, toxic effect, 26
109, 111, 113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 167, 178, 179, toxic products, 208
206, 210 toxic substances, 2
strain, 209, 210, 219 toxicity, 27, 73, 206, 208, 212, 217
strategies, 2, 29, 82, 99, 103, 108, 109, 118, 120, trade, 99, 112, 116, 172, 173
139, 166 trading, 88, 114, 116
strength, 192, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201 traffic, 96, 171
substitutes, 13, 14, 18, 94, 161, 162 transesterification, 92
substrates, 82, 83, 85, 93, 102, 112, 210, 213, 218 transformation, 71, 209, 213
sugar, 92, 103, 104, 116, 118 transformations, 213
sugarcane, 102, 116 transition, 36, 135
sulphur, 50, 176 transmission, 85
summer, 36, 44, 45 transport, 18, 33, 34, 36, 37, 42, 45, 47, 56, 65, 68,
suppliers, 96, 97, 98, 99 73, 77, 78, 81, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97,
103, 109, 113, 114, 115, 143, 152, 229
244 Index
transport costs, 115 waste incinerator, 170, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231,
transportation, 15, 18, 73, 79, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 232, 233, 234
94, 96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109, waste treatment, 1, 4, 5, 21, 29, 74, 76, 138, 162,
115, 118 223, 224, 225, 228
treatment methods, 104 waste water, 138, 215, 217, 219
trees, 24, 75, 82, 94, 108, 140, 207 wastewater, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 150, 155,
trimmings, 24, 35, 75, 138, 234 156, 157, 158, 204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 214, 215,
Turkey, 116, 203 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221
web, 34, 136
weight ratio, 140, 141, 197
U Western Europe, 36, 115
wheat, 103, 109, 120, 210, 213, 214, 219
UK, 1, 29, 30, 32, 48, 74, 113, 117, 174, 175, 178 winter, 36, 45, 90, 92, 95
unemployment, 122, 134 women, 233
unemployment rate, 134 wood, 15, 24, 35, 37, 50, 84, 85, 87, 89, 100, 101,
uniform, 71, 168 102, 104, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 129, 139, 172,
United Kingdom, 29, 177 173, 174, 175, 179
United Nations, 39, 82, 84, 86, 119 wood waste, 24, 111
United States, v, 1, 73, 79, 113, 116 wool, 24
urbanisation, 41 workers, 37, 41, 96, 133, 138, 225, 228, 230, 231,
urbanization, vii, 228 233
urine, 224, 225, 231 working conditions, 122, 130, 133, 134
World Bank, 122, 136
V World Wide Web, 29, 32
worry, 135
vacuum, 69, 123
validation, 233
X
variability, 34, 44, 81, 93, 94, 109, 110
variables, 81, 83, 94, 95, 101, 103, 108, 113 xenophobia, 129
vegetation, 82, 204, 215, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, XRD, 196
232, 233, 234
vehicles, 65, 70, 73, 76, 90, 91, 125, 133
Vietnam, 122 Y
yeast, 210, 214, 220, 221

W
wage rate, 122 Z

waste disposal, 36, 40, 74, 87, 139
waste incineration, 31, 162, 164, 166, 170, 171, 172, Zimbabwe, 129
233 ZnO, 195

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WASTE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH

WASTE MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH

NOTICE TO THE READER

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

ISBN: 978-1-61668-903-2 (eBook)

Available Upon Request

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. < New York

Chapter 9 Methodological Approaches for Assessing Human Health Risks of

CONVERTING WASTE TO ENERGY VIA THERMAL,

1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY

2. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF WTE

2.1. Energy from Waste and Climate Change

2.2.1. MSW Treatment Options

Figure 2.1. MSW management systems in the examined options.

2.2.2. Quantification of Emissions

Figure 2.2. Model boundary.

Table 2.1. Presentation of scenarios.

2.3. Results and Discussion

2.3.1. GHG Emissions for the Treatment Options

MHT/SRF to cement kiln

2.3.2. Sensitivity Analysis on Treatment Options: SRF Landfilling

250 210,12 M BI without energy recovery M BI with electricity generation

Figure 2.4. EFs when SRF is landfilled.

2.3.4. Sensitivity Analysis on Scenarios with No End-Market for SRF

3. MSW MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS FOR ATTICA AND THEIR GHG

3.1. Treatment Technologies

3.3. Treatment Scenarios

3.4. Residual MSW Composition

3.5. Quantification of GHG Emissions

3.5.1. Direct Emission Impacts

3.5.2. Indirect Emission Impacts

3.6. Results and Discussion

3.7. Sensitivity Analysis on Scenarios

4. A REVIEW OF THE STATUS AND BENEFITS OF WTE IN THE US

generated recycled or composted WTE landfilled

Table 4.2. Major users of WTE in the US.

State Number of plants Capacity (t/day)

Table 4.3. Operating US WTE plants.

Technology Number of plants Capacity, t/day Capacity, million t/year

4.1. Benefits from WTE in the US

4.1.1. Energy Production and Reduction Of GHG

Air emissions (kg/MWh)

4.1.2. Source of Renewable Energy

Table 4.5. Generation of renewable energy in the US in 2002, excluding hydropower.

Energy source kWh x109 generated % of renewable energy

Table 4.6. Concentration of combustible materials in US MSW.

Biomass combustibles % Petrochemical combustibles %

4.1.3. Recycling and WTE

4.1.4. Saving of Land

4.2. WTE Emissions and Public Health Issues

4.2.1. Decrease in WTE Dioxin Emissions

4.2.2. Mercury Emissions

Table 4.8. Emissions from US WTE facilities.

Pollutant 1990 2000 Reduction (%)

Table 4.9. Average emissions of 87 US WTE facilities.

Average US EPA Average emission (as % of

TEQ: Toxic Equivalent