Exercise 8: Roots

Monday, September 21, 2020 1:43 PM http://samples.jbpub.com/9780763785505/85505_CH03_042_074.pdf

Root System Learning Objectives:

Functions: ✓ At the end of the exercise the students are expected to:
1. Anchorage of plant to the soil ✓ Identify the origin and type of roots • Differentiate the
2. Absorb water and mineral root systems
3. Production of hormones (ex: cytokinin, gibberellin) ✓ Describe the internal and external anatomy of roots
✓ Identify the different modified roots and their functions
Types:
1. Tap root Key Concepts:
- Development: Derived from radicle (embryonic root)
- Functions: anchorage Roots are subterranean, vegetative part or a plant. It functions
- Usually in dicot and gymnosperm for plant anchorage, absorption of nutrients from the soil and
- Undergo secondar growth for herbaceous to woody root production of hormones such as cytokinin and gibberellin.
a. Fleshy taproot (storage) - carrots, beets, radish Modified roots also function for food storage, support and
b. Lateral roots (swollen) - sweet, potato, cassava protection.

2. Fibrous root
- Development: Produced after the death of radicle, no re-dominant
enlarged
- Source: root primordial (at the base of radicle)
- How it looks like: Delicate and hair-like
- Function: absorption
- In monocot
3. Adventitious root
- Do not arise from pre-existing roots, rather from stems and branch
- Monocot and dicot
a. Base root - arise from main trunk stem
b. Prop root - arise from the lateral branches of the main stem
Structure of roots
1. Taproot - single prominent root
2. Lateral or branch roots - smaller and arise from taproot
3. Root hairs - arise from epidermis, single celled extension which
increase absorptive area, no line of demarcation in the epidermal
cells (die after 4 to 5 days)
4. Root tip - growing portion protected by root cap, push through soil,
region of length growth, where merismatic region is found
Roots arise from the radicle or embryonic root when seed
germinates, this becomes the first root and thus it is called a
primary root. Branches of the primary root are called secondary
root and they give rise to the tertiary root.
The roots and its branches makes up the root system. Most of
the dicot plant and gymnosperms have a taproot system, where
in a large main root known as a taproot develops directly
develops from the radicle and produces branch roots or lateral
roots. It is called “taproot” since it functions to tap deep sources
of water.
Seedless vascular plants and most monocot plants on the
other hand have a diffuse or fibrous root system. In this type of
root system there is the absence of a main primary root
developing from the radicle, instead there are several slender
individual roots that are more or less have the same size and
shape.
Some roots do not arise from a pre-existing roots rather they
grow from the nodes of the stem. This type of root system is
called adventitious roots.

The roots external anatomy is quite simple, from the enlarged

end of the root it tapers down to the other end which is referred
to as the root tips. The root tips is the region where growth in
length takes place. The end of the root tip is called the root cap,
which provides protection for the apical meristem. It also
secretes a complex polysaccharide called “slime” or “mucigel”,
which helps lubricate the passage of the roots through the soil
and causes the soil to release nutrients, ions and permit
diffusion to the roots.

Above the root cap it the zone of cell division or the

Longitudinal Section of Root merismatic region. This region is composed of actively dividing
cells and it is protected by a thick cell. A region of mitotically
inactive cell called the Quiescent Center is present in the
merismatic region. It is activated and produces new cells when
the root apical meristem is damaged. In this zone there are three
primary meristem present; the protoderm which develops in to
the epidermis, the ground meristem , which stores food and
uptakes mineral; lastly is the procambium which gives rise to
the stele.

The zone of elongation situated above the zone of cell

division is the region where cells expands greatly. In this region
cells begins to differentiate into visible patterns but no cell
maturation occurs. The protoderm differentiates into the

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 The zone of elongation situated above the zone of cell
division is the region where cells expands greatly. In this region
cells begins to differentiate into visible patterns but no cell
maturation occurs. The protoderm differentiates into the
epidermis, the ground meristem into the root complex and the
procambium into the primary xylem and primary phloem.

On top of the zone of elongation is the zone of maturation. In

this region root hair starts to grows which greatly increase the
absorption capability of the roots. It is also responsible for the
transfer of minerals from the epidermis to the vascular tissues. If
a cross section of the zone of maturation is observed the
following structures can be observed.
○ Root Hair – increases the absorption of water and
minerals but lives for several days only
○ Epidermis – outermost layer
○ Endodermis – innermost layer of the cortical cells
differentiated as a cylinder
○ Cortex – transfers minerals from the epidermis to the
vascular tissues
○ Pericycle – an irregular region found between the
Root Cap vascular tissue and endodermis; it is also the region
- Produces: Slime or mucigel - secreted by dictyosomes (exocytosis), where the lateral roots starts to arise
lubricate passage of the root through the soil ○ Vascular Tissues
- Quiescent center - mitotically inactive region of the root apical ▪ Phloem – food conducting tissues
meristem, act as a reserve of healthy cells, resistant to toxic ▪ Xylem – water conducting tissue
substances and radiations
There are roots that are termed as specialized or modified
roots for the reason that they have modified form and has other
functions such as reproduction, food and water storage, support,
protection, aeration, movement and photosynthesis.

Internal anatomy of young dicot root

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Variations in the number of xylem strand in roots

Endodermis
- controls the passage of minerals accros the vascular tissue, connects
cortex to the vascular bundle
- Consist of thick-walled cells (encrusted with suberin and lignin);
diffusion is inhibited
- Passage through apoplastic (in between cells)

Internal Anatomy of Monocot Root

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Origin and Development of Lateral Roots

Internal Anatomy of Old Dicot Root

Different Root Modifications

• Brace Roots in corn - for additional support and absorption; type of
adventitious
• Prop Roots - arise from stems/ lateral branches; e.g. Pandanus
(screw pine, Bayan Trees, Ficus); type of adventitious
• Velamen - aerial roots; for water retention; composed of dead cells
for water proofing; eg, orchids
• Chlorophyllous roots - large amount of chlorophyll; chlorenchyma
cells (type or parenchyma); photosynthesis
• Contractile roots - for movement; e.g. onions, gladiolus, garlic;
contraction due to the hange in the shape of cortical cell
• Parasitic/ Haustorial roots - for absorption of nutrients from other
plants and support
• Buttresses = expanded roots for great support
• Pneumatophores - breathing roots for aeration; e.g. Mangroves
• Enlarged Fleshy taproot - store water and minerals; e.g. Carrots,
cassava, beets

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 cassava, beets
• Root nodules - for nitrogen fixation; rhizobium (bacteria) attaches to
the roots; actively dividing; eg. Legumes
• Mycorrhizae - for absorption of phosphorous; association between a
soil fungus and root
• Spiny roots - for protection from predators; e.g. tugue

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Exercise 9: Stem
Wednesday, September 30, 2020 12:13 AM

Outline of Discussion: Learning Objectives:

✓ Definition of stems At the end of the exercise the students are
✓ External structure of the stem expected to:
✓ Internal structures of the stem ✓ Identify the origin and nature of stem
✓ Specialized stems ✓ Identify the external structures of a
stem
Stem ✓ Differentiate the internal anatomy of
- Constitutes the ascending axis of the plant a monocot, herbaceous, dicot, wood
dicot and gymnosperm stem
Function: ✓ Differentiate the modified stems and
1. Provides mechanical support their specialized function
2. Aids in photosynthesis
3. Elevates flowers and fruits for pollination and seed dispersal Key Concepts:

The stem constitutes the ascending

axis of the plant whose main function is to
provide support to the leaves and flowers
thus facilitating photosynthesis and
pollination. It also provides a pathway for
the movement of water and minerals from
the roots to the leaves. Aside from
support there are plants whose stem have
specialized functions such as for
photosynthesis, food storage,
reproduction, protection, and absorption.

The stem originates from the seeds

epicotyl which grows above the ground
axis. The stems, branches, leaves and
flowers constitute the shoot system. The
stem can be herbaceous which is a soft
and green stem that is chiefly annual and
has little growth in diameter. Stems can
also be woody, tough and has
considerable growth in diameter. Its
tissues are chiefly secondary and is
covered by a corky bark.

The stem’s node is a swollen part

where leaves, branches and buds are
attached. The distance between two
successive nodes are called internode.
Node - swollen part where leaves, branches, and buds are attached Small, raised dots or ridges on stem for
Internode - distance between 2 successive nodes gaseous exchange is known as the
Lenticels - small, raised dots, ridges for gaseous exchange lenticels. A leaf scar is a mark below the
Axil - angle between the leaf and stem axillary bud after a leaf has fallen. Buds
Bud - underdeveloped shoot are under develop shoots, it may be an
Leaf scar - marks below axillary bud after a leaf has fallen apical bud which is located at the tip of
Bundle scar - cut ends of vascular bundle seen within each leaf scar the stem or and axillary bud found on the
sides.
External Structure of the Stem
Epidermis The increase in the height of stem is
- Outermost surface of an herbaceous stem due to the apical mass of dividing cells or
- Made up of parenchyma cell the apical meristem or promeristem. It is
- Regulates the interchange of material between the plant and its surrounding differentiated into three primary meristem
- Barrier against invasion of bacteria, fungi, and small insects which are similar to those of the roots
namely: the protoderm, ground meristem
Internal Structure of the Stem and procambium. The protoderm is the
Cortex outer most layer of cell that develops into
- Interior to the epidermis the epidermis. The ground meristem
- Composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and sometimes collenchyma differentiates into the cortex which lies
Vascular tissues next to the epidermis and protects the
- Xylem and phloem surrounding vascular tissues; the pith
which is at the center of the stem; and the
Difference between Xylem and Phloem pith rays which are radial row of
parenchyma cells which extends from the
pith to the pericycle. The procambium

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 which is at the center of the stem; and the
Difference between Xylem and Phloem pith rays which are radial row of
parenchyma cells which extends from the
pith to the pericycle. The procambium
appears as strands among the ground
meristem cells and eventually gives rise to
the primary vascular tissues and the
vascular cambium.

Some stems undergoes secondary

growth which is responsible for the
increase in the girth of stem and roots out
of the activity of the two lateral meristem;
the vascular cambium and the cork
cambium. The cells in the vascular
cambium divide and form two complex
permanent tissues; the (1) secondary
xylem (wood) which replaces the primary
xylem; and (2) secondary phloem (inner
bark) which replaces primary phloem. The
cork cambium or phellogen on the other
hand divides to produce cork cell
(phellem), secondary parenchyma
(phelloderm).

The cork cambium and the tissues it

produces are collectively known as the
periderm or outer bark. It functions as a
replacement for the epidermis, which
splits apart to increase the diameter.

Layers from Superficial to Deep

Cork → Cork cambium →Phelloderm → Cortex → Primary Phloem → Secondary Phloem →
Secondary Xylem ("wood") → Primary Xylem → Pith

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 Secondary Xylem ("wood") → Primary Xylem → Pith

Specialized stem
A. Storage
a. Rhizomes - ginger
b. Corm - taro
c. Tuber - potato
B. Support
a. Tendril - modified stem or leaves
C. Protection
a. Spine
b. Prickles
c. Thorns
D. Spread and Vegetative Propagation - produce roots for growth and development
a. Runners - above ground
b. Stolons - underground

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Exercise 10: Leaves
Wednesday, September 30, 2020 12:18 AM

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the exercise the students are expected to:
Leaves
✓ Describe the structure of a typical leaf
- Expanded, flattened, green structure growing out at the node of the stem
✓ Differentiate monocot, dicot and coniferous leaves
- Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis
✓ Describe the different modified leaves
✓ Relate the anatomy to the process of photosynthesis and other function
External Structure of the Leaves

Key Concepts:

Leaves are the lateral outgrowth of the stem which are generally flattened,
expanded and green in color due to the presence of chlorophyll. They carry two
primary function: photosynthesis and transpiration. Similar to roots and stems, leaves
can have modified functions such as protection, support, absorption, attraction,
reproduction and food storage.

The expanded, flattened portion of the leaf is called the lamina or leaf blade, its
function is for light harvesting for photosynthesis. The stalk that holds the leaf blade
out into the light is the petiole. A long, thin flexible petiole allows the blade to flutter in
wind, cooling the leaf and brining fresh air to the leaf surface. Some monocot plant
1. Leaf Blade/ Lamina - Light harvesting portion such as grass do not have petioles rather, they have a leaf sheath which is formed and
2. Petiole - Stalk that holds the blade out into the light wrapped around the base of the leaf. Some plants have a pair of appendage or
a. Petiolate - Leaf with Petiole outgrowth at the base, this appendages are called stipule.
b. Sessile - Leaf without Petiole
3. Leaf Sheath - Formed when the base of the leaf is wrapped around the base The outermost surface of the lamina is composed of epidermal cell, which due to
4. Petiolule - Stalk that holds leaflets the presence of cutin makes it waterproof, guard cells and trichomes. This layer of
5. Rachis - Extension of the petiole cells make up the epidermis. Underneath the epidermis is the mesophyll, the ground
6. Apex - Tip of the leaf blade tissue. It can be composed of palisade parenchyma, the main photosynthetic tissues
7. Stipule - A pair of appendages or outgrowth at the base that is separated slightly so that each cell has most of its surface exposed to CO2 of
8. Midrib - Midvein, from which lateral vein emerge the intercellular space. It can also be made up by spongy parenchyma, an open, loose
9. Vein - Bundle of Vascular Tissue aerenchyma tissue that permits CO2 to diffuse rapidly away from the stomate into all
parts of the leaf’s interior. The vein of the leaf is composed of the vascular tissues.
Internal Structure of Foliage Leaves The bundle sheath is a fiber arranged as a sheath around the vascular tissue which
conducts water (xylem) and load sugar (phloem).

Leaves may be classified based on the nature of its leaf blade, venation and
phyllotaxy.

A. According to Nature of Leaf blade

a. Simple – When the blade is consists of one piece of leaf. The petiole of a
leaf is directly attached to the stem

CHARIE MARIE GARMA at 9/30/2020 12:26 AM

b. Compound – The blade is divided into separate segments called “leaflets”.
The stalk of the leaflets is known as petiolule

i. Pinnately Compound – Leaflets are attached to a rachis to which

the leaflets are attached.

1) Simple Pinnately Compound leaf – There is a single rachis to

1. Epidermis which the leaflets are attached
- Outermost surface
- Should be waterproof 2) Bipinnately Compound leaf – First rachis or primary rachis
- Consist of a large percentage of flat, tabular, ordinary epidermal cell, guard cell and branches into secondary rachis where the leaflets are attached
trichome
3) Tripinnately Compound leaf – There are rachises of the first,
2. Mesophyll
second and third order.
- Open, loose aerenchyma tissue that permits CO2 to diffuse rapidly away from the
stomata into all parts of the leaf's interior ii. Palmately Compound – Leaflets radiates from the upper end or tip
3. Bundle Sheath of the leaf stalk
- Fiber arrange as a sheath around the vascular tissue
4. Xylem - Water conducting B. Venation – Arrangement of vein or vascular strands of a leaf blade
5. Phloem - Loading sugar
a. Netted – The veins branch profusely and form a network over the blade.
Nature of Leaf Blade Commonly found in dicot

i. Pinnately Netted – Midrib is present from which smaller veins and

their branches ramify or spread out in all direction

ii. Palmately Netted – Several principal veins arise from the tip of the
petiole and spread fan like through the blade. The principal veins
produce smaller vein that forms a network

iii. Radiately Netted – Several principal veins radiate from the tip of the
petiole and break up into smaller vein from a network throughout the
blade.

b. Parallel – The veins do not form a network. This type of leaf venation is
common among monocot plants. It can be parallel with the veins at acute
or right angle to the midrib or parallel with veins parallel to the midrib
A. Simple
C. Phyllotaxy – The system of leaf arrangement on the stem
- The blade consist of only one piece
- Petiole of a leaf is directly attached to the stem a. Opposite
B. Compound

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 or right angle to the midrib or parallel with veins parallel to the midrib
A. Simple
C. Phyllotaxy – The system of leaf arrangement on the stem
- The blade consist of only one piece
- Petiole of a leaf is directly attached to the stem a. Opposite
B. Compound
- The blade is divided into separate segments called “leaflets” b. Alternate
- Stalks of leaflets is the petiolule c. Spiral
d. Docusate
○ Pinnately Compound - Leaflets are attached to a rachis which is an extension of
the petiole
▪ Simple Pinnately Compound

▪ Bipinnately Compound

▪ Tripinnately Compound - a compound leaf having three order of rachises:

□ primary rachis
□ secondary rachis
□ tertiary rachis
○ Palmately Compound - Leaflets radiates from the upper end or tip of the leaf
stalk

Venation
- Arrangement of vein or vascular strands of a leaf blade
○ Netted - The veins branch profusely and form a network over the blade.
Commonly found in Dicots
○ Parallel - Veins do not form a network. Common among monocot

Specialized Leaves
A. Succulent Leaves-thick and fleshy, reduced surface volume-ratio. ; with water
storage parenchyma; Crassulaceae, katakataka
a. Senecio – spherical succulent leaves

b. Dinteranthus – pair of succulent leaves

c. Lithops – pair of translucent leaves acting as optical fiber, allows light to enter,
even leaves are under ground

B. Sclerophyllous foliage- thick sclerenchyma, resistant to animals, fungi, freezing temp.

and UV, very thick cuticle; 2 or more years; Sclerophylls - leaves

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C. Spines- no blade and needle-shaped, no mesophyll, no vascular tissue, has closely
packed fibers in mesophyll
a. Cactus

b. Colitis

D. Tendrils- sensing contact with other objects, no lamina, support; side facing the
object stop growing, other side elongate--- coil

E. Insect traps- digest insects and obtain nitrogen for their amino acid Passive trap-
incapable of movt ex. Pitcher plant; Active trap – leaf blade curl, close

F. Adventitious buds- produce plantlets

G. Colored leaves – for attraction

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H. Floats – aerenchymatous leaf base for buoyancy, support

I. Supporting leaf bases “pseudotrunk”– for support

J. Motile leaves – display “thigmonasty” sensitivity to touch, for protection;

Thigmotropic response – tropic response to touch

K. Expanded leaf-like petiole or stipule – added photosynthesis

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Exercise 11: Flowers
Tuesday, October 13, 2020 7:55 PM

Flowers
- Modified twigs adopted primarily for reproduction, which ultimately forms fruits
and seeds

Parts of a Flower
A. Pistil - female reproductive part
a. Stigma - slightly enlarge tip of the style on which the pollen is deposited at
pollination
b. Style - a long and thin filament that serve as a passageway for pollen grains
to move from stigma to the ovary
c. Ovary - a swollen basal part of a pistil which carries the ovule or egg; where
fertilized eggs develop
d. Carpel - female reproductive part of a flower; "gynoecium", known as "pistil"
i. Monocarpous - single carpel
ii. Apocarpous - multiple, distinct carpel; free and unfused
iii. Syncarpous - multiple fused (connate) into a single structure

B. Stamen - male reproductive part; "androecium"

a. Anther - where pollens are formed
b. Filaments - stalk holding pollen at its tip

C. Flower envelope/Perianth - non reproductive part

a. Petals (Corolla) - innermost whorl surrounding the flowers reproductive parts;
usually brightly colored to attract pollination/pollinators
b. Sepal (Calyx) - usually green leaf-like structure that forms the outermost
floral whorl; it protects the inner part of the flower before it opens

D. Floral Stalk
a. Receptacle (Torus) - thickened part of a stem from which the flower grows
b. Peduncle - stalk supporting the flower

Various Features and Structure of Flowers

1. Color

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1. Color
- Brightly colored - day blooming; e.g. Gerbera
- White, cream, flesh - night blooming flowers; e.g. Dutchman's Pie
2. Odor
- Stir off herbivores; plant and pollinator interaction; e.g. ilang-ilang (sweet)
and corpse flower (pungent)
3. Parts Present
- Complete - four main parts are present
- Incomplete - one or more main parts are not present
4. Sexuality
- Perfect - with both stamen and carpel; bisexual or hermaphroditic; e.g.
gumamela (hibiscus) and Catharanthus roseus
- Imperfect - only either stamen or carpel; unisexual;
▪ Monoecious - both male and female flowers are found on the same
plant; e.g. corn
▪ Dioecious - imperfect flowers are born on separate flowers; e.g. papaya
▪ Polygamous - perfect and imperfect flowers are found in a single plant;
e.g. Canadian burnet
5. Nature of flower
- Regular - when the members of each set of organs are the same size and
shape
- Irregular - when some members of one or more set of organs are different in
size or shape or both

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6. Fusion of flowers
- Connation - when like parts are fused or united

- Adnation - when unlike parts are fused

7. Number of Flower Parts

- Monocot - flower parts are in 3's or multiple of

- Dicot - flower parts are in 4's or 5's multiple of 4 or 5

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 8. Symmetry
- Actinomorphic - radial symmetry; flowers can be divided into 2 equal halves along
any plane

- Zygomorphic - bilateral symmetry; divided into 2 equal halves only by a medial cut
through the central axis

9. Ovary position
- Hypogynous - when sepals, petals, and stamen are attached to the receptacle
below ovary; ovary superior; e.g. tulip and tomatoes
- Perigynous - when sepals, petals, and stamen are fused at the base to form
a cup-shaped structure (hypanthium); e.g. cherry
- Epigynous - when sepals, petals, and stamen arise from the top of the ovary
or hypanthium inserted above the ovary; epigynous flower is superior; e.g.
daffodil

10. Placentation - arrangement of ovules within the ovary

- Axile - placenta develops from the central axis which corresponds to the carpels
- Parietal - formed by swelling up the cohering margin and latter develop ovules in
rows
- Basal - one or more ovules are attached to the bottom of the ovary
- Free central - placenta develops in the center as a prolongation of the floral axis
and the ovules are still attached to this axis
- Marginal - ovules develop in rows near the margin on the placenta
- Apical - one or more ovules are attached at the tip of the ovary

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11. Inflorescence
- flower cluster
- may differ in the number of flower borne, the sequence of the flower, the
length of slower stalk, the number and arrangement of the floral branches or
peduncle

- Spike - elongated axis with sessile florets

- Raceme - elongated axis is unbranched, the flowers are provided with stalks
or pedicel of equal length

- Panicle - elongated axis are branched; flowers are pedicellate (opening all at
the same time)

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- Corymb - has a more or less flat convex top because of the pedicel bearing
the outer, older flowers are longer than the younger flowers are at the center

- Umbel - the axis is short so that all pedicellate flowers radiate from the apex
of the axis

- Cyme - similar to corymb except that the inner pedicellate flowers open first

- Spadix - fleshy spike (spadix) bearing both female and male flowers;
surrounded by petaloid bract called spathe

- Catkin/Ament - special type of spike which is hanging or dropping; flowers

are usually unisexual

- Fascicle - pedicelled or sessile flowers are crowded at one side of the stem

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- Fascicle - pedicelled or sessile flowers are crowded at one side of the stem

- Head/Capitate - similar to umbel but the flowers are sessile; usually the
flowers are of two kind: disk at the center & ray flower at the margin

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Exercise 12: Fruits
Wednesday, October 14, 2020 9:37 AM

Fruits
- Matured and ripened ovaries
- Holds and protects the seed until they mature
- Helps in the dissemination or dispersal of the seed
- Does not only apple to those that have edible portion, but also those which are commonly referred to
as vegetable

Parts of the Fruits

A. Pericarp - ovary wall that surrounds the seed or the seed container
a. Exocarp - outer part, skin of the fruit
b. Mesocarp - middle part, flesh of the fruit
c. Endocarp - inner part, the one that encloses the seeds
B. Seed

Classification of Fruit
A. According to the Composition or Number of Flowers involved in their Formation
a. Simple - develops from one ovary
b. Aggregate - develops from several ovaries of a single flower; e.g. strawberry

c. Collective or multiple - derived from several ovaries of several flowers or from the ovaries of a
compact inflorescence; e.g. pineapple

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B. According to Structure, Consistency & Dehiscence (include the state of the Pericarp in the Ripened
Fruit)
a. Fleshy - pericarp is soft, juicy (or pulpy) or succulent
1. Hesperidium
- Derived from a fleshy ovary enclosing several seed
- Has thick leathery skin containing oil
- E.g. all citrus fruits
2. Pepo
- Derived from fleshy ovary enclosing many seeds
- Has hard, thick rind
- E.g. water melon, pumpkin and cucumber
3. Fleshy drupe
- Mesocarp and ovary, flesh
- Enclosed within a stony endocarp (pit)
4. Fibrous drupe
- Fibrous mesocarp and fleshy ovary
- Seed enclosed within a stony endocarp
- E.g. coconut
5. Pome
- Fleshy part derived mainly from torus
- Ovary surrounded by fleshy hypanthium
- E.g. apple and pears
Dehiscent - open at maturities to shed their seeds
Indehiscent - do not open at maturities to shed their seeds; one-seeded fruits
b. Dry - pericarp is fry and paper upon maturity
1. Follicle
- Dry fruits derived from one carpel splitting along one seam
- E.g. kalachuchi and star anise
2. Legume/Pod
- Dry fruit derived from one carpel splitting along two seam
- E.g. chicharo and peanut
3. Silique
- Dry fruit from two or more carpel with persistent partition wall after splitting
- E.g. narrow leaf Bittercress and Blue pod Rockcress
4. Capsule
- Derived from two or more carpel splitting in one or four ways
○ Loculicidal - splitting along the locule

○ Septicidal - splitting along the septum

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 ○ Poricidal - splitting along the terminal pore

○ Circumscissile - splitting a long a circular horizontal line

5. Grain/Caryopsis
- Seed inseparable from the fruit wall
- E.g. corn and rice
6. Samara/Key
- Seed separable from the fruit wall
- Fruit with wing
- E.g. mahogany and narra

7. Nut
- Fruit without wings and with very hard fruit wall
- Has only one seed
- E.g. cashew and pili

8. Achene
- Seed without wings and with thin fruit wall
- One seed attached to the ovary wall at one
- E.g. strawberry and sunflower

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 - E.g. strawberry and sunflower

9. Schizocarp
- Seed not coming out of fruit although united carpel spit apart at maturity
- E.g. little mallow and queen anne's lace

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Exercise 13: Seed and Seed dispersal
Wednesday, October 14, 2020 10:59 AM

Seeds - mature ovule that consists of:

○ Embryo - tiny plant that seed contains
○ Endosperm - coenzyme and cellular tissue, nourished the development of zygote
○ Cotyledon - seed leaf
○ Radicle - primordial root
○ Epicotyl - primordial stem
○ Hypocotyl - root or shoot junction

Seed Dispersal
- Mechanism where seed is transferred to another place
- Importance:
○ Avoid competition with parents and sibling (inhibits reduction of growth)
○ Colonize new habitat
○ Avoid pathogens and predators
○ Minimize in-breeding
- Following involve in Seed dispersal:
○ Insect - insect much less important for seed dispersal than pollination but ants often involved in
dispersal
○ Animal - much more important for dispersal than pollination
○ Wind - important in both pollination and dispersal
○ Water - minor importance in pollination, somewhat greatest I dispersal
○ Self-dispersal
- Agents of Seed dispersal:
○ Animal - Zoochory
▪ Attached to animal - Epizoochory
▪ Eaten by Animal - Endozoochory
▪ Birds - Omithochory
▪ Mammals - Mammaliochory
▪ Bats - Choropterochory
▪ Ants - Mymecochory
○ Wind - Anemochory
○ Water - Hydrochory
○ Self-dispersal - Autochory

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