University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education

Factors in the Division of Labor by Sex: A Cross-Cultural Analysis

Author(s): George P. Murdock and Caterina Provost
Source: Ethnology, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr., 1973), pp. 203-225
Published by: University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education
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 Factors in the Division of
Labor By Sex:
A Cross-Cultural Analysis

GeorgeP. Murdock
and CaterinaProvost
of Pittsburgh
University

A divisionof laborbetweeIlthe sexeshas long beenrecognizedby econ-

and otherbehavioral
omists,sociologists, scientistsas (I) the originaland
mostbasicformof economicspecialization and exchange,and as (2) the
mostfundamental basisof marriage andthe familyandhencethe ultimate
sourceof all forms of kinshiporganization.On the whole, however,
scholarshavefocusedtheirmajorattention on the consequences ratherthan
the causesof the divisionof laborby sex,seeking,for example,to ascertain
1tSbearingon suchmattersas the statusof womenandthe formsof soczal
organization.In thepresentpapertheemphasisshiftsto an inquiryintothe
factorsgoverningthe assignment tasksto menor to womenin
of particular
theculturesof theworld.
CODING OPERATIONS
The dataarederivedfroman assessment sourceson
of the ethnographic
a representativesampleof the worldessocieties-thoseselectedby Murdock
andWhite(I969)andusedin a seriesof previously cross-cultural
published
ccsdes(BarryandPaxsonIg7I;MurdockandMorrowIg7o;Murdockand
WilsonI972;TudenandMarshallIg72).One of the samplesocietiesa the
Pentecostislandersof Bunlapvillagein the New Hebrides(#IoI), was
eliminatedbecauseof insufficient data,but the remainingI85 werecoded
forthepresence or absenceandthesexassignment of 50technological
activ-
iiiesor tasks,yieldinga totalof 9,250itemsof information.Eachactivityin
eachof the samplesocietieswasclassifiedunderone of the followingsym-
bols:
A Activityabsentin thesociety.
O No relevantdataavailableforthesociety.
not specifiedin the
P Activitypresentin the societybut sex participation
sources.
M Activityperformed exclusively date(or at a
by malesat the pinpoirlted
somewhatearlierdatein thecaseof activitieswhichhadrecentlylapsed
203

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 204 ETHNOLOGY

in consequenceof culturecoIltact a qualificaiion likewise applying to

thefollowingsymbols).
N Activity
performed bybothsexesbutpredominantly bymales.
E Activity
performed bybothsexeswithapproximately equalparticipation
orwitharoughly equivalent division ofsubtasks.
G Activity
performed bybothsexesbutpredominantly byfemales.
F Activityperformed exclusively by females,maleparticipation being
negligible.
Information wasalsocodedon relatedmatters, suchas therelativeim-
portance of theparticular activity
in thetotalcultural
context,
thedegreeof
occupational specializationinvolved, andthe extentto whichthe coding
depended uponinference. Thesedataareomitted inthepresentpaper.
The basiccodingwasdoneby Caterina Provostfor 99 of the IS5 SO-
cietiesandby DianaMorrow for56.LiliJosephson codedtheremaining
30societies andtheGerman sourcesona number of others.
Thepresent au-
thorsreviewed all the codedinformation and togetherrendered a final
decisionin all casesof doubtor discrepancy. Theyrefrained frommaking
inferences regarding sex participationexceptwherethe supporting evi-
denceimpressed themasreasonably strong.
The 50 technological activities
assessedare listedand definedbelow,
classified
bycategories. Aftereacharelistedthetotalsof societiescodedas
A, O, andP. Thoseon whichdataon sexparticipation wereavailable are
separatelylistedinT:able I.
Food Collection
Gatheringof wildvegetalfoods(#44 in TableI). A-IO,0-6, P-34.
Gatheringof eggs,insects,and/orsmalllandfauna(#27). A-I8,0-52,
P-48.
Gathering of shellfish
and/orothersmallaquaticfauna(#39). A-8
0-23,P-22.
Collection
ofwildhoney(#I6). A-38,0-79,P-20.
Fowling,
i.e.,huntingofbirds(#7). A-I6,0-28,P-2.
Fishing,
excluding shellfishing
andaquatichunting (#I8). A-2g,0-3,P-IO.
Trappingorotherwise catchingsmalllandfauna(#9). A-20,0-I5, P-I.
Huntingoflargelandfauna(#5). A-36) 0-5,P-o.
Huntingoflargeaquatic fauna(#I). A-I27,0-8, P-2.
Food Production
Landclearance
foragriculture
(#I7). A-44,0-I, P-I.
Soilpreparation,
e.g.,withhoeorplow(#2I ). A-49,O-r,P-I.
Cropplanting
and/ortransplanting(#28). A-44> O-o,P<.
Croptending,
e.g.,weeding,
irrigation
(#3I). A-48,0-3,W3.
Harvesting,
includingpreparation
forstorage(#30). A-44,On,P-o.
Careof smalldomestic animals,e.g, poultry,dogs,pigs (#36). A-I3,
° S P-7°*

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 FACTORS OFLABOR205
IN THESEXDnrISION

Tendinglargedomesticanimals,e.g., sheep,cattle,horses(#I9). A-76,

O-I, P-IO.
Milking(#32). A-I27, 0-0, P-IO.
Food Preparation
of vegetalfoodspriorto cooking,e.g., graingrinding(#
Preparation
50). A-2, 0-7, P-2.
Butchering,
includingdressing of game(#I5). A-S,O-I8,P-I6.
Preservation
of meat and/or fish, e.g., drying,smoking(#37) A-3I,
0-24,P-64*
of drinks,e.g.,tea,kava,beer(#42). A-37,O-I5,P-42.
Preparation
Dairy production,e.g., makingbutteror cheese(#45)* A-I30, O-I5,
P-20.
Cooking(#49). A-o,0-o, P-I.
ExtractiveIndustries
Miningand/orquarrying (#I3). A-IO6,0-38, PE.
Fuelgathering(#40). A-I, 0E, P-I2.
Lumbering,i.e., obtainingwood otherthanfor fuel (#4). A-I4, O-I6,
P-I6.
Waterfetching(#48). A-O,0K, P-25.
IntermediateProicessing
of Raw Materials
Preparation
of skins,e.g.,scraping,tanning(W:26).A-48,O-I2,P-44.
Spinning,
i.e.>manufacture of thread(#46). A-56,0-29,P-g.
Loomweaving,excludingothertechniques formakingfabrics(#38). A-
8I, O-IS) P-I
Smeltingof metalores(#2). A-I25, 0-23, P4.
Manufaaureof FinishedArtifacts
Matmaking (#35). A-29, 0-22, P-3I.
Netmaking(#22). A-4s,0-3I, P-38.
Basketmaking (#33). A-2I, O-I5 P-I9*
Makingof ropeand/orcordage(#23). A-3,O-I5,P-56.
Manufacture of leatherproducts,exclusiveof clothing(#29). A-s7,0-
22,P-32.
Makingof clothing,exclusiveof footwearand headgear (#4I). A-36,
0-22, P-s.
Potterymaking, includingotherceramicarts(#43). AXI, O-I3,PE.
Workin wood,i.e.,manufacture of woodenartifacts(X6). A_I,0-3, P-I7.
Workin bone,horn,and/orshell(#I2). A_I4,0-45, P-44.
Stoneworkingi.e., manufacture of stone artifacts(#II). A-3g, 0-
P-3II
Metalworking,eg., forgingor castingof metal artifacts(#3). A<
0-6, Pe.
Manufacture
of musicalinstruments
(#8). A-8,O-I5,P-74.

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 206 ETHNOLOGY

Miscellaneous TechnoZogical Activities

Generation of fire(#24). A-3,O-o,P-g6.
Laundering (#47). A-s2,0-58,P<
Bodilymutilation, e.g.,tattooing, circumcisioin (#25). A-I3)0-2I, P-45.
Bonesetting and/orothersurgery(#I4). A-37,0-87,P-I7.
Burdencarrying, includingporterage (#34). A-3,0-30,PE.
Boatbui Iding( # I0) . A-79,0-I 0, P-5.
Housebuilding, includingerectionof portableshelters(#20). A-I, 0-0,
P-6.
The relativeadequacy or inadequacy of the ethnographic coveragefor a
particular activitycan be estimatedfromthe numberof societiescodedas
O or P in the abovelist.Thusthe evidenceis revealedto be scantiest,i.e.,
lackingfor more than half of the samplesocieties,on bonesetting,the
gatheringof smalllandfauna,the collection of wildhoney,andthe genera-
tion of fire,and the fullestdataare availableon cooking,housebuilding,
huntingn andtheseareral agricultural operations
CLASSIFICATION 0ECODED DA-rA
The assignment of tasksby sex is indicatedin TableI, wherethe 50 ac-
tivitiesiarerearranged in descending rankorderof maleparticipation. The
first five columnsgive the numberof societiesfor which the particular
activityis coded,respectively,as M (exclusivemaleparticipation), N (pre-
dominantmaleparticipation), E (equalor equivalentparticipation by both
sexes),G (predominant femaleparticipation), andF (exclusivefemalepar-
ticipation).The last columnpresentsan indexof the averagepercentage
of maleparticipation, giving a weightof I to each case of M, of .8 to
eachN, of .5to eachE, of .2 to eachG, andof o to eachF.
The datain TableI confirmn on thewhole,theresultsof an earlierstudy
(MurdockI937). Indeed,for eightactivities(numbersIs 3 8 I0, II, 20n
48,and49in TableI) the indicesof maleparticipation differby lessthanI
percentin the two studies.The largerdiscrepancies aremainlya product
of improvements in theselectionof thesamplew
TableI, in presentingindicesof sexparticipation fortheworldas a whole,
ignoresimportant regionaldifferences in the sexualallocationof particular
tasks.Whenindicesarecalculated separatelyfor the six majorethnographic
regions A Africa,C Circum-Mediterranean, E EastEurasia,I InsularPa-
cific,N NorthAmerica,and S Southand CentralAmerica the 50 activ-
ities breakdown into four clusterswith clearlydistinguishable statistical
* @

c. :laracterlstlcs.
The firstclusterconsistingof whatwe shalldesignateas strictlymascu-
lineactivities,
hasthefollowingstatisticalcharacteristics:
I. It includesthe fourteenactivitieswith the highestworldwideindices
of masculinity
in TableI, theseindicesbeingin all casesabove92.5.
2*The regionalindicesare likewisehigh fallingbelow87.oin only a
singleexceptionalinstance.
3. These indicesshow minimaldifferentiation from regionto region.

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 OFLABOR2087
IN THESEXDIVISION
FACTORS
TABLE 1
Sex Allocationof 50 TechnologicalActivities in 185 Societies
Task M N E G F Index
1. Hunting large aquatic fauna 48 0 0 0 0 100.0
2. Smeltingof ores 37 0 0 0 0 100.0
3. Metalworking 85 1 0 0 0 99.8
4. Lumbering 135 4 0 0 0 99.4
5. Hunting large land fauna 139 5 0 0 0 99.3
6. Work in wood 159 3 1 1 0 98.8
1. Fowling 132 4 3 0 0 98.3
8. Manufactureof musicalinstruments 83 3 1 0 1 97.6
9. Trappingof small land fauna 136 12 1 1 0 97.5
10. Boatbuilding 84 3 3 0 1 96.6
11. Stoneworking 67 0 6 0 0 95.9
12. Work in bone, horn, and shell 71 7 2 0 2 94.6
13. Miningand quarrying 31 1 2 0 1 93.7
14. Bonesettingand other surgery 34 6 4 0 0 92.7
15. Butchering 122 9 4 4 4 92.3
16. Collectionof wild honey 39 5 2 0 2 91.7
17. Land clearance 95 34 6 3 1 90.5
18. Fishing 83 45 8 5 2 86.7
19. Tendinglarge animals 54 24 14 3 3 82.4
20. Housebuilding 105 30 14 9 20 77.4
21. Soil preparation 66 27 14 17 10 73.1
22. Netmaking 42 2 5 1 15 71.2
23. Makingof rope or cordage 62 7 18 5 19 69.9
24. Generationof fire 40 6 16 4 20 62.3
25. Bodily mutilation 36 4 48 6 12 60.8
26. Preparationof skins 39 4 2 5 31 54.6
27. Gatheringof small land fauna 27 3 9 13 15 54.5
28. Crop planting 27 35 33 26 20 54.4
29. Manufactureof leatherproducts 35 3 2 5 29 53.2
30. Harvesting 10 37 34 34 26 45.0
31. Crop tending 22 23 24 30 32 44.6
32. Milking 15 2 8 2 21 43.8
33. Basketmaking 37 9 15 18 51 42.5
34. Burdencarrying 18 12 46 34 36 39.3
35. Matmaking 30 4 9 5 55 37.6
36. Care of small animals 19 8 14 12 44 35.9
37. Preservationof meat and fish 18 2 3 3 40 32.9
38. Loom weaving 24 0 6 8 50 32.5
39. Gatheringsmall aquatic fauna 11 4 1 12 27 31.1
40. Fuel gathering 25 12 12 23 94 27.2
41. Manufactureof clothing 16 4 11 13 78 22.4
42. Preparationof drinks 15 3 4 4 65 22.2
43. Potterymaking 14 5 6 6 74 21.1
44. Gatheringwild vegetal foods 6 4 18 42 65 19.7
45. Dairy production 4 0 0 0 24 14.3
46. Spinning 7 3 4 5 72 13.6
47. Laundering 5 0 4 8 49 13.0
48. Water fetching 4 4 8 13 131 8.6
49. Cooking 0 2 2 63 117 8.3
50. Preparationof vegetal foods 3 1 4 21 145 5.7

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 208 ETHNOLOGY
TABLE 2
Strictly MasculineActivities, with RegionalIndicesof Sex Participation
Activity A C E I N S
1. Huntinglarge aquatic fauna 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
2. Smeltingof ores 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
3. Metalworking 100. O 100.O 100.O 100.Q 100. 0 97 . 7
4. Lumbering 100.0 98. 5 99 . 2 100.0 98. 5 100.O
5. Hunting largeland fauna 99.3 100.0 100.0 97.6 98.7 100.0
6. Workin wood 100.0 99 . 1 100. O 100. 0 96 . 7 97 . 5
7. Fowling 100.0 97. 2 99. O 100.0 95 .4 99.3
8. Makingmusicalinstruments 96.9 97.7 95.5 100.0 98.5 97.5
9. Trapping 100.0 98.8 98.3 98.0 95 .5 98. 7
10. Boatbuilding 100.O 100.O 100.O 100.0 87 . 1 100.O
11. Stoneworking 100. Q 93 . 8 100.0 96 .9 92 .9 100.O
12. Work in bone horn, shell 100.0 97.5 90.0 97.9 93.3 90.7
13. Miningand quarrying 100.0 90.9 93.3 100.0 100.0 100.0
14. Bonesetting 90.9 92 .9 91 . 3 87 . 1 92 . 5 100.O

4. In only sevenscatteredcasesout of the I,2I5 for which datawere

availablewas any of these activitiesreportedas assignedeitherex-
clusivelyorpredominantly to femalesf
Thefewexceptional casesdeservespecialmention:
Workin wood amongthe Pawnee.The ethnographer (WeltfishI965)
specificallynotesthatthe assignment of this taskto womenis unique
amongNorthAmerican Indians.
Manufacture of musicalinstruments amongthe liareg. Basedon an
inferencefrom a picturein Nicolaisen(I963) showingtwo drums
reportedly madebywomen.
Trappingamongthe MbutiPygmies.Althoughmen do the important
hunting,womenarereportedto catchsmall,slow animalsby handor
net.
Boatbuilding amongthe Hidatsav Womenco-nstructed the skin coracles
orC<bullboats'}usedforcrossing theMissouri River.
Workin bone,horn,and shell.Santalwomenare reportedto fashion
ornaments of shellandPawneewomenutensilsof horn,butin neither
caseis thereconclusive evidencethatfemaleparticipation in the activity
is exclusiveorevenpreponderant.
MiningamongtheFur The collection of ironorein the formof dustby
womenforsaleto smithshasbeencodedasmining.
The secondclusterincludesa seriesof activitieswhichwe termquasi-
masculinebecause,thoughmost commonlyassignedto males,their as-
signmentpredominantly or exclusivelyto femalesis by no meansuncom-
mon.They arelistedin Table3 and exhibitthe followingcommonstatis-
tlca c :laracterlst1cs:
* * *

I. They revealworldwide indicesof masculineparticipation of between

approximately 70and92 without any overlap with theactivitiesof eitherthe
firstor thethirdcluster.

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 F _ T
ACTORS IN THE bEX IVISION OF LABOR 209

TABLE 3
Quasi-masculineActivities, with RegionalIndicesof Sex Participation
Activity A C E I N S
15. Butchering 100.0 95 . 2 96. 2 100.0 79 .0 87 . 5
16. Collectionof wild honey 96.9 100.0 97.8 87.5 50.0 96.9
17. Land clearance 89.1 97.5 92.4 86.7 74.6 95.2
18. Fishing 82 .6 92 .0 88. 8 81 .0 85 .8 87 . 1
19. Tending large animals 90.6 77.6 82.0 83.3 91.5 70.0
20. Housebuilding 73 . 5 75.4 80.0 91 .0 67 .9 77 . 3
21. Soil preparation 53.4 94.6 82.1 73.9 53.1 72.0
22. Netmaking 100.0 50.0 57 . 8 68 .4 72 . 1 57 . 1
23. Makingrope and cordage 80.0 76.7 66.7 71.2 53.5 72.7

2. Theirregionalindicesin noinstancefallbelowso.ov
3. Theseindicesshow substantially greatervariationfromregionto re-
gionthandothoseof thefirstcluster.
4. All are assignedeitherexclusivelyor predominantly to femalesin a
notinconsiderable fractionof thesamplesocieties.
The thirdclusterembraces whatwe designateas swingactivitiesbecause
they are assignedpredominantly to malesin someregionsbut predomin-
antlyto femalesin others.They exhibitthe followingcommonstatistical
ctaractenstlcs:
. * .

I. They revealintermediate worldwideindicesof masculineparticipa-

tion,whichrangebetweenapproximately 3I and62.
2. Their regionalindicesrange from IOO.O to o.o, thus coveringthe
entiregamutfromexclusivelymasculineto exclusi+rely feminineand for
particularactivitiesthe averagediiXerence betweenthe regionwith the
TABLE 4
SwingActivities, with RegionalIndicesof Sex Participation
Activity A C E I N S
24. Generationof fire 40.7 14.3 70.6 70.6 68.6 83.6
25. Bodily mutilation 63.2 68.3 46.2 74.4 34.0 68.2
26. Preparationofskins 87.5 66.7 58.9 - 30.7 44.4
27. Gatheringsmall land fauna 39.2 55.0 85.0 40.0 47.5 68.0
28. Crop planting 29.6 75.0 61.9 54.4 46.9 53.3
29. Manufactureof leatherproducts90.8 67.6 61.1 24.6 46.7
30. Harvesting 24.3 67.1 63.3 39.6 35.4 34.4
31. Crop tending 23.2 69.1 57.8 24.2 44.6 50.0
32. M;lking 62.5 30.0 61.1 - 0.0 40.0
33. Basketmaking 63 . 8 50 .0 61 . 1 22 . 6 13. 1 55 .0
34. Burdencarrying 20.4 48.5 67.2 40.7 32.2 32.3
35. Matmaking 54.2 45.6 50.0 17.8 6.3 63.6
36. Care of small animals 69.3 36.0 33.3 19.5 38.0 21.8
37. Preservationof meat or fish S0.0 40.0 41.5 71.7 6.4 41.7
38. Loom weaving 100.0 40.0 16.8 2.9 12.5 17.0
39. Gatheringsmall aquatic fauna 30.0 - 33.3 9.2 47.0 75.0
41 Manufactureof clothing 62.5 28.3 13.3 6.5 14.3 26.7
43 Potterymaking 5 .0 28 .9 61 . 7 29. 2 13. 8 10. 9

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 E2IOTHNOLOGY

greatest andthatwiththelowestmasculine
participation is 57 percentage
points.
The fourthclusterconsistsof activities
whichwe designateas quasi-
femirline
becausetheyareusuallythoughnot universally,assignedto fe-

TABLE
5
Quasi-feminineActivities, with RegionalIndicesof Sex Participation
Activities A C E I N S
40. Fuel gathering 20.0 24.6 36.4 18.1 36 7 26.1
42. Preparationof drinks 20.6 35.8 22.1 42.9 13.0 14.8
44. Gatheringof wild vegetal foods 11.0 13.3 15.0 46.7 12.3 21.1
45. Dairy production 11.7 7 7 28.6 - 0.0 0.0
46. Spinning 47.6 11.8 1.2 25 .0 11. 1 9.2
47. Laundering 25.0 18.9 10.0 11.7 0.0 8.3
48. Waterfetching 0.0 8. 1 18. 5 6. 1 14.3 4.3
49. Cooking 7.9 3.4 9.7 17.1 4.2 7.1
50. Preparationof vegetal food 0.7 4.1 4.1 21.0 0.6 4.0

males.Theyshowthefollowingcommonstatistical characteristics:
I. They revealrelativelylow worldwideindicesof masculineparticipa-
tion,in noinstanceashighas28.
2. Their regionalindicesare invariablyunder50, but in no case does
thehighestsuchindexfallbelowI7.
3*Maleparticipationin theactivityis equalor subordinate in manyof the
samplesocieties,and exclusiveor preponderant in at leasta minorityof
them.
The nine quasi-feminine activitiescounterbalance)
or are comparableto,
the ninequasi-masculine activities.Interestingly
enough,the statistics
reveal
no technologicalactivitieswhicharestrictlyfeminine.One can,of course,
nameactivities thatarestrictly feminine,e.g.,nursingandinfantcare,but
theyfalloutsidetherangeof technological pursuits.
FACTORS
INFLUENCING
THESESUAL
ALLOCATION
OFTECHNOLOGICAL
TASKS
A: ASDETERMINED
BYCONVENTIONAL
MODES
OFANALYSIS
Havingpresented a fourfoldclassificationof technological
activitiesbased
on a statisticalanalysisof theirassignmentto malesor femalesfor the
worldas a wholeandby maiorethnographic regions,we maynowexamine
the activitiesthemselvesforfeatureswhichmayhelpto accountfortheiras-
signmentto onesexor the other.Usingconventional modesof analysis,we
haveisolateda seriesof tentativeexplanatory factorswhicharenamedand
discussedbelow.In the nextsectionthe morerigoroustechniques of factor
analysiswillbeemployed to test thesefactors
andidentifyadditional
ones.
FactorA: Masculine ildvantage
The probability thatanyactivitywill be assignedto malesis increased to
the extentthatit hasfeatureswhichgivemalesa definiteadvantageand/

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 OPLABOR2II
IN THESEXDIVISION
FACTORS

or femalesa definitedisadvantage,in its performance,regardlessof whether

the distinction Thusmalestendin generalto be
is innateor socio-cultural.
endowedwith greaterphysicalstrengththanfemalesand probablyalso a
superiorcapacityfor mobilizingit in brief burstsof excessiveenergy,
whereasfemalestendto be morecloselyattached to thehomeby theburdens
of pregnancy andinfantcareandto thisextentsuffera disadvantage in un-
dertaking taskswhichmustbe performed at a distancefromthe household.
Theserelativemasculineadvantages clearlycharacterize mostof the activi-
tiesclassedaboveas strictlymasculineor quasi-masculine and aretherefore
presumably a factorfavoringthe widespread assignmentof thesetasksto
males,especiallysincethey are absentor less apparentin the remaining
27activities.
FactorB: FeminineAdvantage
Exceptfor the 23 activitieswhichwe haveclassedas strictlymasculine
or quasi-masculine, includingseveral(notablynetmakingand the manu-
factureof ropeand cordage)for whichthe evidenceis purelystatistical
ratherthan functional,none of the activitiesin our list seemsinherently
bettersuitedtolthecapacitiesof eithersex.In the caseof theeighteenswing
indeed,theirassignment
activities, to one sex ratherthanthe otherappears
almostrandomand can be accountedfor only on the basisof otherfac-
however,a
tors.In the caseof the nineactivitiesclassedas quasi-feminine,
definitefeminineadvantage, relativeratherthanabsolute,is stronglyto be
suspected.JudithBrown(I970: I074), despitea noticeablefeministbias,
identifiesthis advantagefairlyadequately when she suggeststhat
the degree to which women participatein subsistenceactivitiesdependsupon the
Women are
compatibilityof the latter with simultaneouschild-careresyyonsibilities.
most likely to make a substantialcontributionwhen subsistenceaciivitieshave the
the participantis not obliged to be far from home; the
following characteristics:
tasksare relativelymonotonousand do not requireraptconcentration; and the work
is not dangerous,can be performedin spite of interruptions, and is easily resumed
onceinterrupted.
fit the nine quasi-feminine
Thesespecifications well
activitiesparticularly
andgo far towardaccounting for theirwidespread assignmentto females,
providedthat one adds,fromthe masculinepoint of view which Brown
dailyattentionand arethus
ignores,thattheseactivitiesrequirepractically
relatively
incompatiblewith suchmasculinetasksas warfare,huntingfish-
ing and herdingwhich commonlyrequireperiodsof absencefrom the
household.
FactorC: Qaalitiesof Raw ASaterials
It is clearfroman examination of TableI thatmanufacturingactivities
tendstronglyto be assignedto maleswhenthe materials arehard
processed
or tough,as in thecasesof metalworking(#3), workin wood(#6), man-
ufactureof musicalinstruments(#8) stoneworking(#II) and work
in bone,horn,or shell (#I3) but to femaleswhenthe raw materialsare

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 2I2 ETHNOLOGY

softor pliable,as in themanufactureof leatherproducts(#29), basketmak-

ing (#33) matmaking(#35), loom weaving (#38), potterymaking
(#43), and spinning(#46). The partialexceptions,such as netmaking
(#22) and the manufacture of ropeand cordage(#23), are accounted
for by FactorD. The reasonswhy the qualitiesof raw materialsshould
makea difference in sex assignmentareobscure;the masculineadvantage
in physicalstrength,thougha possibleexplanation, seemsscarcelyan ade-
quateone.
Ftor D: Sequential Series
Ourdataindicatea generaltendencyfor the sexwhichusesa productto
be the sameas the sex thatproducesit. This is mostobviousin the cases
whereactivities fallintosequential
productionseries,e.g.:
Mirling(#I4), Smelting(W2)n Metalworking (#3);
Land clearance(#I7), Soil preparation (#2I), Cropplanting(:#28),
Croptending(#3r), Harvesting (#30);
Tendinglargeanimals(#I9), Milking(#32), Dairyproduction (#45);
Spinning(#46), Loomweaving(#38), Manufacture of clothing(#4I);
Gatheringof vegetalfoods(#44), Preparation of vegetalfoods(#50),
Cooking(:049).
Caseswherethe usersof a productdiderin sex fromits producers inter-
rupt such sequences.Thus textilematerials,which our unanalyzedfind-
ings revealto be usuallyprocuredby women,are normallyprocessedby
womenwhen the productsare used principally by women,e.g., baskets,
mats,andcloth,butby menwhenthe productshavea predominantly mas-
culineuse,e.g.,netsandrope.
Faaor E: Repbcementof Simplerby More Complexjlrtifactsor Proc-
esses
Whenthe inventionof a new artifactor processsupplants an olderand
simplerone,boththe activity of whichit is a partandcloselyrelatedactiv-
ities tend morestronglyto be assignedto males.The introduction of the
plow,for example,seemsto haveincreasedmasculineparticipation in all
agriculturaloperations
and not alonein soil preparation. Table6, for ex-

TABLE 6
Sex Participationin Plantingand Use of the Plow
Sex Assignment In Societies In Societies
of Planting Having the Plow Lackingthe PIow TotaI
M or N 23 39 62
E, G, orF 13 66 79
Total 36 105 141
X2= 5.27, correctedfor continuity;P < .03.
The sample societies possessingthe plow are those numbered33, 37-38, 4245
47-51, 54-57, 59, 62-64, 66 68, 71, 73, 75-76, 82-84, 11S117, 172, and 184.

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 Assignment
F
Total
M
or
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
by
N
Gaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
Sex
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
Strict
mmmmm
or
Semi-Sedentary
3mmmmmmmmmmm
Nomadism
24
mmmm
132
mmmmmmmmmmm
21
135
Mode
mmmmmmmmmm
of
Life
Total
829
140
164

FACTORS
IN THESEXDIVISION
OFLABOR2I3

ample,revealsits influenceon the sexassignment of cropplanting.Correla-

tions with otherindicesof agricultural complexity,e.g., irrigaiion,yield
comparable results.
FactorF: Degreeof OccupationalSpecialization
With the development of a complexdivisionof laborby occupation,
our datareveala tendencyto assignfully specializedtasksto malecrafts-
men)even in regionswherethe sameactivityis ordinarilyperformedby
womenin neighboring societieswith a lesscomplexeconomicorganization
Examplesin our sampleincludemalepottersamongthe Aztecs,Babylo-
nians,Ganda,Hebrews,and Romans;maleweaversamongthe Burusho,
Punjabi,and Uttar Pradesh;and male matmakersamong the Aztecs,
Babylonians, andJavanesefiEventhe mostfemininetasksin the entirelist
namely,cookingand the preparation of vegetalfoods,tend to be assumed
by specializedmalebakers,chefs,and millersin the morecomplexcivil;-
zationsof EuropeandAsiav
FactorG: Fixityof Residence
In codingthe information on housebuilding (#50), it becameapparent
that this normallyquasi-masculine activitytends stronglyto be assigned
to femaleswherethe modeof life is strictlynomadic,as amongmostpas-
toralnomadsand amonghuntersand gathererswho wanderthroughout
the yearratherthanat certainseasonsonly.Undersuchconditionsdwell-
ingstendto be portableor elsemadeof flimsymaterials, and to be erected
anewat eachcampsiteby the womenwhilethe men hunt,herd or guard
the camp.The construction of a substantialstructure of woodor masonry
is scarcelyworththe edortif it is to be occupiedfor no morethana few
days.Table7, whichcombinesourinformation on the sex to whichhouse-
buildingis assignedandthatfromMurdockandWilson(I972) on fixityof
settlement,revealsa remarkablyhighcorrelation.

TABLE7
Fixity of Residenceand the SexualAssignmentof Housebuilding
Sedentary

X2= 87.95, correctedfor continuity;P < .000001

FACTORS
INFLUENCING
THE
SEXUAL
ALLOCATION
OFTECHNOLOGICAL
TASKS
B: ASDETERMINED
BYFACTOR
ANALYSIS
OFCO-VARIATION
The foregoingattemptto shedlightby conventional meanson the factors
underlyingthe divisiont
of laborby sex has yieldedsomepositiveresults,

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 38
50
37
26
29
Loom
Netmaking
Preservation
Preparation
Housebuilding
Manufacture
Making
Boatbuilding
Butchering
8Manufacture
22
4I
IO
I5weaving
of
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
clothing
of
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
skins
leather
meat
of
musical
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
and
products
fish
instruments
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
.84
.37
.29
.86
.33
.29.so
.2828

2I4 ETHNOLOGY

thoughthesetendto bedisappointingly meagerwithrespectto theallocation

of what we havecalled"swingactivities." On the adviceof DouglasR.
WhiteandJoelGunn,therefore, we decidedto supplement theconventional
techniqueswith the morecomplexone of factoranalysis.Sincethe au-
thorshadhadno previousexperience withfactoranalysis, theyowea heavy
debtof gratitudeto theirconsultants they haveso gen-
for the assistance
erouslygiven,andin particular to Gunnfor assumingthe laborious taskof
all computer calculations.
The firststep was to ascertain the incidenceof co-variation,i.e., the ex-
tentto whichparticular tendto be assignedprimarily
activities to malesun-
derone setof conditions andto femalesunderotherconditions. To thisend
a principalcomponents factoranalysiswas performed on all 50 variables,
andthe resulting factorstructure was rotatedby the varimaxtechniqueto
isolatethe mostdistinctivesuchfactors.Two factorsprovedto be especially
Factorloadingsof taskson thesetwofactorswillbe givenbelow.
significant.
The squareof theseloadingsindicatesthe proportion of variancein each
taskthatis accounted forbythefactor.
FactorH: Processingof AniynalProducts
The firstof thesefactorsis revealedin the followingset of activities
throughthesexwhichperforms
whicharecorrelated them:

FactorH clearlycenterson the processing of meatand skinsand on the

manufacture of artifactscommonlymade of leather,such as clothing,
drums,andtents.Theseactivitiestendto be performed by womenin soci-
itieswhichsubsistby huntingor pastoralnomadism,wherethe men are
oftenawayfromhome,butbymenin societiessvhichdependmorestrongly
upon sedentaryagricultureand animalhusbandry. FactorH obviously
to FactorG (Fixityof Residence).It goesfar to-
bearsa closerelationship
wardaccountingfor the sharpdifferentiation in the sexualallocationof
tasksbetweenregionswitha heavyincidenceof huntersandgatherers, like
NorthAmerica,andthose,like Africa,withwell developed and
agriculture
animalhusbandry. which wouldnot have been
It revealsan association,
suspectedfromtechniques betweentheprocessirlg
otherthanfactoranalysis,
of animalproducts andsuchseemingly unrelatedactivitiesas loomweavingn
netmakingandboatbuilding.

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 OFL.ABOR2I5
IN THESEXDIVISION
FACTORS

Factor1: Intensityof Sgriculture..

Anotherfactorbroughtto lightby factoranalysisis revealedin the as-
in termsof theirsexualallocation:
of a secondsetof activities
sociation
30 Harvesting .78
28 Cropplanting .77
3I Croptending .76
2I Soilpreparation .7I
I7 Landclearance 47
34 Burdencarrying .39
43 Potterymaking .30
48 Waterfetching 28
40 Fuel gathering 25
FactorI centerson the complexof agricultural operationsandbearsa close
relationshipto FactorEe Whereagriculture is simpleor extensive,these
operationsand the associatedtasks,such as potterymaking, tend to be
performed by females,but with theirincreasein complexityor intensity
theytendto beassigned increasingly to males.
In general,factoranalysishas confirmedand clarifiedthe resultsof the
moreconventional modesof analysis. It hasalsobroughtto lighta seriesof
relationships
additiolnal which accountfor much of the otherwiseunex-
plainedvariance,especiallywith regardto certainof the morepuzzling
aCt1V1tieS.
SW1r1g
. * . *

INFLUENCING
FACTORS THESEXUALALLOCATION TASKS
OFTECHNOLOGICAL
C: ASDETERMINED BYFACTOR ANALYSISOFTASKSIMILARITIES
to males(TableI)
The validityof the rankorderof tasksby assignment
and of the fourfoldclassification of tasks (Tables2-5) was subsequently
testedby a factoranalysisof similarities in orderto assessthe functional
coherence of factorsA (masculineadvantage)andB (feminineadvantage)
relativeto otherfactors.Ordinaryfactoranalysisof co-variance (correlation
is not suflicientfor this purpose,sincethereis verylittlevari-
coefficients)
ancefor someof the tasks,particularly thoserankinghighestand lowest
in TableI. To checkthe functionalassociation betweentasks,coeflicients of
similaritywerecomputedbetweenpairsof tasks,andthis matrixof coefii-
cientswas thenfactoranalyzed.Eachpairof taskvariableswas compared
fortheI85 societiesin orderto computea standard of similarity.
coefficient
Fourfactorswerefoundstatistically significantin the factoranalysisof
similaritiesafterrotation.These are identicalwith factorsA (masculine
advantage),B (feminineadvantage),G-H (nomadic/sedentary difler-
encesin allocationof housebuilding and processingof animalproducts),
andE-F-I(increased specializationandintensification Fac-
of agriculture).
torsC andD, whichrelateto smallersubsetsof tasks,do not appearin this
factoranalysis.Of the varianceaccountedfor by the four factors,mascu-
line advantage(A) accountsfor 75 per cent,feminineadvantage(B) fcor
I8 per cent,and the two otherfactors(G-H and E:-F-I)togetherfor the
remaln1ng
* E

7 percent.

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 216 ETHNOLOGY

This independent confirmation of the factorstructure in the divisionof

laborbysexunderscores theimportance of universal functional in
similarites
the sex assignmentof tasks.When taskswereplottedby theirscoreson
FactorsA and B (masculineand feminineadvantage)a linearorderof
tasksemergedwhichwas practically identicalwith the rankorderby fre-
quencyof masculineassignment in TableI. The clustersof tasksin this
linearorder,rangingfromthe mostmasculineto the mostfeminirletasks,
fall into categoriesin the similarities analysiswhichcorrespond closelyto
into strictly masculine,
the classification quasi-masculine, swing,and quasi-
feminineactivities.That93 percerltof thevariance in thesimilaritiesanaly-
sis is accountedfor by the masculineandfemininefactorsis strongsupport
for the importance of universalfunctionalsimilarities in the sex allocation
of tasks.Thisdoesnot)howeveraccountforthevariance in theswingactiv-
ities,whichis accounted forin largepartby thetworemaining factors.Fac-
tor G-H corresponds to the technological shift fromnomadichuntingor
pastoralismto sedentaryexploitationof domesticplants and animals,
with housebuilding and processingof animalproducts(as well as loom
weavingandothertasks)tendingto be assignedto malesunderthe latter
circumstances. The E-F-Ifactorcorresponds to the technological shift in
intensificationof agriculture and in associated development of greateroc-
cupationalspecialization. In both casesthe generalprincipleappliesthat
greatertechnological complexity is associatedwith a shiftin sexualalloca-
tionof themorecomplextasksfromfemalesto males.
CODED MATERIAL
Of the verylargebodyof datacodedfor the presentstudyit seemssuffi-
cientto presentdetailedinformation hereonlyon thoseactivitiesthathave
provedespeciallypertinentin the analysisarldon a few others,such as
metalworking, potterymakingS loomweaving,andmilkingwhichseemmost
likelyto yield significantresultsin intercorrelations with otherbodiesof
codeddata.Table8 therefore presents onlya selectionof thecodedmaterial
for the individualsocietiesof the sample.ColumnR presentsthe symbol
(e.g.,A for Africa)for the regionin whichthe societyis classed,and the
numberedcolumnslist the symbolsfor presenceor absenceof information
and the sex allocationof tasksfor the activitiesbearingthesenumbersin
TableI.
TABLE 8
Coded Data on SelectedSocieties
R 3 15 17 20 21 23 26 28 30 32 33 34 38 4349
001 Nama A M MA E A G G A A F P G A F F
002 Kung A A MA F A E M A A A A G A A G
003 Thonga A M MG MG M A G F M M G O F F
004 Lozi A A M M E G P M G G M G G M :FF
005 Mbundu A M MN MG M P G G A G E O F F
006 Suku A M MM MF P P F F A M O M F F
007 Bemba A M M N N E M M G F A M G M F F
008 Nyakyusa A M M M N M P A G F M M F A A G

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 FACTORS
IN THESEXDIVISION
OFLABOR2I7
R 3 15 17 20 21 23 26 28 30 32 33 34 38 43 49
009 EIadza A A MA F A M N A A A A E A A G
010 Luguru A M MM N N P M F E A F NA F F
011 Kikuyu A M MM E E E M E F F MF A F G
012 Ganda A M O M M F M MF F MF F A MF
013 Mbuti A A MA F A F P A A A F GA A G
014 Nkundo A M MN M F M P F F A G G MF F
015 Banen A M O M N F E M F F A MG MF F
016 Tiv A M ME M M M P G G A MF MF G
017 Ibo A M MN M N MA G E A P F MF G
018 Fon A M MM M M P P E F A M N MF F
019 Ashanti A M MM P F P O F F AO F M F G
020 Mende A M MM P M M M N G A ME MF F
021 Wolof C M MM M N M M N N F MO M F F
022 Bambara A M MM N M P MN E F N F MF F
023 Tallensi A M MM N M N M E N MP O A F F
024 Songhai C M MM N M M F N N P G O MF F
025 Fulani C A MA F A E P A A F E F A A F
026 Hausa C M MM M M M M M N F MO E E F
027 Massa A M MN M N M M E E E NOOF F
028 Azande A M MM N F E M F G A MP A F F
029 Fur C M MM E M P P E E F MP E F F
030 Otoro A M MN M E P M E E ME F MF G
031 Shilluk A M MM M M M P N N ME F O F F
032 Mao A M MM M N MA E E P GGA GG
033 KaSa C M MM M M M M M N E F E MF F
034 Masai A M MA F A M F A A F A F A F G
035 Konso C M MN M N P F N E P A E MF G
036 Somali C M M A* F A* F M A* A* E F F A A G
037 Amhara C M MM M M E M M M E E P MF F
038 Bogo C O P M P M O P M M MF O O O F
039 Kenuz; C A MM M M M P E E F P MF F F
040 Teda C M MN E N M M E
,>
E F E A F F
041 Tuareg C M N M F M M F F E E F O A F* F
042 Riffians C M MM M M E M M N E E E E E F
043 Egyptians C M O M M M P P M N F N F P P F
044 Hebrews C M MM M M P M M N MP O G MF
045 Babylonians C M MM M M P M M M M M MG MG
046 Rwala C M* M A F A P F A A MA O F A F
047 Turks C M MM M M O P N G F P OF OF
048 Gheg C M MM M M O P G E F F F F GF
049 Romans C M MM M M M MM M P O ME MG
050 Basques C M MM M E M P M F MN MO F
051 Irish C M MM M M M M N N G MO G A F
052 Lapps C A MA M A O P A F OOF OG
053 Yurak C A F A F A P F A A A P OA A F
054 Russians C M P N N N P P G J F O O F MF
055 Abkhaz C M MM E M O F E E P P OF A F
056 Armenians C M O M M M O MN N F OOF F F
057 Kurd C M MM M M F P N N F P E GF F
058 Basseri E M P M M M M P M M GOOF A G
059 Purliabi E M MM M M P A M N MO N MMG
060 Gond E M P N E N M P N N A E GA A F
061 Toda E A A A M A A A A A N A MA A E
062 Santal E A MM E M MO N N A P N OA F
063 U. Pradesh E M MM M M M MN N F E MMN F
064 Burusho E M MM M M P P M E ME N MA F
06S Kazak E M MM F M F M M M E A A F A F

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 2I8 ETHNOLOGY
TABLE 8 (continued)
3 15 17 20 21 23 26 28 30 32 33 34 38 43 49
066 Khalka E M M M N M N N M M F P A A A F
067 Lolo E M M P ME p p E E A P O F A F
068 Lepcha E A M E N E G o E E P N MF A G
069 Garo E M M M MN p p E E A MMF F G
070 Lakher E M MM ME M p G E A ME F F F
071 Burmese E M P M M M M o E
.
N A E E F N G
072 Lamet E A MN MA . q M N A ME A A G
073 Vietnamese E M O M M M p o E N A MN F N F
074 Rhade E A M M M M p M E N A F O F A G
075 Khmer
To
F
M O M M M p p G G A MO F P G
076 Siamese E A MO N N p A N E A N N O O G
017 Semang E
. _
A O M G A E o F F A N G A A F
078 Nicobarese . q M O M MN p A E E A F P A F F
079 Andamanese E A MA E A M A A A A F G A E G
080 Vedda A M M ME F p E G A P MA E G
081 Tanala E M M M MA p A N E MG N F O G
A F G A O F
,>

082 N. Sembilan I A MN MG p A F
083 Javanese I M MM N M o A G E A ME F E F
084 Balinese I M M M MM p A M N A F F F N G
085 Iban I M P N MM p p E G A G N F F F
086 Badjau
T
A A A A A p A A A A O A A A F
087 Toradja I M M N M P p p E F A G E A F G
088 Tobelorese
T
1 o P N MM p p F E A F E A O F
089 Alorese I A ME MG o A G G A F O A A G
090 Tiwi I A MA P A A A A A A F G A A F
091 Aranda I A MA F A p p A A A A F A A G
092 Orokaiva I A ME N A E A M F A A F A F F
093 Kimam I A MN M M F A M N A F G A A G
094 Kapauku I A MN MG _

A G G A A G A A G
095 Kwoma I A MN M E F A N E A O G A MF
096 Manus I A O A N A p A A A A E MA F F
097 New Ireland I A M M M M A G F A E G A A G
098 Trobrianders I A MN N N p A M A ME A P G
099 Siuai T
1 A MN MF M A F F A E F A MG
100 Tikopia I A A M MM M A N E A G E A A G
102 Fijians 1 A O M M M E A N N A P F A F G
103 Ajie T
A MM MM M A N G A F O A F F
104 Maori I A O N MN E A N G A F G A A G
105 Marquesans I A A M N M N A M N A P MA A E
106 Samoans I A A M MM N A M N A G E A A N
107 Gilbertese I A P M MM p A G F A F MA A G
108 Marshallese I A M M N N M A N N A F E A A G
109 Trukese I A A M M M M A M N A G N F A N
110 Yapese I A M M N M N A E E A G E G F F
111 Palauans I A MN MG M p G G A F F O F G
112 Ifugao I M MN ME p p F E A E MF E G
113 Atayal I M P N N G p p G G A O O F A F
114 Chinese E M O M M M o o N M A O MF O F
1 15 Manchu E M M M MM p p
Mi o E
N N A O MF MG
116 Koreans E M MM ME N A MMF MF
117 Japanese E M P N MN G oi E E MME G MF
118 Ainu E A MG . _

.q
rs

b E G G A F G F O F
119 Gilyak M O A N A N F A A A P E A A F
120 Yukaghir E M MA G A p F A A A A G A A F
121 (:hukchee M G A F A M F A A A P E A P F

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 G

FACTORS
IN THESEXDIVISION
OFLABOR2I9
R 3 15 17 20 21 23 26 28 30 32 33 34 38 43 49
122 Ingalik N A MA N A E G A A A F E A F G
123 Aleut N A A MA O E A A A F P A A F
124 C. Eskimo N M E A N A P G A A A A O A A G
125 Montagnais N A MA N A F F A A A G E A A F
126 Micmac N A F A F A M F A A A F F A O F
127 Saulteaux N A N A F A P F A A A A O A A F
128 Slave N A M M M M O F M G A A O A A G
129 Kaska N A N A N A F F A A A F G A A F
130 Eyak N o P A MA O F A A A F P A P G
131 Haida N M MA MA F F A A A F E F A F
132 Bellacoola N o MA MA O P A A A F E A A F
133 Twana N A MA MA F G A A A F E F A F
134 Yurok N A N A MA M N A A A F G A A F
135 Pomo N A MA MA P M A A A G G A A F
136 Yokuts N A O A G A M N A A A F E A A F
137 Paiute N A MA G A M M A A A G E A A F
138 Klamath N A MA E A E F A A A F E A A G
139 Kutenai N A MA E A E F A A A F E A M F
140 Gros Ventre N A N A F A A F A A A A F A F F
141 Hidatsa N A N F G F F F F F A F O A F F
142 Pawnee N A G E E F F F F G A A G A F G
143 Omaha N A M N E G M F G G A A F A F F
144 Huron N A O G M F F F F F A F F A F F
145 Creek N o N N O G G G A F F F F F
146 Natchez N A M N M N P M E E A F F F F F
147 Comanche N A G A F A O F A A A A F A A F
148 Chiricahua N A MA F A G F A A A F G A G F
149 Zuni N M M N N N M P N N P F E MF F
150 Havasupai N A G M N N M M N G A F E A F F
151 Papago N A M M M M M M E G A F G O F F
152 Huichol N A M M M E M P E E F MG F F F
153 Aztec N M O M M N P M N N A MMF M F
154 Popoluca N A MN M N P O NN A N N F F G
155 Quiche S A M M M M M P MM P O MG P G
156 Miskito S A M M P G M P GG A F G F F F
157 Bribri S o O M P M* M P N*
M* A ME G F F
158 Cuna S M P M M N E O NN A E ME G F
159 Goajiro S A N N MN F M GG N A E F F F
160 Haitians S M E M M N M M NN P ME O M G
161 Callinago S A MM MG MA FF A MF F F F
162 Warrau S A O M M M F A MF A F E F A F
163 Yanomamo S A A M M M P A NG A F E O A G
164 Carib S A M M M M MA NG A ME O F G
165 Saramacca S A M M M E MA GF A P G A F G
166 Mundurucu S A F M M M MA EG A ME F F F
167 Cubeo S A M M MG MA GG A N E O F F
168 Cayapa S A P M MG P A FG A F F F F F
169 Jivaro S A M M MG P P EF A MF MG F
170 Amahuaca S A E M MG P A EF A MF F F F
171 Inca S M M N MN P P EE A F E F F F
172 Aymara S M N M M M M M FG P G E E N F
173 Siriono S A E E M E F A EE A G E A F G
174 Nambicuara S A P N N N N A NN A MG MA G
175 Trumai S A A M M M MA NF A N E F A G
176 Timbira S A M M N O P A EF A E G O O F
177 Tupinamba S A M M M M P O FF A P O F F F
178 Botocudo S A MA F A M P AA A A F A A F

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 220 ETHNOLOGY
TABLE8 (continued)
R 3 15 17 20 21 23 26 28 30 32 33 34 38 43 49
179 Shavante S A MM G A P P N G A MG A A F
180 Aweikoma S A MA G A G A A A A MG O F G
181 Cayua S A MN MN MMG E A F F F G G
182 Lengua S A MM G M E F M M A O F F F F
183 Abipon S A P A F A P F A A A O F F F P
184 Mapuche S M P M N M P F N N F G O F F F
185 Tehuelche S N MA F A MF A A A A F A O G
186 Yahgan S A MA G A F F A A A F E A A F
Noteson Table1
36,columns17,21,28,30:Agricultllreis practiced
to a limitedextentby non-Somali
slaves.
41, column43: Potteryis madeby Negroserfsonly.
46, column3: SmithsareArabs,not Bedouins.
157,columns21, 28, 30: CodingfollowsGabb;StonehasG.
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