S.S.

JAIN SUBODH LAW COLLEGE

MANSAROVER, JAIPUR

SESSION:- 2020-21
TOPIC:- Image processing &
Compression
SUBJECT:-COMPUTER SCIENCE

Submitted to :- submittedby:-
Mr.Anil Pareek Mujassim Anwar
Assistant Professor Khan
(Computer science) Semester :- 2nd B
 CERTIFICATE

Faculty
S.S. JAIN SUBODH
LAW COLLEGE
MANSAROVER,JAIPUR

This is to certify that Mujassim Anwar Khan, student of II semester,

Section B has carried out project titled Image processing &
Compression under my supervision. It is an investigation of a
minor research project. The student has completed research work in
stipulated time and according to norms prescribed for the purpose.

Mr. Anil Pareek

(Assistant Professor)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to those who generously took
initiative and helped in the successful completion of this project. I
thank to them for their inspiration & guidance towards preparation
of this report. I own to my esteemed teacher and supervisor,
respected Dr. Alpana Sharma, Director, S.S. Jain Subodh Law
College, Mansarover Jaipur, and I am highly indebted and my
profound gratitude to Mr. Anil Pareek (Faculty), S.S. Jain Subodh
Law College, Mansarover Jaipur, who enabled me to make a project,
and provided me their stimulus of writing this report on Image
processing & Compression I am grateful to (faculty), S.S. Jain
Subodh Law College, Mansarover Jaipur , for her valuable advice,
continuous support & guidance through various useful discussions at
different times during the tenure of making this project and her co-
operation led to great learning experience to me.
I also thanks to Library members of S.S. Jain Subodh Law
College, Mansarover Jaipur for providing me subject matter in
regard to my research project. My humble thanks to all my
colleagues and classmates of my college, who rendered their whole
hearted co-operation and wonderful response.

(Signature of Student)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. NEHRU’S IDEA OF SOCIALISM 2

3. ROLE OF DEMOCRACY 4

4. SOCIALISM 4

5. AFTER INDEPENDENCE 5

6. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF 6
NEHRU
7. CRITICISM 8
9
8. CONCLUSION 10

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction:
Modern digital technology has made it possible to manipulate multi-dimensional
signals with systems that range from simple digital circuits to advanced parallel
computers. The
goal of this manipulation can be divided into three categories:
1. Image Processing image in -> image out
2. Image Analysis image in -> measurements out
3. Image Understanding image in -> high-level description out
Image processing is referred to processing of a 2D picture by a computer.

Basic definitions:
An image defined in the "real world" is considered to be a function of two
real variables, for example, a(x,y) with a as the amplitude (e.g. brightness) of the
image at the real coordinate position (x,y).An image may be considered to contain
sub-images sometimes referred to as regions-of-interest, ROIs, or simply regions.
This concept reflects the fact that images 1
frequently contain collections of objects each of which can be the basis for a region.
In a sophisticated image processing system it should be possible to apply
specific image processing operations to selected regions. Thus one part of an
image (region) might be processed to suppress motion blur while another part
might be processed to improve
color rendition.
Sequence of image processing:

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Image stabilizing ang quantizing:
The most requirements for image processing of images is that the images be
available in digitized form, that is, arrays of finite length binary words. For
digitization, the given Image is sampled on a discrete grid and each sample or pixel is
quantized using
a finite number of bits. The digitized image is processed by a computer. To
display a digital image, it is first converted into analog signal, which is scanned onto
a display2.
Sampling theorem:
A bandlimited image is sampled uniformly on a rectangular grid with spacing dx,dy
can be recovered without error from the sample values f (mdx,ndy) provided
the sampling rate is greater than nyquist rate, that is

Image quantization:
The step subsequent to sampling in image digitization is quantization. A
quantizer maps a continuous variable u into a discrete variable u1, which takes values
from a finite set
{r1, r2… rn} of numbers. This mapping is generally a staircase function &
quantization rule is as follows:

Define {tk, k=1,…,L+1} as a set of increasing transition or decision levels

with t1 and tL+1 as minimum and maximum values,respectively,of u. if u lies
in intervals [tk,tL+1], then it is mapped to rk, the kth reconstruction level.

The following quantizers are useful in image coding techniques such as pulse
code modulation (PCM), differential PCM, transform coding, etc., they are
operate on one input sample at a time, output value depends only on that input.
they are,
1. LLOYD-MAX QUANTIZER
2. OPTIMUM MEAN SQUARE UNIFORM QUANTIZER

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PROCESSING TECHNIQUES:
1. Image enhancement
2. Image restoration
3. Image compression etc.

1. Image enhancement:
It refers to accentuation, or sharpening, of image features such as
boundaries, or contrast to make a graphic display more useful for display & analysis.
This process does not increase the inherent information content in data.It includes
gray level & contrast manipulation, noise reduction, edge crispening
and sharpening, filtering, interpolation and magnification, pseudocoloring, and so on.

2. Image restoration:

It is concerned with filtering the observed image to minimize the effect

of degradations. Effectiveness of image restoration depends on the extent and
accuracy of the knowledge of degradation process as well as on filter design.
Image restoration differs from image enhancement in that the latter is
concerned with more extraction or accentuation of image features.3

Image compression:
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Image Processing By:-Rafael C. Gonzalez
 It is concerned with minimizing the no of bits required to represent an
image. Application of compression are in broadcast TV, remote sensing via
satellite, military communication via aircraft, radar, teleconferencing, facsimile
transmission, for educational & business documents, medical images that
arise in computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and digital
radiology, motion, pictures ,satellite images, weather maps, geological surveys
and so on.4

Compression Techniques:
1. Lossless compression
2. Lossy compression

Lossless compression:

In this, data is not altered in process of compression or

decompression.Decompression generates an exact replica of an original image.
“Text compression” is a good example. Spreadsheets, processor files usually
contain repeated sequence of characters. By reducing repeated characters to
count, we can reduce requirement of bits.
Grayscale&images contain repetitive information .this repetitive graphic
images and sound allows replacement of bits by codes. In color images, adjacent
pixels can have different color values. These images do not have sufficient
repetitiveness to be compressed. In these cases, this technique is not applicable.
Lossless compression techniques have been able to achieve reduction in
size in the range from 1/10 to1/50 of original uncompressed size.

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 Standards for lossless compression:
1. Packbit encoding (run-length encoding)
2. CCITT group 3 1D
3. CCITT group 3 2D
4. CCITT group 4 2D
5. Lempel-Ziv and Welch algorithm.

Lossy compression:

It is used for compressing audio, grayscale or color images, and video

objects. In this, compressing results in loss of information. When a video
image is decompressed, loss of data in one frame will not perceived by the eye. If
several bits are5
missing, information is still perceived in an acceptable manner as eye fills in
gaps in shading gradient.6

Standards for lossy compression:

1. Joint photographic experts Group (JPEG)
2. Moving picture experts Group (MPEG)
3. Intel DVI
4. P*64 video coding algorithm.

Binary Image Compression Schemes:

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6
Introduction to computer,Peter Norton,TMH
A binary image containing black & white pixels. A scanner scans a document
as sequential scanlines. During scanning, the CCD array sensors of scanner
capture black & white pixels along a scanline. This process is repeated for next
scanline
and so on.

Packbit encoding:
In this, a consecutive repeated string of characters is replaced by two bytes.
First byte=no of times the character is repeated.
Second byte=character itself.
For e.g., 0000001111110000 is represented as
Byte1, byte2, byte3… byteN.0x06, 1x06, 0x04.
In some cases, one byte is used to represent both value of character & also no
of times.
I In this, one bit out of 8 used for representing pixel value, 7 bits are for
runlength. Typical compression efficiency is from ½ to1/5.
CCITT Group 3 1D:
Algorithm for Huffman coding:
1. Arrange the symbols probabilities pi in decreasing order& consider them as
leaf nodes of a tree.
2. while there is more than one node;
2.1. Merge the two nodes with smallest probability to form a new node
whose
probability is the sum of two merged nodes.
2.2. Arbitrarily assign 1 & 0 each pair of branches merging into a node.
3. Read sequentially from root to leaf node where symbol is located. Probability of
occurrence of a bit stream of length Rn is P (n). As a result, shorter codes
were developed for less frequent runlength.
For e.g., from below table , runlength code for 16 white pixels is
101010, while runlength code for 16 black pixels is 0000010111,since occurrence of
16 white pixels is more than that of 16 black pixels.
Codes greater than 1792 runlength is same for both pixels.
CCITT Group 3 1D utilizes Huffman coding to generate a set of terminating
codes & make-up codes for given bit stream.7

E.g., runlength of 132 where pixels are encoded by using,

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Make-up code for 128 white pixels-10010.
Terminating code for 4white pixels-1011

Generating coding tree:

CCITT Group 3 2D compression:
It uses a “k-factor” where image is divided into a several groups of k-
lines. First line of every group of k-lines is encoded using CCITT Group 3
1Dcompression. A 2D scheme is used with1D scheme to encode rest of the lines.8
Data format for 2D scheme:
2D-scheme uses a combination of pass code, vertical code, and
horizontal code. Pass code is 0001.horizotal code is 001.
Diff b/w pixel position in reference Verticalcode
lineAnd coding line
3 0000010
2 000010
1 010
0 1
-1 011
-2 000011
-3 0000011

Steps to code the coding line:

1. Parse the coding line and for change in pixel value.The pixel value
change if found at the location.
2. Parse the reference line and look for change in pixel value. The change is
found at the b1-location.
3. Find the difference in locations b1 & a1: Delta=b1-a1.
If delta is in b/w -3 to +3, apply vertical codes.
CCITT Group 4 2D compression:
In this, first reference line is an imaginary all white line above the top of image. The
new line becomes reference for next scan line.
GRAYSCALE,COLOR IMAGE& STILIMAGE COMPRESSION:

DCT :( DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM)

In time domain, signal requires lots of data points to represent the time in
x-axis & amplitude in y-axis. Once the signal is converted into a frequency
domain, only a few
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 data points are required to represent the same signal.9
A color image is composed of pixels; these pixels have RGB values, each
with its x & y coordinates using 8*8 matrixes. To compress the gray scale in
JPEG, each pixel is translated to luminance. To compress color image, work is 3
times as much.
DCT-CALCULATIONS:

Nos in the above table represent amplitude of pixel in 8*8 blocks. The tale2 shows
8*8 matrixes, after applying DCT. In table2, row0, column0 has DCT (i,j) as 172, it
is called as DC component, others are called as AC component & it has largervalue

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Image Processing By:-Rafael C. Gonzalez
than others.

Quantization:
Baseline JPEG algorithm supports 4 quantization tables & 2 Huffman tables for
DCand AC DCT coefficients.
Quantizedcoeff (i, j) =DCT (i, j)/quantum (i, j);
DCTcoefficients after quantization:

After quantization, JPEG elected to compress 0 values by utilizing runlength scheme.To find
no of 0s, JPEG uses zigzag manner.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS,
 Introduction to computer,Peter Norton,TMH

 Image Processing By:-Rafael C. Gonzalez

WEBLIOGRAPHY
 https://r.search.yahoo.com/

 https://search.visymo.com/