1

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Alternating Current
Theory
 2

Pure Resistance

In any circuit, resistance is the _______________ to

current flow and can be calculated using ohms law

R = VR
IR
In pure resistive A.C circuits resistor current and voltage
are in ___________. A very simple AC circuit consisting
of a source (e.m.f) and a resistor and if we were to plot
the current and voltage in the form of a phasor it would
look like the following with the current and voltage in
phase.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

Waveform
 3

Pure Inductance

Any coil of wire will set up a ______________ field

when it carries current and this principle is used in things
such as contactors, relays and motors. Such a changing
magnetic field induces a voltage that _____________
the applied voltage. This induced voltage is called a back
electromotive force (back e.m.f) and causes a purely
inductive circuit the current to lag the voltage by 900.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

Waveform
 4

Inductive Reactance (XL)

Inductive reactance is the _________________ to

current flow of an inductor (coil) the inductive reactance
(XL) and is measured in _________.

XL = 2πfL
XL = Inductive reactance in ohms
π = 3.142
f = Frequency in hertz (HZ)
L = Inductance in henries (H)

Example 1

What is the inductive reactance of a 0.1 H inductor when

it is connected to a 230 volt 50 HZ supply?

XL = 2πfL

XL = x x x

XL =
 5

Q1 What is the inductive reactance of a

0.18H inductor connected to a 230 volt 50HZ supply?
 6

Impedance

It is impossible to have pure inductance (magnetic)

because the inductor (coil) itself will have
________________ due to the copper wire.

On AC the total opposition to current flow is called the

impedance (Z) and is made up of both resistance and
inductance.
 7

Using Pythagoras

Using this formula.

a2 + b2 = c2

Impedance2 = Resistance2 + Inductive Reactance2

Z2 = R2 + XL2

Z=
 8

Example 2

Calculate the impedance of a coil that has a resistance of

12 ohms and an inductive reactance of 5 ohms. PLEASE
NOTE the drawing however simple will aid you in
making your calculations.

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=
 9

Q2 What is the impedance of a coil that has

the resistance of 12 ohms and an inductive reactance of
16 ohms?
 10

Q3 What is the impedance of a coil with a

resistance of 32 ohms and an inductive reactance of 24
ohms?
 11

Pure Capacitance
The current through a capacitor is a reaction against the
change in voltage across it. Therefore, the instantaneous
current is __________ whenever the instantaneous
voltage is at a __________. This results in a purely
capacitive circuit the current leads the voltage by 900.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

Waveform
 12

Capacitive Reactance (XC)

Capacitive reactance is the ________________ to

current flow of a capacitor. The capacitive reactance (XC)
and is measured in ________.

XC = __1__
2πfC
XC = Capacitive reactance in ohms
π = 3.142
f = Frequency in hertz (HZ)
C = Capacitance in farads (F)
 13

Example 3

What is the capacitive reactance if a 200F capacitor is

connected to a 230 volt 50HZ supply.

Convert 200F to farads  1000000 or on your calculator

200 exp –6.

XC = ______

XC = __________________

XC = _______

XC =
 14

Q4 What is the capacitive reactance of a

150F capacitor when it is connected to a 230 volt 50HZ
supply.
 15

Resistors and Capacitors in Series

The total opposition to current flow of these circuits is also

called ________________.

Therefore

Z=
 16

Example 4

What is the impedance of a circuit which has a resistance

of 48 ohms and a capacitive reactance of 20 ohms.

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=
 17

Q5 What is the circuit impedance if a 10.5

ohm resistor is connected in series with a capacitor of a
reactance of 14 ohms.
 18

Power on AC

True Power: This is the actual (useful) power of a circuit

and is measured in Watts (W) or Kilowatts (KW).

Reactive Power: This is the power taken by the

inductive or capacitive elements of a circuit and provides
NO useful power and pure inductor or pure capacitor
dissipates no power and is at 90O either lagging
(inductive) or leading by 90O leading (capacitive) all useful
power comes from the in phase current.

Apparent Power: This is the power the circuit appears

to use and is the combination of true power and reactive
power.

Once again using Pythagoras

To find VA we can see from the above drawing, it is the

longest side of the triangle and is the sum of the other
two sides within the following formula.
 19

Example 5

A 12 kW lighting load has a reactive power of 5 KVAr.

What is the apparent power.

KVA =

KVA =

KVA =

KVA =

KVA =
 20

Solve the following power triangles

Q6
 21

Q7
 22

Q8
 23

Q9
 24

Power Factor

The power factor of an AC system is defined as the

_________ of the true power to apparent power and is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1. A load with a
power factor of 1 will result in the most efficient loading of
the supply the power factor is said to be in _________
e.g. in purely resistive circuits or where the capacitance
and inductance are ___________. A load with a power
factor of 0.8 will result in much higher bills for the
consumer.

Power Factor Of 1 (Unity)

However, in most AC circuits the power factor is said to be

_______________ (inductive reactance) or
_______________ (capacitive reactance) power factor
(p.f) this can be calculated from:

p.f = True power or KW or R

Apparent power KVA Z
 25

Correcting a Poor Power Factor

Correcting the power factor on inductive loads such as

motors and fluorescent lighting fittings can be achieved by
connecting a _________________ across the incoming
supply of the component. In industry where there are
many _______________ machines a bank of
_________________ are connected across the
incoming supply power factor correction reduces the line
current which in turn reduces cable size, switch gear size
and installation running costs.
 26

Example 6

Calculate the power factor of a coil that has a resistance

of 8 ohms and an inductive reactance of 6 ohms.

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Power factor = ____ = ____ =

 27

Example 7

Calculate the power factor of a series circuit with a

resistance of 9 ohms and a capacitive reactance of 12
ohms.

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Z=

Power factor = ____ = ____ =

 28

Q10 Calculate the power factor of a coil that

has a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductive reactance of
40 ohms.
 29

Q11 The pf of the below triangle is…

Q12 The pf of the below triangle is…

 30

Q13 A load having a resistance and inductive

reactance is connected across an AC supply, the load
current will…

A) Lag the voltage

B) Lead the voltage
C) Be in phase with the voltage
D) Oppose the voltage

Q14 A factory operates a lot of machinery resulting in low

power factor, the power factor can be improved by
connecting…

A) A large resistor in series with the supply

B) A bank of capacitors in parallel with the supply
C) A bank of inductors in parallel with the supply
D) A bank of capacitors in series with the supply

Q15 Power factor is said to be in unity when…

A) Capacitance and inductance are out by 90°

B) Capacitance and inductance are out by 180°
C) Capacitance and inductance are equal
D) Current lags the voltage

Q16 Power factor is expressed by…

A) Resistance + Impedance
B) Resistance – Impedance
C) Resistance ÷ Impedance
D) Resistance x Impedance
 31

Q17 If the current and voltage of an AC circuit

are in phase the load is…

A) Pure capacitance
B) Pure inductance
C) Pure resistance
D) A series inductance and resistive circuit
 32

Measuring Voltage in an Inductive Load

In a circuit containing both resistance (R) and inductance

(L) the supply voltage VT is ______ simply the addition of
the voltdrop across the resistor VR and the voltdrop across
the inductor VL as the voltages are out of ___________
with each other.

As current is common throughout the circuit the phasor

diagram for the resistor and inductor would look like this.
Note that as previously stated in a resistive load the
current and voltage are in __________ and in an
inductive load the current _______ the voltage by
______.

Resistive Inductive
 33

The supply voltage VT can be found by using

Pythagoras.

Example 8

In a circuit containing a resistor and inductor in series the

voltdrop across the resistor is 12 volts with a voltdrop of 5
volts across the inductor. Calculate the circuit supply
voltage.

VT =

VT =

VT =

VT =

VT =
 34

Q18 In the following fluorescent lighting circuit

containing a lamp and a choke the voltdrop across the
lamp is 220 volts with a voltdrop of 67 volts across the
choke. Calculate the circuit supply voltage.
 35

Connecting Test Equipment

It is important when testing for current or voltage that

approved test equipment is used to prevent the user being
in danger of ____________ __________. This
equipment must be to the latest British standards, comply
with _________ and should be regularly inspected for
damage.

Safety Requirements for Test Probes to GS 38

Safety Requirements for Test Leads to GS 38


 36

When test probes are used in conjunction with

4mm terminals there is still part of the tip exposed, which
causes a risk of _________.

Test Probe 4 mm Terminal

To reduce the risk of shock these terminals should be

used only under _____________ conditions and
connecting to and withdrawing from should always be
carried out with the supply _____________.

Test Sequence Using 4 mm Terminals


 37

Q19 If the capacitor that is connected in

parallel across the supply on a fluorescent lighting fails or
becomes disconnected which of the following statements
will be correct: note there can be more than one correct
answer.

A) The lamp will start to flicker

B) The supply current will decrease
C) The supply current will increase
D) The lamp fails
E) The lamp continues to operate as normal
 38

Single Phase Loads Connected to a Three

Phase Supply

As with any three phase system it is important to

____________ loads across all _________ lines to
reduce __________ current. In three phase installation
such as factories and commercial buildings it is important
that _________ phase loads are spread equally across
all _________ lines where possible and therefore
reducing the neutral ___________.

Fig 1
 39

Q20 If the above loads 1, 2, and 3 in fig 1

were all drawing 7 amps what current would the neutral
carry?

A) 7 amps
B) 14 amps
C) 21 amps
D) 0 amps
 40

Connecting an Ammeter in Fig 1

By connecting a clip on ammeter around any one of the

line conductors feeding loads 1, 2, or 3 the current to that
load can be measured.
L1 L2 L3 N E

Or an ammeter can be connected in _________ with the

load to measure the current.
L1 L2 L3 N E

Note that the _______ requires removing in order to

connect the ammeter in _________ with the load.
 41

Connecting a Voltmeter in Fig 1

Single phase voltage can be obtained by connecting the

voltmeter between any ________ and __________ or
any _______ and __________.
L1 L2 L3 N E

Three phase voltage can be obtained by connecting the

voltmeter between any two ________.
L1 L2 L3 N E

The expected single phase voltage at supply intake is 230

volts however this may not be the case as the supply
voltage can vary between + _______ and – _______.

Note when connecting either an ammeter or volt meter

you must first select the correct supply type either
______ or ______ and range e.g. 0-10 amps or 0-250
volts depending on the load under test.
 42

Q21 What current will a single phase 100 watt

lamp draw?

Q22 The supply voltage in Britain may vary within which

of the following tolerances?

A) +10% to –6%
B) +6% to –10%
C) +6% to –6%
D) +10% to –10%
 43

Answers
Pure Resistance (students fill in missing gaps and
complete drawings)

In any circuit, resistance is the opposition to current flow

and can be calculated using ohms law

R = VR
IR
In pure resistive A.C circuits resistor current and voltage
are in phase. A very simple AC circuit consisting of a
source (e.m.f) and a resistor and if we were to plot the
current and voltage in the form of a phasor it would look
like the following with the current and voltage in phase.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

 44

Pure Inductance (students fill in missing

gaps and complete drawings)

Any coil of wire will set up a magnetic field when it

carries current and this principle is used in things such as
contactors, relays and motors. Such a changing magnetic
field induces a voltage that opposes the applied voltage.
This induced voltage is called a back electromotive force
(back e.m.f) and causes a purely inductive circuit the
current to lag the voltage by 900.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

Waveform
 45

Inductive Reactance (XL)

Inductive reactance is the opposition to current flow of

an inductor (coil) the inductive reactance (XL) and is
measured in ohms.

XL = 2πfL
XL = Inductive reactance in ohms
π = 3.142
f = Frequency in hertz (HZ)
L = Inductance in henries (H)

NOTE 2π is mathematically how to express 3600 for one

complete cycle.

Example 1 (students complete calculation)

What is the inductive reactance of a 0.1 H inductor when

it is connected to a 230 volt 50 HZ supply?

XL = 2πfL

XL = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.1

XL = 31.42 ohms
 46

Q1 What is the inductive reactance of a

0.18H inductor connected to a 230 volt 50HZ supply?

XL = 2πfL

XL = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.18

XL = 56.55 ohms
 47

Impedance (students fill in missing gaps

and complete triangle)

It is impossible to have pure inductance (magnetic)

because the inductor (coil) itself will have resistance due
to the copper wire.

On AC the total opposition to current flow is called the

impedance (Z) and is made up of both resistance and
inductance.
 48

Using Pythagoras (students complete

formula)

Using this formula.

2 2 2
a +b =c

Impedance2 = Resistance2 + Inductive Reactance2

2 2 2
Z = R + XL
 49

Example 2 (students complete

calculation)

Calculate the impedance of a coil that has a resistance of

12 ohms and an inductive reactance of 5 ohms. PLEASE
NOTE the drawing however simple will aid you in
making your calculations.

Z = 13 ohms
 50

Q2 What is the impedance of a coil that has

the resistance of 12 ohms and an inductive reactance of
16 ohms?

Z = 20 ohms
 51

Q3 What is the impedance of a coil with a

resistance of 32 ohms and an inductive reactance of 24
ohms?

Z = 40 ohms
 52

Pure Capacitance (students fill in missing

gaps and complete drawings)
The current through a capacitor is a reaction against the
change in voltage across it. Therefore, the instantaneous
current is zero whenever the instantaneous voltage is at a
peak. This results in a purely capacitive circuit the current
leads the voltage by 900.

Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram

Waveform
 53

Capacitive Reactance (XC)

Capacitive reactance is the opposition to current flow of

a capacitor. The capacitive reactance (XC) and is
measured in ohms.

XC = __1__
2πfC
XC = Capacitive reactance in ohms
π = 3.142
f = Frequency in hertz (HZ)
C = Capacitance in farads (F)
 54

Example 3 (students complete

calculation)

What is the capacitive reactance if a 200F capacitor is

connected to a 230 volt 50HZ supply.

Convert 200F to farads  1000000 or on your calculator

200 exp –6.

XC = __1__
2πfC

XC = _________1_________
2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.0002

XC = ___1___
0.06284

XC = 15.91 ohms
 55

Q4 What is the capacitive reactance of a

150F capacitor when it is connected to a 230 volt 50HZ
supply.

XC = __1__
2πfC

XC = _________1_________
2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.00015

XC = ___1___
0.04713

XC = 21.22 ohms
 56

Resistors and Capacitors in Series

(students fill in missing gaps and complete
triangle)

The total opposition to current flow of these circuits is also

called impedance.

Therefore
 57

Example 4 (students complete

calculation)

What is the impedance of a circuit which has a resistance

of 48 ohms and a capacitive reactance of 20 ohms.

Z = 52 ohms
 58

Q5 What is the circuit impedance if a 10.5

ohm resistor is connected in series with a capacitor of a
reactance of 14 ohms.

Z = 17.5 ohms
 59

Power on AC

True Power: This is the actual (useful) power of a circuit

and is measured in Watts (W) or Kilowatts (KW).

Reactive Power: This is the power taken by the

inductive or capacitive elements of a circuit and provides
NO useful power and pure inductor or pure capacitor
dissipates no power and is at 90O either lagging
(inductive) or leading by 90O leading (capacitive) all useful
power comes from the in phase current.

Apparent Power: This is the power the circuit appears

to use and is the combination of true power and reactive
power.

Once again using Pythagoras

To find VA we can see from the above drawing, it is the

longest side of the triangle and is the sum of the other
two sides within the following formula.
 60

Example 5 (students complete

calculation)

A 12 kW lighting load has a reactive power of 5 KVAr.

What is the apparent power.
 61

Solve the following power triangles

Q6

KVA =  (KW2 + KVAr2)

KVA =  (282 + 212)

KVA =  (784 + 441)

KVA = 1225

KVA = 35 KVA
 62

Q7

W =  (VA2 – VAr2)

W =  (402 – 322)

W =  (1600 – 1024)

W = 576

W = 24 Watts
 63

Q8

KW =  (KVA2 – KVAr2)

KW =  (392 – 152)

KW =  (1521 – 225)

KW = 1296

KW = 36 KW
 64

Q9

KVAr =  (KVA2 – KW2)

KVAr =  (22.52 – 13.52)

KVAr =  (506.25 – 182.25)

KVAr = 324

KVAr = 18 KVAr
 65

Power Factor (students fill in missing

gaps)

The power factor of an AC system is defined as the ratio

of the true power to apparent power and is expressed as
a number between 0 and 1. A load with a power factor of
1 will result in the most efficient loading of the supply the
power factor is said to be in unity e.g. in purely resistive
circuits or where the capacitance and inductance are
equal. A load with a power factor of 0.8 will result in
much higher bills for the consumer.

Power Factor Of 1 (Unity)

However, in most AC circuits the power factor is said to be

lagging (inductive reactance) or leading (capacitive
reactance) power factor (p.f) this can be calculated from:

p.f = True power or KW or R

Apparent power KVA Z
 66

Correcting a Poor Power Factor (students

fill in missing gaps)

Correcting the power factor on inductive loads such as

motors and fluorescent lighting fittings can be achieved by
connecting a capacitor across the incoming supply of the
component. In industry where there are many inductive
machines a bank of capacitors are connected across the
incoming supply power factor correction reduces the line
current which in turn reduces cable size, switch gear size
and installation running costs.
 67

Example 6 (students complete

calculation)

Calculate the power factor of a coil that has a resistance

of 8 ohms and an inductive reactance of 6 ohms.

Z = 10 ohms

Power factor = R = 8 = 0.8 lagging

Z 10
 68

Example 7 (students complete

calculation)

Calculate the power factor of a series circuit with a

resistance of 9 ohms and a capacitive reactance of 12
ohms.

Z = 15 ohms

Power factor = R = 9 = 0.6 leading

Z 15
 69

Q10 Calculate the power factor of a coil that

has a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductive reactance of
40 ohms.

Z =  (R2 + XL2)

Z =  (302 + 402)

Z =  (900 + 1600)

Z = 2500

Z = 50 ohms

Power factor = R = 30 = 0.6 lagging

Z 50
 70

Q11 The pf of the below triangle is…

Power factor = R = 20 = 0.8 lagging

Z 25

Q12 The pf of the below triangle is…

Power factor = R = 38 = 0.95 lagging

Z 40
 71

Q13 A load having a resistance and inductive

reactance is connected across an AC supply, the load
current will…

A) Lag the voltage

B) Lead the voltage
C) Be in phase with the voltage
D) Oppose the voltage

Q14 A factory operates a lot of machinery resulting in low

power factor, the power factor can be improved by
connecting…

A) A large resistor in series with the supply

B) A bank of capacitors in parallel with the
supply
C) bank of inductors in parallel with the supply
D) A bank of capacitors in series with the supply

Q15 Power factor is said to be in unity when…

A) Capacitance and inductance are out by 90°

B) Capacitance and inductance are out by 180°
C) Capacitance and inductance are equal
D) Current lags the voltage

Q16 Power factor is expressed by…

A) Resistance + Impedance
B) Resistance – Impedance
C) Resistance ÷ Impedance
D) Resistance x Impedance
 72

Q17 If the current and voltage of an AC circuit

are in phase the load is…

A) Pure capacitance
B) Pure inductance
C) Pure resistance
D) A series inductance and resistive circuit
 73

Measuring Voltage in an Inductive Load

In a circuit containing both resistance (R) and inductance

(L) the supply voltage VT is not simply the addition of the
voltdrop across the resistor VR and the voltdrop across the
inductor VL as the voltages are out of phase with each
other.

As current is common throughout the circuit the phasor

diagram for the resistor and inductor would look like this.
Note that as previously stated in a resistive load the
current and voltage are in phase and in an inductive load
the current lags the voltage by 900.

Resistive Inductive

The supply voltage VT can be found by using Pythagoras.

 74

Example 8 (students complete

calculation)

In a circuit containing a resistor and inductor in series the

voltdrop across the resistor is 12 volts with a voltdrop of 5
volts across the inductor. Calculate the circuit supply
voltage.

VT = 13 volts
 75

Q18 In the following fluorescent lighting circuit

containing a lamp and a choke the voltdrop across the
lamp is 220 volts with a voltdrop of 67 volts across the
choke. Calculate the circuit supply voltage.

VT = 230 volts
 76

Connecting Test Equipment

It is important when testing for current or voltage that

approved test equipment is used to prevent the user being
in danger of electric shock. This equipment must be to
the latest British standards, comply with GS 38 and
should be regularly inspected for damage.

Safety Requirements for Test Probes to GS 38

(Students come up with List)

 Finger barriers or are shaped to prevent contact with

live parts

 Metal tip not exceeding 4 mm, 2 mm or less where

practicable

 Spring loaded or retractable probes where possible

 High breaking capacity fuse or fuses with low current

rating usually not exceeding 500 mA or current
limiting resistor and fuse

Safety Requirements for Test Leads to GS 38

(Students come up with List)

 Adequately insulated to protect against mechanical

damage

 Coloured differently so can be easily distinguished

from each other

 Flexible

 Long enough
 77

When test probes are used in conjunction with 4mm

terminals there is still part of the tip exposed, which
causes a risk of shock.

Test Probe 4 mm Terminal

To reduce the risk of shock these terminals should be

used only under controlled conditions and connecting to
and withdrawing from should always be carried out with
the supply isolated.

Test Sequence Using 4 mm Terminals (students

come up with list)

 Isolate supply

 Insert test probes

 Energise supply

 Record reading

 Isolate supply

 Remove test probes

 78

Q19 If the capacitor that is connected in parallel across

the supply on a fluorescent lighting fails or becomes
disconnected which of the following statements will be
correct: note there can be more than one correct answer.

A) The lamp will start to flicker

B) The supply current will decrease
C) The supply current will increase
D) The lamp fails
E) The lamp continues to operate as normal
 79

Single Phase Loads Connected to a Three

Phase Supply

As with any three phase system it is important to balance

loads across all three lines to reduce neutral current. In
three phase installation such as factories and commercial
buildings it is important that single phase loads are
spread equally across all three lines where possible and
therefore reducing the neutral current.

Fig 1
Q20 If the above loads 1, 2, and 3 in fig 1 were all
drawing 7 amps what current would the neutral carry?

A) 7 amps
B) 14 amps
C) 21 amps
D) 0 amps
 80

Connecting an Ammeter in Fig 1

By connecting a clip on ammeter around any one of the

line conductors feeding loads 1, 2, or 3 the current to that
load can be measured.
L1 L2 L3 N E

Or an ammeter can be connected in series with the load

to measure the current. (students add ammeter leads)

L1 L2 L3 N E

Note that the link requires removing in order to connect

the ammeter in series with the load.
 81

Connecting a Voltmeter in Fig 1(students

add missing gaps and voltmeter leads)

Single phase voltage can be obtained by connecting the

voltmeter between any line and neutral or any line and
earth.
L1 L2 L3 N E

Three phase voltage can be obtained by connecting the

voltmeter between any two lines.
L1 L2 L3 N E

The expected single phase voltage at supply intake is 230

volts however this may not be the case as the supply
voltage can vary between + 10 % and – 6 %.

Note when connecting either an ammeter or volt meter

you must first select the correct supply type either AC or
DC and range e.g. 0-10 amps or 0-250 volts depending on
the load under test.
 82

Q21 What current will a single phase 100 watt

lamp draw?

Power = Current x Voltage

P=IxV

I=P
V
V=P
I
P=VxI

I=P
V

I = 100
230

I = 0.43 amps

Q22 The supply voltage in Britain may vary within which

of the following tolerances?

A) +10% to –6%
B) +6% to –10%
C) +6% to –6%
D) +10% to –10%