FoEN Lectures 1-22 Color 1up

ELEN20005
Foundations of Electrical
Networks (FoEN)
Dr. Brian Krongold
bsk@unimelb.edu.au
Room 5.12, EEE Building
8344 3812
1
2
What is ELEN20005 About?

  Introduce fundamental modeling and analysis
techniques for the analysis of systems involving
electrical phenomena.
  Topics include:
  Electrical phenomena: charge, current, voltage, etc.
  Basic circuit elements: sources, resistors, inductors, etc.
  DC Circuit models and analysis
  AC Circuit models and analysis
  Applications and models: power lines, speakers, etc.
  Digital systems: review of combinatorial logic, timing
diagrams, transient effects
3
Prerequisites
  Integral and Differential Calculus
  Linear Algebra
  Physics (VCE level or higher)
  Basic digital logic (Engineering System Design 2)

4
Assessment
  Workshops = 30%
  Consists of in-class workshop assessment, quizzes,
and assignments.
  Details to be given at the first lecture of semester and
to be posted on the LMS
  Mid-Test = 10%
  Date to be announced early in the semester
  Final Exam = 60% (Note: the Exam has a hurdle)

5
Lectures & Consultations
  Lecture Times/Locations (at time of printing, may change)
  Monday 2:15 – 3:15, Elizabeth Murdoch, Theatre A
  Wednesday 2:15 – 3:15, Redmond Barry, Lyle Theatre
  Friday 2:15 – 3:15, Redmond Barry, Lyle Theatre
  Lecture capture of both audio & video will be enabled for all
lectures.
  Consultation Hours: Room 5.12, EEE Building

  Consultation times to be announced at start of semester.
  More consultation times will be added before the Mid-Test and for the
Final Exam.
  You can try and pop by when my office door is open. It can
work, but not always. You can email me for an appointment too.
6
Workshops
  Workshops begin in Week 1 of the semester!
  Each workshop will involve a combination of:
  Circuit analysis with software (OrCAD, MATLAB)
  Building test circuits on a breadboard
  Measuring circuits with multimeters and oscilloscopes
  Analyzing and understanding the circuit’s behavior
  Quizzes
  I will stopping by may workshops each week for maybe 20-25
minutes to monitor progress and help out.
  Detailed Workshop Policy posted to LMS and presented at
the first day of lecture.
7
Tentative Syllabus
  To be posted to the LMS and displayed in Lecture 1.

8
Lecture Notes and the LMS

  Lecture Notes (Part 1) will be available at the Co-op Bookshop (as
well as being posted to the LMS).
  Remaining lecture slides posted to the LMS during the semester.
  A Workshop Booklet plus is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

also posted on the LMS.
  NOTE: Contains only the first 7 Workshops. The remaining 5 will be
posted to the LMS during the semester.
  A FoEN Problem Booklet is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

also posted on the LMS.
  Contains a long list of practice problems to help you better learn the
material and prepare for the Mid-Test and Final Exam.
  More problems to be added later this semester to cover newer topics
  All assignments and solutions will be posted in a timely fashion on

the LMS.
9
Textbook and Additional Materials

  “Main” Textbook: “Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications”,
by Allan R. Hambley, 6th edition.
  I ll make references to this book and page/section numbers for each
topic in the subject.
  I ll usually call it Hambley , the author s last name.
  Many of my examples in these lecture notes are from Hambley.
  The 3rd, 4th or 5th edition of the text is also sufficient for this subject.
  Alternate Textbook: “Electric Circuits”, by Nilsson & Riedel, 9th ed.

  I ll make references to this book and section numbers for each topic in
the subject. I ll usually refer to it as Nilsson
  This textbook is also used in ELEN30009 Electrical Network Analysis
& Design (ENAD), which directly follows this one in the ELEN
curriculum.
10
Textbook and Additional Materials

  Recommended Optional Materials
  Schaum s Outlines: Electric Circuits (Chapters 1-4, 7, 9-10, 15).
  Summarizes the theory and concepts, and has problems with fully-worked
solutions, and many other examples with answers.
  Lessons in Electrical Circuits , by Tony R. Kuphaldt

  Free E-book: http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/
  6 volumes in total and quite extensive
  Other material and links will be in the notes or posted to the LMS
throughout the semester.
  There are many online resources on the web. Use Google!

11
Emails
  I like to send emails via the subject email list. These are
automatically sent to your UniMelb student email account.
  Expect many this semester (at least two per week).
  I will be emailing weekly lecture summaries giving the main

lecture points and some extra thoughts and perspective.
  Will post these emails on the LMS in the “Blog Tool”

  Go to Subject Tools first, then Blog Tool
  When emailing me, please put “FoEN” in the “Subject”

  You are urged to email me from your Unimelb account in order to avoid
issues with the Uni s spam filter. Also, I cannot email anything grade-
related to non-UniMelb email addresses.
12
So Why Should You Take FoEN?

  You want (or are considering) a major in Electrical Systems
followed by a 2-year Master in Electrical Engineering
  This subject begins the groundwork for more in-depth and
exciting topics and subjects.
  You wish to study Mechanical Systems or Mechatronics and

the subject is required.
  The combination of electrical and mechanical engineering is
present in many applications:
  Electro-mechanical systems   Automation and robotics
  Automotive systems   Industrial manufacturing
  Thermo-electric devices   Sensing and control systems
  Electric power conversion and power engineering
  As an elective due to interest in physics and electrical effects.

13
What Subjects Follow FoEN?

ELEN20005
ELEN30009 ELEN30010
Electrical Network Digital System
Analysis & Design Design
Semester 1, 2015
ELEN30012 ELEN30011 ELEN30013
Signals Electrical Device Electronic System
& Systems Modeling Implementation
Semester 2, 2015
14
Surviving FoEN: What I Expect From You!

  Emphasis is on UNDERSTANDING
  GOLDEN RULE: Memorisation without understanding leads to poor

exam performance and a significantly higher probability of failure.
  Do NOT adopt the philosophy of just trying to find a magical formula

to solve a given problem immediately.
  You need to understand WHY the maths and principles applied are
correct in order to do well in this subject.
  Mid-test and Exam will focus on understanding of concepts and a

correspondingly correct application of maths, not your ability to
blindly apply formulas. This is a firm warning!
  See me for help if you are struggling with concepts. When you
understand and can apply them, the maths and problems become
easier.
15
Surviving FoEN: What I Expect From You!

  Throughout the term, you need to stay current with the material.
  Understanding the subject does not happen overnight or by

cramming before exams. Effort and practice is the only way to learn
this material!
  SUGGESTION: Reinforce lecture material by going over it very soon

after it is presented. Furthermore, go over the lecture slides just
before I present the material to get an idea ahead of time.
  40% of your final mark is from continuous assessment during the

term. I therefore expect a continuous effort from you.
  WARNING: Skipping lecture and not keeping up with the material in

this subject can seriously hurt your final mark and drastically increase
your chance of failing.
  DO NOT GET COMPLACENT! The first two weeks may seem easy,
but the difficulty level clearly increases afterwards.
16
What is Electrical Engineering?
  The profession concerned with the design, development, construction and
application of systems that generate, convert, gather, transport, store, and
process electrical energy and signals.
  In some applications, electrical signals are synonymous with information
  Transport of electrical signals and energy has been significant for society
  Communication systems with almost zero delay (mobiles, internet, etc.)
  Ability to generate, convert and distribute electrical power has revolutionized
the world
  Prime examples of storage and processing of electrical signals

(information) are computers and other devices with microprocessors.
  Control systems gather and process information to control physical
systems such as airplanes, automobiles, and many others.
  Processing of electrical signals (i.e., signal processing) is seen in many
applications. Examples include biomedical (MRI, ECG, ultrasound, etc),
audio and speech signals and images/video, remote sensing and array
processing, communications, etc.
17
What is Electrical Engineering?
  Some major areas of Electrical Engineering
  Power Systems   Microelectronics & Fabrication
  Control Systems   Digital Systems & Computers
  Signal Processing   Telecommunications
  Electronics   Electromagnetics & Photonics
  Biomedical Engineering   Mechatronics
  There are MANY applications of electrical engineering in everyday

society. Far too numerous to list.
  For more details on electrical engineering see Hambley 1.1 or

Nilsson 1.1.
18
What is Electrical Engineering? Alternate View
  First let’s ask, “What is engineering?”
  Engineering is the purposeful use of science
– Dr. Stephen Senturia, MIT
  There are similar definitions, but this is one of my favourites.
  From this point of view,

  Electrical engineering is the purposeful use of Maxwell s Equations
(or Abstractions) for electromagnetic phenomena. . Alternatively, it is
the gainful use of Maxwell s Equations. – A. Agarwal, J. Lang, MIT
  Maxwell’s equations are the set of four fundamental equations describing

electromagnetism (i.e., the behavior of electric and magnetic fields).
  These four equations, each referred to as a “Law”, are theories developed from
experimental observations and used to model electromagnetism. Hence, they,
like other laws of physics, are models of reality.
  Since we will use models throughout this semester, let’s first make sure we have
a solid understanding of what they are.
19
Models and Engineering

  “A model in science is a physical, mathematical, or logical representation
of a system of entities, phenomena, or processes. A model is a simplified
abstract view of the complex reality.” -- Wikipedia
  Models simplify complex physical realities so that our brains can make
sense of it them. A prime example of this is the atom, which is a model.
  Models can have varying levels of depth & complexity. At times, we even
need to make simpler models from models to practically solve problems.
  For everyday, practical electrical engineering problems, Maxwell’s
equations are an example of this need.
  As a set of partial differential equations over surfaces and volumes, it would be
intractable to apply them in every practical electromagnetic system.
  Maxwell s equations do have a critical role in physics and advanced device modeling
  Instead, we use the concept of abstraction to simplify Maxwell s equations in
order to meet our practical needs.
  Example: Consider a light bulb connected to a battery. What if we want

to know the power dissipated by a light bulb. How can we compute this?
20
A Complicated Equation
Differential Form Integral Form
Gauss s Law
for magnetism
Faraday s Law
Ampere s Law
Maxwell’s Equations
+ = QUITE
COMPLICATED!
21
Abstraction: A Powerful Engineering Tool

  Abstraction is the process of generalizing by reducing
the information content of a concept or an observable
phenomenon, typically in order to retain only relevant
information for a purpose.
  Example (from [1]):
Force F Mass m Acceleration = ?
  You might say: right ??
[1] Anant Agarwal and Jeffrey Lang, course materials for 6.002 Circuits and Electronics,
Spring 2007 MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
22

  Using Newton’s 2nd Law, we ignore shape, temperature,
point of force application, and other attributes of the object.
  This is an abstraction, whereby the object is reduced to a

point mass and Newton’s 2nd law is used.
  The same can be done with the light bulb in order to find
the power dissipated when connected to a battery
  Ignore how current flows through the light bulb filament
  Ignore its shape, size, temperature, orientation, etc.
  Model the light bulb with a discrete resistor.
23
+
_
  A three-dimensional object (light bulb) has been “lumped” into an element

with resistance . The battery is lumped into a source with voltage
  Similar concept as lumping an object into a point mass.

  The bulb’s resistance is the property of interest needed to compute power
  Using Ohm’s Law (a model in itself as we shall soon see) the current
through the light bulb can be calculated as
  Power can then be computed (as we’ll see later) to be
24

  Abstraction is widely used in engineering to simplify
science into tractable models (both computationally and
conceptually).
  It is important to understand the abstractions that has

gone into these models and realize their limitations.
  Real-life systems do not always behave as predicted by

models. It’s important to be able to figure out why.
  In the light bulb example, I neglected any resistance in the

connecting wires. Batteries can have internal resistances
as well. This can affect my model’s accuracy.
25
Basic Modeling Example

26
More Advanced Modeling Example

  A speaker is an electro-mechanical device.
  To help compute its output power, frequency

response, or other properties, a speaker can be
modeled with only electrical devices.
27
Charge, Current, Voltage and Power
Reading: Hambley 1.2, 1.3

Nilsson 1.4, 1.6
28
What is an Electrical Network?

  An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical elements
such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage
sources, current sources, and switches.
  An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop, giving a

return path for the electric current. A network is a connection of two
or more components, and may not necessarily be a circuit.
  In other words, an electrical circuit is a special case of an electrical

network. It is a never-ending looped pathway for electrons.
  We will mainly be dealing with electrical circuits in this subject.

An exception might be if we briefly look at power transmission line
models and perhaps a few other network examples.
  Important: the laws and theories we learn in this subject apply to all
electrical networks and not just circuits. I’ll use the terms “network”
and “circuit” interchangeably during the semester.
29
Electrical Charge
  Electrical charge is a property of atomic particles, such as electrons
and protons.
  Charge is measured in Coulombs (C) and is bipolar (can be positive or

negative)
  The charge of 1 electron is -1.6 X 10-19 C (1 proton is +1.6 X 10-19 C)
  -1 C of charge has 6.24 X 1018 electrons
  The standard symbol for charge is q
  Like charges repel, opposite charges attract
Coulomb s Law:
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
30
Materials and Charge

  Insulators are materials that resist the flow of electrons because
their valence shells are full or almost full (tightly bound electrons)
  Examples: glass, plastic, rubber.
  Conductors are materials with a large number of free electrons

(loosely bound valence electrons, ~ 1 per atom)
  Allow for the easy flow of electrons
  Examples: Metals, especially silver, gold, copper, aluminium
  Semiconductors are materials with half-filled valence shells

(4 electrons) and are neither good conductors or good insulators
  Electrons are not tightly bound and can be easily promoted to a free
state.
  Examples: silicon and germanium
  Used to make transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.
31
Charge and Energy

  Electrical effects are attributed to two phenomenon
  The separation of charge creates an electric force (voltage)
  The motion of charge creates an electric flow (current)
  Energy is the capacity to do work, and measured in Joules (J).

1 Joule = 1 Nm = 1 kgm2 / s2
  Work is required to move positive and negative charges apart,

thus giving charge potential energy.
  Similar to a mass held high above the ground having potential
energy (energy if released due to gravity s force).
  It is this potential energy which is in batteries and other sources of
electrical power. Upon release to an electrical network, this
energy is capable of doing work (energy transfer).
32
Electric Current
  Electric current is the time rate of change of charge (i.e., the rate of
charge flow) through an electrical device. Typical symbols are I and i.
  Whereas it really is electrons flowing that gives rise to current, the
historical (and universal) convention is to view current as the
movement of positive charges (opposite to flow of negative charges)
  If q(t) is the net positive charge transferred through the cross section
of a device at time t, then the current is given by
  The unit for current is Amperes (A) (1 A = 1 Coulomb/sec)
André-Marie Ampèrec
33
Electrical Current
  To find the net charge transferred through the cross section between
initial time t0 and t, we integrate:
  If current is constant with time, it is called direct current (DC)

  If it varies sinusoidally with time, it is called alternating current (AC)
34
Current and Charge Calculation Example

35
Electric Potential Difference: Voltage
  When charge moves through a network, energy can be transferred.
  Voltage, or electrical potential difference, between two points in a network

is the energy transferred per unit of charge flowing between the points.
where is the energy supplied (Joules) and is the charge (Coulombs).

  Another way of saying this: Voltage is the energy required to move a
Coulomb of charge (positive) between two points in an electrical network.
  A positive charge moving between two points with a positive voltage means
that the charge loses energy (transfers it to the space or device it travels over).
  Note that voltage is defined between two points in a network. It is

therefore a relative measure, hence the word “difference” above.
  Typical symbols are v and V.
  The unit for voltage is Volts (V)

Alessandro
(1 V = 1 Joule/Coulomb) Volta
36
Electric Potential Difference: Voltage

  is the voltage between points “a” and “b”
  double subscript notation for voltage between two points
  Also called the voltage drop between “a” and “b” or

the voltage “across” the element in the blue box.
  Interchanging subscript reference points gives
  We will use both voltage and current to represent the

electrical phenomenon in circuits and networks.
  Keeping track of net transferred charge and potential energy at a
single point is more difficult to work with in analysis and design.
  In particular, we can completely characterize basic ideal circuit
elements by their current-voltage relationship.
37
A Note on Voltage Notation
  A voltage with two subscripts, i.e. , signifies the
voltage drop between two points (nodes) in a circuit.
vab > 0 ! a is at a higher potential relative to b
vab < 0 ! a is at a lower potential relative to b

b is at a higher potential relative to a ! vba > 0
  A voltage with a single subscript, i.e. va , signifies either

1) The voltage across device A _
 
+
A
  2) The voltage at node a relative to ground when we do node
voltage analysis (we ll see this in Week 3).
Note: We can think of to help understand our convention for

Do note that the voltage of a single point by itself makes no sense (voltage is relative).
38
Energy Transfer and Voltage
  Let’s assume in this slide that vab > 0, signifying a positive voltage
drop occurring from “a” to “b”.
  If a positive charge flows from “a” to “b” (through the device), this results
in energy being absorbed by the element. The positive charge has lost
potential energy from the voltage drop.
  If a positive charge flows from “b” to “a”, the result is energy supplied by
the element. The positive charge gains energy from a voltage rise.1
  NOTE: Knowing the voltage drop alone does not indicate energy loss or
absorption. The direction of current flow needs to be known as well.
1 a negative voltage drop is also

known as a voltage rise .
39
More on Energy Transfer and Voltage
  You can use “opposite equivalents” to help determine whether
energy is supplied or absorbed by a device. Here are some
examples to consider:
  Example #1: A negative charge moves through a positive voltage drop.
  Equivalent Statement: A positive charge moves through a voltage rise.
  Result: Energy is supplied by the element to the charge.
  Example #2: A positive charge moves from b to a, where vab > 0

  Equivalent Statement: A positive charge moves from b to a, where vba < 0
  Result: Energy is supplied by the element to the charge
(charge moves through a voltage rise).
  Example #3: A negative charge moves from b to a, where vab > 0

  Equivalent Statement: A positive charge moves from a to b, where vab >0
  Result: Energy is absorbed by the element (charge loses energy).
40
Examples of Voltage, Current, & Energy
  The current flowing from “a” to “b” at time t is:
( is milliamp)
Find the net charge passing through the element from

time t = 0 to t = 5 seconds?
  If , how much energy is transferred when 3 C

of charge moves from “a” to “b” across the element? Is
energy supplied or absorbed by the element?
  If and an electron moves from a to

b across the element, how much energy is
transferred? Does the electron gain or lose
potential energy?
41
Solutions
  Using , the charge through the device is:
Z 5
t t 5 5
qab = 0.002 e = 0.002 e 0
= 0.002 0.002 e
0
= .0019865 C
  3 C is a positive charge. Positive charge is flowing through a
voltage RISE. Therefore, it’s gaining energy, and energy is
SUPPLIED by the element. 3 C goes through a 9 J/C rise, resulting
in 27 J supplied by the element to the charge moving through it.
  An electron moving from a to b is the same as positive charge

moving from b to a, i.e., vba = vab = 6 V . Thus, positive
charge is moving through a voltage RISE, and the element is
supplying energy. Thus, the electron absorbs energy (gains
potential energy) equal to. 6 J/C x 1.6e-19 = 9.6 x 10-19 J.
42
Electric Power
  Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy.
It is therefore an (energy ÷ time) measurement.
  We can also describe power as “the rate of doing work”

or “the rate of energy transfer.”
  Measured in Watts (W) (1 Watt = 1 Joule/second)
  When you get a “power bill” from Origin, AGL, etc.,

the measured use is in kWh (kilowatthours).
This is actually a measure of energy, not power.
  How do we know if power is absorbed or supplied?

James Watt
43
Reference Directions and Polarities
  When we begin to analyze a circuit, we often do not know the actual
voltage polarities or current directions.
  In order to perform circuit analysis, reference directions and polarities
need to be specified.
  Polarity reference for voltage is indicated with + and – signs.
Current reference direction is indicated with an arrow.
  We can simply assign these references arbitrarily
(the actual polarities/directions are not arbitrary though).
  Circuit analysis then follows _ _
to determine the actual + +
directions and polarities.
+ + +
_ _ _
44
Passive and Active Sign Convention
  When the current reference direction is
from the + to – voltage polarity, it is
called Passive Sign Convention (PSC)
  Power is computed as
  If positive current enters the positive terminal
of the device and v > 0 , power is absorbed.
  When the current reference direction is

opposite to the voltage polarity reference,
it has the Active Sign Convention (ASC)
  Power is computed as Passive Sign

  If positive current enters the negative Convention Example
terminal of the device and v < 0 , power is
absorbed.
45
Passive Vs. Active Sign Convention
Passive Sign Active Sign

Convention Convention
46
Power Absorption and Generation
  If p > 0 , the device absorbs energy (it is a sink)
  i.e, power is being delivered to the device
  Positive charge is flowing from higher potential energy to lower
potential energy.
  Occurs when both voltage and current have the same sign (under
passive sign convention)
  Absorbed energy can be converted into heat which is expended, it
can be stored (possibly in an electric or magnetic field), or
converted into other energy types (mechanical, chemical, etc.).
  If p < 0 , the device supplies energy (it is a source)

  i.e., power is being extracted from the device
  Positive charge is flowing from lower to higher potential energy
  Occurs when voltage and current have opposite signs
(under passive sign convention)
47
Passive Sign Convention: Case 1
i > 0, v > 0
  Positive current (positive charge flow)

is moving through a voltage drop.
  Energy is then being transferred from

the positive charge to the device.
  The device is therefore absorbing

energy (power)
Passive Sign   Verified by ,

Convention so the device is indeed absorbing
power.
48
  Negative current (negative charge flow)

is moving through a voltage drop.
  Equivalently, this means that positive

charge is moving through a voltage rise
(negative voltage drop).
  Energy is then being transferred to the

positive charge from the device.
  The device is therefore supplying

energy (power).
Passive Sign
Convention   Verified by , so
the device is indeed supplying power.
49
i > 0, v < 0
is moving through a voltage rise (same
as a negative voltage drop).


energy (power).
  Verified by ,
Passive Sign so the device is indeed supplying
Convention power.
50
i < 0, v < 0

is moving through a voltage rise (same as
a negative voltage drop).
charge is moving through a voltage drop.
  Energy is then being transferred from the
positive charge to the device.
  The device is therefore absorbing energy
(power)
Passive Sign
Convention   Verified by , so the
device is indeed absorbing power.
51
Active Sign Convention: Case 1
i > 0, v > 0

is moving through a voltage rise (as it
is going from the – to + reference.


energy (power).
  Verified by p(t) = v(t) i(t) < 0 , so

Active Sign the device is indeed supplying power.
Convention
  Same scenario as PSC Case 2
52

is moving through a voltage rise.
charge is moving through a voltage drop.
  Energy is then being transferred from the
positive charge to the device.
  The device is therefore absorbing energy
(power).
  Verified by p(t) = v(t) i(t) > 0 , so
Active Sign the device is indeed absorbing power.
Convention
53
i > 0, v < 0
  Positive current (positive charge flow) is
moving through a negative voltage rise
(positive voltage drop).
  Energy is then being transferred from

the positive charge to the device.
  The device is therefore absorbing

energy (power)
  Verified by p(t) = v(t) i(t) > 0 , so

the device is indeed absorbing power.
Active Sign
Convention   Same scenario as PSC Case 4
54
i < 0, v < 0
is moving through a negative voltage rise
(positive voltage drop).
charge is moving through a voltage rise.
  The device is therefore supplying energy
(power).
  Verified by p(t) = v(t) i(t) < 0 , so
Active Sign the device is indeed supplying power.
Convention
55
Power and the Passive Sign Convention

  Note: the labeling of which terminal is + or – does not affect
power. Labeling is something we do for analysis.
  Example: Assume the indicated voltage and current are positive

in (a), which gives rise to a positive power.
  If we switch the reference polarity/direction (still PSC though) as

in (b), voltage and current are now negative with respect to the
reference, but power is still positive! (Thus, labeling is arbitrary!)
Switch reference _
+ polarity & direction
_ power does not change +

(a) (b)
56
Power Calculation Examples:
Passive Sign Active Sign Passive Sign

Convention Convention Convention
57
Kirchhoff s Current & Voltage Laws

Nilsson 2.4
58
The Ideal Basic Two-Terminal Element
  Consists of two terminals (points of connection).
  Mathematically described in terms of current
and/or voltage characteristics.
  A pair of terminals through which a current may
enter and leave is called a port.
  Two-terminal elements are also referred to as
one-port elements.
  As these are “basic elements”, they cannot be
subdivided into other elements.
  Connecting our two-terminal elements to form
networks will be conductors (e.g., wires)
  Unless specified, they are assumed to allow
current to pass without resistance and with zero
voltage drop (no energy transfer).
59
Circuit and Network Connections
  Electrical engineers usually use symbolic diagrams (schematics) to
represent a physical situation. Such diagrams contain:
  Paths: a trace of adjoining basic elements.
  Nodes: a point in a circuit where two or more elements are joined
together. Essential nodes have 3 or more elements joined together.
  Branches: a path that connects two nodes. An essential branch
connects two essential nodes.
  Loops: a closed path through a subset of nodes in a circuit (no passing
of intermediate nodes more than once).
1 2 3
Example:
3 Loops
4 Nodes (2 are essential nodes)
5 Branches 4
(+ 3 essential branches)
60
Series and Parallel Connections
  Two or more elements are in series when they are connected
end to end.
  Two or more elements are in parallel if both ends of one element

are connected directly to corresponding ends of the other.
61
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
  KCL: The net current entering a node is zero.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
where N is the number of branches connected to the

node, and in is the nth current entering the node.
62
Alternative Equivalent KCL Formulation
  The sum of currents entering a node
= sum of currents leaving the node.
  Result: Charge stored in a node is zero
  Note: it does not matter what our reference

directions are. KCL still holds!
  Key KCL result: all elements in series carry the same current.
63
KCL Example
You are given three current values above.

Find all the other labeled currents using KCL.
KCL Example (Let’s Write KCL Equations!) 64
The obvious ones first:

ie = if = ig = 3 A
Still 3 unknowns, but have 4 equations
ia = ib = 5 A
ib + i1 = ic id = i1 + ie
KCL for the 4
essential nodes in
the circuit
ig = id + i2
65
KCL Example (Plug in values and solve)
5 + i1 = ic id = i1 + 3
ic + 2 = 5 ! ic = 3 A
3 = id + 2 ! id = 1 A
Substituting these new values into either equation on the top and
solving gives:
i1 = 2A
Once you re done solving for the currents, you can go back to
the KCL equations and substitute them to check your answer.
66
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
  “The sum of all the voltage drops in a closed path is zero”
  Need to choose a reference direction and starting point for the closed
path (loop) and have reference directions for the voltage polarities for
each element.
  To add or subtract? Just look at the sign you first encounter when tracing
the loop.
Voltage Drop
Loop Voltage Rise

67
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
  “The sum of all the voltage drops in a closed path is zero”
68
Alternative Equivalent KVL Formulation
  “The sum of all the voltage drops in a loop equals the
sum of all the voltage gains (rises)”
IMPORTANT RESULT
Any set of elements connected at
Drop
both ends have the same voltage
Rise Drop
+ +
Loop
_ _
In other words, elements in

parallel have the same voltage!!
69
KVL Example
  Solve for the unknown voltages:

From Slide 59
70
KVL Example (Let’s Write KVL Equations)
How many different loops are there??? Answer: 6

Let s write equations for the three inner loops, and see if that s enough
3 5 + vc = 0 ! vc = 8 V
vc ( 10) + ve = 0 ! ve = 2V
ve + vf = 0 ! vf = 2V
71
KCL & KVL Notes
  KCL follows from the Law of Conservation of Charge, which
states, “charge cannot be created nor destroyed”
  Charge that flows into a node, must flow out of it
  Otherwise, there would be a continuous buildup of charge over time.
  KVL follows from the Law of Conservation of Electric Energy,

which states that “the sum of the changes in energy of a charge
moving in a loop (closed path) must be zero:”
  The law also states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It
can only be converted from one form to another.
  KCL & KVL form the basis for circuit analysis techniques.
  They allow us to write linear equations with unknowns and solve for
voltages, currents, element parameters, etc.
  In other words, KVL and KCL are your friends. Don t forget about
them when solving problems.
  KCL & KVL come from Maxwell s equations. 3 assumptions allow us
to abstract away information, resulting in much simpler equations.
72
Lumped Circuit Abstraction
Ideal Sources & Resistors
Reading: Hambley 1.6

Nilsson 1.5, 2.1, 2.2
73
Circuit Analysis
  Circuit analysis is used to predict the behavior of real-life electric
circuits. It is a critical part of the design and development process of
electrical systems.
  In order to properly analyse electric circuits, we first need to know the

behavior of each circuit element and any constraints imposed by
their interconnection with one another.
  This behavior will be the voltage-current relationships for the basic

circuit elements.
  We need three basic assumptions to allow us to use circuit theory

rather than electromagnetic theory (Maxwell’s equations, etc.).
  Together, these assumptions (constraints) form the lumped circuit

abstraction.
  Abstracting away wave phenomena to form a simpler model
74
Lumped Circuit Abstraction (LCA)

1) The net charge on every element in the system is always zero
  No element collects a net excess or deficiency of charge
  Charge can separate within an element though (as with capacitors)
2) There is no magnetic coupling between components in a circuit

  No time-varying magnetic flux outside the elements (would give rise to
a voltage and destroy the validity of KVL).
  Magnetic coupling can occur within a component (as with inductors)
3) Our system operates with signal timescales of interest that are

much larger than the propagation delay of the electromagnetic
waves through the circuit.
  Allows us to model electrical effects as instantaneous
  The size of the system and its speed (frequency of waveforms) affect
whether this assumption is valid or not.
75

  This semester, we will use the model that LCA is valid.
  The first two assumptions imply there are no electric fields or
magnetic fields outside of the elements.
  Results in no coupling (interaction) between elements.
  Allows for much easier analysis of the system (using each element s
current-voltage relationship).
  Assumption #3 is also very important in practice
  Restated, it says that circuits must be much smaller in every
dimension than the wavelength corresponding to the highest
frequency of interest in order to avoid wave phenomena.
  Violating Assumption #3 does not mean the system cannot work. It
needs more advanced modeling and design whereby wave
phenomena are explicitly modeled into the network using distributed
element models (waveguides, transmission lines, etc.)
See Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits , by Agarwal and Lang for more details
76

  Example: Power Systems in Australia operate at 50 Hz
  Corresponds to a wavelength of 6000km using the speed to be
that of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 m/s)
  Some power grids can extend 100 s or perhaps 1000 s of kms.
This is not much smaller in dimension than the wavelength.
  Example: A microprocessor operating at a 2 GHz clock rate

  Corresponds to a wavelength of 15cm and clock period of ½ ns
  A signal traversing a 1-inch (2.5cm) chip will not fully satisfy
Assumption #3 as the propagation delay (0.0833 ns) is too
large (i.e., not insignificant) compared to the clock period.
  Pipelining is used to reduce many signal path lengths to
conform with Assumption #3.
  Any long circuit paths need to be designed with care using
transmission line models.
77
Ideal Basic Circuit Elements

  The 5 ideal basic circuit elements:
  Voltage source
active elements can generate
  Current source electric energy
  Resistor
  Inductor passive elements cannot generate
electric energy
  Capacitor
  These elements can be used to model some

practical systems.
  All of these elements are linear, which makes
analysis easier as we shall see later.
78
Passive vs. Active Circuit Elements

  Active elements can generate electrical energy.
  Two basic types: voltage and current sources
  An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting
non-electric energy to electric energy and vice versa.
  Sources can either deliver or absorb power.
  Prime examples are batteries and motors/generators, where chemical
or mechanical energy are converted to/from electrical energy.
  Passive elements cannot generate energy

  Resistors – consume energy by dissipating heat.
  Capacitors and Inductors (we will study these in a few weeks time)
  Can store energy and later return it to the circuit
  Do not consume energy (ideally, but not so in practice)
79
Ideal Independent Voltage Source
  Source that maintains a specified voltage across its terminals
  Voltage across the source is independent of other elements
connected to it and current flowing through it

  Thus, the voltage is know, and the current through it is determined by
the circuit to which it is connected.

  Symbol
+ Polarity passive sign +
_ is given convention (PSC) _
  When current (positive charge) flows out of the + terminal,

  the source s reference current is negative (using PSC)
  results in a negative power power is being supplied by the source

to the rest of the circuit
  When current (positive charge) flows out of the – terminal,
  the source s reference current is positive (using PSC)
  results in a positive power power is being delivered to the source

80
Ideal Independent Current Source
  Source that maintains a specified current through itself
  Current through it is independent of other elements connected to it as
well as the voltage across it.

  Thus, the current is know, and the voltage across it is determined by
the circuit to which it is connected.
_
  Symbol
Reference passive sign
direction is convention
given
+
  When the voltage across the current source is negative (w/ PSC),
  results in a negative power power is being supplied by the source
to the rest of the circuit
  When the voltage across the current source is positive (w/ PSC),
  results in a positive power power is being delivered to the source
i.e., absorbed by the source
81
Ideal Independent Current Source
  Independent sources may be direct current (DC) sources or
alternating current (AC) sources, or possibly other functions.
  A DC voltage source has a constant voltage throughout time.
  A DC current source has a constant current throughout time.
  In the absence of switches and other dynamics, DC networks
become static, and the time variable can be ignored making
analysis much easier.
  DC networks will be our focus for circuit analysis in the next few lectures
DC Current AC Current
82
Ideal Independent DC Sources: i versus v
Independent DC Voltage Source Independent DC Current Source
Voltage supplied is independent of Current supplied is independent

current flowing through the source. of voltage across the source.
These plots are for constant DC sources (i.e. direct current, invariant to time)
83
Ideal Dependent Voltage Source

  Source whose voltage depends on a voltage or current
elsewhere in the network.
  Symbols
+ +
_
_
Voltage-controlled Current-controlled
voltage source (VCVS) voltage source (CCVS)
  Examples:
84
Ideal Dependent Current Source

  Source whose current depends on a voltage or current
elsewhere in the network.
  Symbols
Voltage-controlled Current-controlled
current source (VCCS) current source (CCCS)
  Examples:
85
Electrical Resistance and Resistors

  Electrical resistance of a device is a measure of its opposition to
the flow of steady electric current.
  The circuit element used to model this behavior is known as the

resistor.
  Circuit Symbol:
  Units: Volts per Ampere (V/A) = Ohms
  Mathematical Symbol:
  A resistor is a passive element that dissipates energy (usually as

heat).
  No matter how we label its reference direction and polarity, it will
always absorb energy.
  Can be used to model real-world devices, such as light bulbs,

heating elements, and long wires.
86
Resistors and Ohm’s Law

  Ohm’s Law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.
Ohm’s Law
George Simon
  Alternatively, Ohm
  Voltage across and current through a resistor have a linear relationship
  This “Law” was determined through experimental observations by Ohm.

It is a model.
  Current always flows in the direction of the voltage drop!

  Referring here to the actual positive voltage drop and actual positive current
flow in the circuit.
  Under PSC, current and voltage are either both positive or both negative
with respect to the reference direction and polarity. (opposite for ASC)
  Thus, a resistor always absorbs power!! ( i.e., p > 0 , regardless of SC)
87
I-V Characteristic of Ideal Resistor
_ Slope = Resistance
  The power dissipated by a resistor can be calculated in a few ways:
(Using Ohm’s Law)
  Additional note: Conductance is the inverse of resistance:
  Measured in Siemens (S), or sometimes called Mhos ( )

88
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
  There are two extremes for resistance (none or infinite)
  Short Circuit:
  No voltage drop can occur.
  Current can freely flow (as determined by the circuit)
  An ideal conductor with no resistance between two nodes.
  Open Circuit:
  No current can flow
  Voltage is determined by the rest of the circuit.
  No conductor exists between two nodes.
+ +
Short circuit Open circuit
_ _
89
Practical Resistors
  Again, it needs to be stressed that we are using an ideal model for
resistors in this subject.
  Practical resistors can be affected by temperature and humidity which can
change their resistance.
  Excessive current through resistors can lead to high power dissipation
(more heat) and can even destroy the resistor.
  In the workshop, you will learn to read
resistor values from colour coded bands.
  You’re responsible for being able to
determine resistor values from the table.
You do not need to memorise the colour-
number table for the test or exam.
90
Resistor Colour Codes
  Resistor values are usually encoded in 3, 4, 5, or 6 colour bands.
  4-band resistor: (Digit 1) – (Digit 2) – (Multiplier) – (Tolerance)
  5-band resistor: (Digit 1) – (Digit 2) – (Digit 3) – (Multiplier) – (Tolerance)
  If a resistor has only 3 bands, the tolerance is assumed to be 20% and the
resistance value is determined by: (Digit 1) – (Digit 2) – (Multiplier)
  6-band resistors have a temperature coefficient for the 6th band, but we won t
be using these in this subject.
  Examples (4 and 5 band):

0 – 2 – 5 ±10%
= 2 x 105 ±10%
Black-Red-Green-Silver
= 200 kΩ ±10%
Red-Red-Black-Red-Gold
= 220 x 102 ±5%
= 22 kΩ ±5%
91
Resistive Networks
Reading: Hambley 2.1 – 2.3

Nilsson 3.1 – 3.5
  We will analyze the voltages and currents across

resistors connected together in various ways.
  Series, parallel, and combinations of each.
  An important tool is to replace a group of resistors

by a single equivalent resistance to simplify analysis
92
Simple Example (Two Resistors in Series)
  We would like to find the current in the following:
Can we replace the
two resistors by a
+ _ single equivalent resistor?
+
+
_
_
  From KCL, we know the current is constant around the loop

  Using KVL and Ohm’s Law, we can write:
or better yet, ( )
sum of voltage rises
= sum of voltage drops
Resistance has been summed?

93
Resistors Connected in Series
(Using KVL)
94
Simple Example (Two Resistors in Parallel)
  We would like to find each labeled current in the following:
Can we replace the
two resistors by a
single equivalent resistor?
+
_
KCL + Ohm s Law
KCL
KVL: voltage same across each resistor
KVL
+
Ohm s Law
95
Resistors Connected in Parallel
KCL
KVL: voltage same

across each resistor
96
Summary: Resistors in Series or Parallel
  A series combination of resistances has an equivalent resistance
equal to the sum of the original resistances
  A parallel combination of resistors has an equivalent resistance

equal to the inverse of the sum of the inversed resistances.
(Using conductances)
  Special Case: Two resistors in parallel

97
Equivalent Resistance Example
  Find a single equivalent resistance for this network
98
Rtotal = 2 + 6 || 3 || 2
Rtotal = 2 + 1 = 3
6·3
6||3 = = 2
6+3
2·2
2||2 = = 1
2+2
99
Rtotal = 10 || (8 + 6 || 3)
6·3
6||3 = = 2
6+3
8 + 2 = 10 Rtotal = 10 || 10 = 5
100
Resistance Combinations & Intuition
Important for
_ current meters
+
+
+ R2 ⇡ short circuit
_
_
RESULT: In series, a much larger
resistance dominates the equivalence
Important for
volt meters
+ R1 ⇡ open circuit
_
RESULT: In parallel, a much smaller
resistance dominates the equivalence
101
Back to the Simple Series Example
  Let’s look at the voltages across the resistors
+ _
+
+
_
_
From slide #80
The source voltage has

been divided between the
resistors in direct proportion
to their resistances
This is called
a voltage divider
102
Voltage Division Principle
The fraction of the total voltage that

appears across a given resistance
in a series circuit is the ratio of the
given resistance to the total series
resistance. Also applies to 4 or more resistors in series
103
Current Division Principle
For two resistors in parallel, the

fraction of the total current flowing
through a given resistance is the
ratio of the other resistance to the
sum of the two resistances.
CAUTION: This formulation only applies to

TWO resistors in parallel
104
Current Divider Example
+
_
Current is divided between the two

parallel resistor branches
Important observation: more current goes where there is less resistance

105
Current Division Using Conductances
Using conductances, current

division has a maths form like
that of a voltage division
Easily generalized to 4 or
more resistors in parallel
106
Example: Not Using Current & Voltage Division
This is NOT a series circuit

_
+
+ +
+
_
_ _
_
+
Goal: Find all labeled current & voltages
If we combine R2 and RL into an equivalent resistance, we then have

a series circuit. We can then easily find all currents and voltages.
107
Example: Not Using Current & Voltage Division
Now we have a series circuit
_
+
+
+
_
_
_
+
(parallel branches have same voltage)

+
_
108
Example: Using Current & Voltage
Division
Using voltage division principle
_
+_
+ + +
+
+ +
_ _
_ _ _
_ _
+ +
(parallel branches have same voltage)
Using current division principle

109
Let’s Compute Powers Could also have computed
resistor powers using the other
forms of Ohm s Law:
+ _
+ +
+
_
_ _
_ + Why is it active sign
convection (ASC) for
ASC
the source s power?
Sum of powers = 0 (energy conservation)

110
Measuring Voltage
Voltmeters measure a voltage
across two points in a network
Voltmeter
It is connected in parallel with the

portion of the circuit it is measuring. All
voltmeters have an internal resistance
Voltmeter does not affect the

voltage division. It is like it s not there
If this was not true, the equivalent resistance would change the voltage across R2
and the voltmeter would not accurately measure the voltage from the true circuit.
Due to high resistance, they draw very little current, and have little effect on a circuit
111
Measuring Current
Ammeter
Ammeters measure current flow.
They are connected in series where

the current measurement is desired.
Like voltmeters, they have an internal

resistance as well.
The equivalent resistance is virtually the

same and the amount of current is the same.
Req ⇡ R1 + R2 + R3
If this was not true, the equivalent resistance would change (increase) enough that
the ammeter would change the amount of current that flowed.
Due to a low resistance, ammeters have very little voltage drop across their terminals.
112
The Effect of a Short Circuit
The short removes removes R2 from the circuit (i.e., like it s not even there
anymore). All the current flows through the short rather than through R2
Be very careful of shorts both in PSPICE and when working with physical circuits
Ammeters incorrectly connected in parallel will also have this effect.

113
Combining Voltage Sources

Voltage sources in series can be added together to form an
equivalent voltage source. Pay attention to polarities!
_ _ _ _
+ + + +
_ _ _ _
+ + + +
polarity flipped
114
Combining Current Sources

Current sources in parallel can be added together to form a
combined equivalent current source. (a result of KCL)
115
“Impossible” Source Combinations
+ +
_ _
Impossible if
Impossible if
violates KVL
violates KCL
116
Circuit Analysis Methods
Node Voltage Analysis (NVA)

Nilsson 4.1, 4.2
  The key to NVA is writing the correct equations.
  2 Special Cases for NVA:

  “Floating Voltage Source” (creating a Supernode)
  Circuits with dependent sources

117
Circuit Analysis Methods
  So far we have been able to analyse simple resistive circuits by
reducing them using series and parallel equivalents.
  This cannot be done with many circuits, and more advanced

analysis is needed (see example on the next slide).
  We will learn two powerful techniques for circuit analysis which are
built on Ohm’s Law, KCL, and KVL.
  Node-Voltage Analysis: systematic application of KCL

  Mesh-Current Analysis: systematic application of KVL
  Using either method will result in a set of N equations with N

unknowns
  If equations are linear, we can use linear algebra to solve them
  Good news: circuits consisting solely of ideal voltage & current

sources, resistors, capacitors, and inductors are linear. 
118
Beyond the Simplest Resistive Networks
  How can we solve for all element voltages and currents in the below??
  Finding equivalent resistances will not work here.
  Maybe we can write out some KVL and/or KCL equations and solve for
the unknown voltages and currents. How many equations are needed?
119
Node Voltages
So far, we have dealt with voltages across individual network elements.
We now consider Node Voltages , which are the potential difference
between a node in a circuit and a reference node.
The voltage across a circuit element can now be written as the difference
between the node voltages at its terminals.
Node Voltages
Element Voltages
and Currents
120
The Reference Node & Ground

  A reference needs to be chosen in order to define node voltages.
  This common reference is also physically important for proper circuit
operation, not just for circuit analysis.
  The term “ground” or “earth” in power systems refers to a direct
connection in the ground in part for safety reasons.
  Eliminates electrostatic buildup, which ground drains away
  The earth is a reasonably constant potential reference
  The term “ground” is used in electric circuits that are not connected
physically to the ground.
  Generally, ground is a connection to the chassis , which can be a metal
plate, and provides a return path for current to an energy source.
  We will consider ground again later when we look at power transmission
lines. For now, we use it as a common reference point for our analysis.
See links for more: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci861575,00.html

http://www.ese.upenn.edu/rca/instruments/misctutorials/Ground/grd.html
121
Node-Voltage Analysis (NVA)
  The goal of NVA is to solve for all the node voltages using KCL at each
node to develop a system of equations. Let s use Node 2 as an example
v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
KCL Node 2: + + = 0
R2 R4 R3
Inherently using PSC!

KCL: Sum of currents leaving node #2 = 0
I use current LEAVING the

node for my KCL equations.
It s typically easier this way.
_
+
Current leaving
Node n
122
A Closer Look at Node 2

v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
KCL Node 2: + + = 0
R2 R4 R3
_ + + _
+
_
123
Node-Voltage Analysis (NVA)
v3 v1 v3 v3 v2
KCL Node 3: + + = 0
R1 R5 R3
KCL is not needed at Node 1 as we already know: . Why is this??
Together with KCL of Node 2, we have 3 equations and 3 unknowns ( )
Could we even write KCL for Node 1?

Then use linear algebra to
solve for the node voltages.
Notice that for each node, we

are redefining the reference
directions. This is fine as long
as the KCL equations are
written correctly for each node.
124
A Closer Look at Node 3
v3 v1 v3 v3 v2
KCL Node 3: + + = 0
R1 R5 R3
_
+
_ +
+
_
Solving for Node Voltages
  Writing equations in terms of unknown node voltages gives
Standard
Form
  Substituting gives 2 equations and 2 unknowns
  This is readily solvable (given the actual circuit values)

126
Another NVA Example

A circuit with N nodes can
have up to N-1 independent
node equations
3 equations
3 unknowns
KCL @ reference node is redundant

127
NVA Example (with numbers this time!)
First off, we can easily see that V
Standard Form
128
NVA: Important Notes

  Remember, our goal is to obtain enough independent equations
as there are unknowns (in order to solve for them).
  Provided all other nodes are fully utilised, a KCL equation for the
ground node yields an additional, but dependent equation.
  Therefore, we ignore the ground node and use all other nodes.
  Voltage sources connected to ground do not require a KCL

equation and reduce the number of unknowns.
  We know the node voltage from the voltage of the source.
  What happens if a voltage source in the circuit is not connected

to ground? (let’s call this a “floating” voltage source)
  Current through the source cannot be directly expressed as it
depends on the rest of the circuit. So what now?
Supernode
  Combine the nodes that enclose a voltage source
  Not really necessary for voltage sources connected to ground
provided all other nodal equations are exploited.
  Two new equations are needed in place of the two missing KCL
equations for each node which cannot be directly expressed.
  1) A KCL equation for the supernode
  2) A voltage constraint utilising the floating voltage source
Supernode
131
Another NVA Supernode Example
3 indep. equations
3 unknowns
132
Supernode Example (continued)
Standard Form
In matrix form, this becomes

133
NVA and Dependent Sources

  Controlled (dependent) sources present a slight additional
complication in using NVA.
  The dependency requires an additional independent equation
  First, treat dependent sources exactly the same as

independent sources. Write out nodal equations in terms of
the dependencies.
  Note: this may include the use of a supernode for a floating
dependent voltage source.
  Second, express the dependency of the source in terms of

the defined node voltages.
134
NVA Example With a Dependent Source

KCL Node #1: 3 indep. equations
3 unknowns
KCL Node #2:
Dependency Equation:
135
NVA Example With a Dependent Source
Supernode KCL:
Voltage Constraint:
KCL Node #3:
4 independent equations
4 unknowns
136
Node Voltage Analysis Summary:
1) Identify all nodes in the circuit. Select a reference node and assign variables
for the unknown node voltages.
2) Apply KCL and write equations for all nodes and possible supernodes.
3) In the case of supernodes, write a voltage constraint for the floating voltage
source.
4) If there are dependent sources, write expressions for the current and/or
voltage dependencies. With D dependent sources (creating D dependency
equations and unknowns), a N node circuit can have (N-1+D) independent
equations and (N-1+D) unknowns.
5) Reduce the system of equations by substituting the dependency equation(s)

back into the N-1 nodal equations.
6) You should now have N-1 independent equations and N-1 unknown node
voltages. Rearrange equations into standard form.
7) Solve for the unknown node voltages

137
Mesh-Current Analysis (MCA)

Nilsson 4.5 – 4.8
  The key to MCA is writing the correct equations.
  2 Special Cases for MCA:

  Supermesh
  Circuits with dependent sources

138
  MCA uses loops and KVL to write independent equations.
  The unknown variables are the loop (or “mesh”) currents.
  Can have multiple mesh currents flow through one element.

The current through the element is the sum of the mesh currents.
  Once the mesh currents are known, all voltages and currents in
the circuit can be solved for.
From Hambley
Figure 2.32(b)
139
  Voltage polarities for resistors are consistent with PSC and the
mesh current direction for the given loop.
  Reference polarities for an element can be different for different meshes
Mesh #1:
Mesh #2:
2 unknown mesh currents
From Hambley
Figure 2.32(b)
140
Simple MCA Example
When a current source is common to only one mesh, that mesh
current is automatically determined by the current source.
Notice that we cannot directly write KVL for the left mesh. Why?
A
A
141
Mesh-Current Example
  We usually choose mesh currents to flow clockwise
  Mesh currents always satisfy KVL if written correctly
Mesh #1
Mesh #2
Mesh #3

From Hambley
Figure 2.33(a)
142
Mesh-Current Example (continued)
Equations can be converted to standard form and then to matrix form
I ve skipped writing standard form and

went straight to matrix form
The Supermesh
  If a current source is common to two meshes, a
supermesh is needed (i.e. combine two meshes into one)
  A current constraint equation relates the mesh currents
Mesh:
Mesh #3:
Current Constraint Equation
144
Super Mesh Example (continued)
Equations can be converted to standard form and then to matrix form
145
MCA and Dependent Sources
1) Treat dependent sources exactly the same as independent sources.
Write equations in terms of the dependencies.
  Note: this may include the use of a supermesh for a dependent current
source common to more than one mesh.
2) Then express the source dependency in terms of the mesh currents.
Mesh
Current Constraint Equation

1 dependency
146
Substituting Dependencies Back In
Dependency Equation
Result
2 meshes
A A
147
Mesh-Current Analysis Summary

1) Identify and define all meshes in the circuit. For consistency, we usually
use a clockwise direction for each mesh current (not required though).
2) Apply KVL to each mesh (and possible supermeshes), and write an

equation for each. In the case of current sources common to only one
mesh, no KVL equation is needed (mesh current = current from source)
3) In the case of supermeshes, write a current constraint for the current

source that is common to multiple meshes.
4) If there are dependent sources, write expressions for the current and/or
voltage dependencies in terms of the mesh currents.
5) One should now have M+D independent equations and M+D unknowns
for M meshes and D dependencies (if any).
By substituting the dependency equation(s) into the other M equations,
the result will be M independent equations and M unknowns.
6) Solve for the unknown mesh currents.

148
Final Thoughts on MCA and NVA
  Mesh analysis ensures that the least possible number of
equations regarding currents is used, greatly simplifying the
problem.
  Especially in very large circuits
  “Planar circuits” are required in order to use mesh analysis

  This is a circuit drawn on a plane with no overlapping wires.
  Both MCA and NVA treat dependent sources similarly
  With supernodes (or supermeshes), the extra voltage (or current)

constraints are typically very simple equations.
  They can be substituted into the nodal (or mesh) equations to reduce
computation in solving the set of equations.
  Remember, following MCA or NVA, all the currents through and

voltages across each element can easily be determined.
  So which is better: MCA or NVA? Answer: depends on the circuit.

149
Thevenin & Norton Equivalent Circuits,

Maximum Power Transfer, and
Superposition

Nilsson 4.10 – 4.13
150
Equivalent Circuits
  Let’s consider a “black box” that has two terminals which can be
connected to external devices/circuits.
  Upon connecting to another device, for analysis purposes, we may only
care about the behavior (current-voltage characteristics) of the circuit at
the terminals, and not what occurs inside the “black box”.
  When the black box contains “nice” (linear) elements, like resistors and
sources, we can replace it with a very simple equivalent circuit.
  The equivalent circuit must have the same behavior at the terminals, and
thus appear the identical to the black box from the view of the load circuit.
“Black Box”
Load
Circuit
151
Equivalent Circuits
  If the equivalent circuit replaced the black box, the load circuit would
operate exactly the same (identical voltage & current delivered to the load)
  The equivalence must hold for any possible load attached.
  Circuits with only resistors and sources have a linear current-voltage
relationship at its output terminals. Yet, so will a circuit with only one
source and one resistor!!
All possible terminal Equivalent Load

voltage-current pairs Circuit Circuit
=
“Black Box”
Load
Circuit
Example
152
Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
  A two-terminal circuit consisting of resistances and sources
can be replaced by a Thevenin equivalent
  Note: this requires any dependent sources to have a linear
relationship with currents/voltages already inside the circuit.
  A Thevenin equivalent consists of a voltage source and
resistor connected in series.
  The resistor is called the Thevenin resistance
153
The Thevenin Intuition
  So how can we find the voltage and resistor values?
  We want the same linear voltage-current relationship the black
box has. The slope of that line and its intercepts are the key.
  What is the load model at the terminals when no current flows?

Answer: Open Circuit
  What is the load model when there is no voltage drop across the
terminals?
Answer: Short Circuit All possible terminal
voltage-current pairs
154
Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Using KVL
KVL & Ohm’s Law

155
Finding Thevenin Equivalents
  In order to determine the Thevenin equivalent, two of these
three must be determined:
  Determining : use circuit analysis to find the voltage of

the network across its terminals.
  Determining : short-circuit the terminals (draw a wire

between them) and use circuit analysis to find the current
flowing through the short (wire).
  Determining : Turn off all sources and find the resistance

between the terminals. More on this in two slides.
156
Simple Thevenin Example
157
Determining Thevenin Resistance Directly

  If there are no dependent sources, can be determined
without first computing or .
  Step 1: zero all independent sources in the network
  Voltage sources become short circuits (zero voltage across it)
  Current sources become open circuits (no current flows through)
  Step 2: Using resistor equivalence concepts, reduce the
resistors inside the network to a single resistance value.
  Note this may not be easy as the network may be more
complicated then just simple series and parallel connections.
  On the previous slide, following Step 1, the result is the

terminals see R1 and R2 in parallel. Step 2 then gives:
158
Voltage source becomes a short circuit
A Harder Example Current source becomes an open circuit
Solving for Open Circuit Voltage Really is just one node
Using Node-Voltage Analysis

159
A Harder Example (continued)

Let’s try solving for the short circuit current
160
Dependent Source Example
Using Node-Voltage Analysis
V
Now let’s find the short-circuit current and solve for Rt
161
Dependent Source Example (continued)
From KCL
162
Norton Equivalent Circuits
  A two-terminal circuit consisting of resistances and sources
can be replaced by a Norton equivalent
  A Norton equivalent consists of an independent current

source in parallel with a resistor.
  here is again the Thevenin resistance
Can take any Thevenin equivalent

and easily convert it into a Norton
equivalent circuit.
163
Norton Equivalent Example

Let’s try solving for the open circuit voltage using NVA
After substituting resistor

values and solving
the equations
voltage division
Now let’s find the short-circuit current and solve for Rt
164
Norton Example (continued)

165
Thevenin-Norton: Step-By-Step Approach
Special Case: network with no independent sources

(contains only resistors and dependent sources)
How do we deal with this?
166
Circuits without Independent Sources

  What would the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current be?
  So what is the equivalent circuit?

  Similar to finding equivalent resistance as done in Week 2.
  Some circuits are complicated and may not be easily reduced
using simple parallel and series equivalencies.
167
  Solution: Apply a test source at the terminals. Either:
  Apply a test voltage : compute the current through the source.
Then compute the equivalent resistance using:
or
  Apply a test current source : compute the voltage across

the terminals. Then compute the equivalent resistance as above.
Let’s apply a test current and use NVA to

compute the voltage across the terminals.
+ +
_ _
168
Node1:
Node2:
Node3:
Solving yields:
+
_
169

  Using MCA (instead of NVA) would have simplified the
problem as one mesh current would be the test current.
  However, after determining the mesh currents, it would
require using KVL in order to obtain the test voltage drop.
  Exercise: try MCA and apply KVL to verify that
  Additional Exercise: Apply a test voltage and compute

the equivalent resistance (should still be 8.5 Ohms)
  Try both MCA and NVA to determine the current through
the terminals.
  Note: when using NVA for this problem, once you ve
determined the node voltages, you ll need to use KCL to
determine the unknown current through the terminals.
170
Example with a Dependent Source
  With only resistors and dependent sources, the open-circuit
voltage and short-circuit current are still zero.
  Dependent sources are nothing without an independent source
to deliver power in the first place.
  Same test voltage/current principle applies to find
  Let’s apply a test voltage and try MCA for this analysis.
Notice the dependent source will be common to two meshes
uper MESH
171
Example Continued
Mesh:
Mesh 3:
Current constraint:
Dependency:
+
_
172
Example Continued (Alternative Approach)
  Consider the equivalent of just the left two branches.
As an exercise, verify this equivalency
  Now combine this equivalent with the 10 Ohm resistor in the

rightmost branch. Using parallel equivalence:
Same answer as
previous slide
173
Source Transformations
  Have the same open-circuit voltage & short-circuit current. Thus,

they have the same current-voltage relationship at the terminals
  Can be useful to simplify circuit analysis sometimes
  Ex: Putting two resistors in parallel or series
  Ex: Changing a source to match the type of other sources in the circuit
174
Source Transformations
175
Maximum Power Transfer

  Suppose we have a two-terminal circuit and we want to connect a
load resistance such that the maximum possible power is delivered
to the load. How can we do this??? What should RL be?
  The voltage, current, and power delivered to the load are:

176
  Taking the derivative of the power with respect to the load
resistance and setting it equal to 0 to find the maximum gives:
  Thus, the load resistance that absorbs the maximum power from
a two-terminal circuit is the Thevenin resistance. This resistance
is “matched” to the equivalent resistance of the circuit
177
Simple Example of Max-Power Transfer
We wish to find the load resistance
at the terminals that maximizes the
power delivered.
We can determine the Thevenin resistance by turning off the

independent sources and computing the equivalent resistance
178
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage-Current Equation
Load
Circuit
Using KVL:
(with some algebra)
v i
+ = 1
voc isc Thevenin Voltage-Current Equation
179
Thevenin & Norton Equivalence
  Norton equivalent has the exact same current-voltage
relationship at the terminals as the Thevenin equivalent.
  This proves that source transformations are equivalent
(see Slide 173).
  Use KCL to express all current-voltage possibilities:
Load
Circuit
180
Linear Circuits and Superposition

Nilsson 4.13
  Linearity is a very “nice” property that allows for simpler

analysis in many areas of engineering and mathematics
181
Linear Circuits
  A linear circuit is one that is constructed of only linear elements
(ideal resistors, capacitors, inductors, and linearly dependent
sources) and independent sources.
  A linear circuit element is one that has a linear relationship between the
current and voltage, or their time derivatives.
  Resistors are linear circuit elements due to
  We ll soon see that ideal capacitors/inductors are also linear elements.
  Dependent sources are linear elements provided the dependency is a
linear relationship with some current or voltage in the circuit.
  Linear circuits are much easier to analyse. We can use linear algebra to
solve a set of simultaneous equations. This cannot be done with
nonlinear circuits, which can be very difficult to analyse in general.
  Important note: The independent sources in a linear circuit do not

have to be linear functions of time.
  A prime example of this will be the sinusoidal independent sources that
we will see with AC analysis next week.
182
Linear vs. Nonlinear Elements

  Examples of nonlinear circuit elements are diodes and
transistors. They have non-linear current-voltage plots.
Diode
183
Linear Resistive Networks and Equivalents
  Due to the linear relationship between current and voltage for
resistors, the output terminals of our “black box” also must have a
linear current vs. voltage relationship.
  The underlying idea of how we found equivalents was by:
1) determining two points on the current-voltage plot, which were
the i-intercept ( ) and v-intercept ( ) on the plot.
2) Constructing a simple circuit (Thevenin or Norton equivalent)
which has the same i-intercept and v-intercept at its terminals.
Two points determine a line
Circuits are equivalent at the terminals

184
Linear Systems, Scaling, and Superposition

  Consider a system H with an input and output.
Input Output
  A system is a linear system if two properties hold 8x

1) Scaling:
2) Superposition:
Note: superposition can be generalised to three or more inputs

The subject ELEN30012 Signals & Systems (S2, 2014) is all about systems theory
185
Linear Circuits, Scaling, and Superposition
  We can consider linear circuits to be linear systems.
  The “inputs” are the independent sources.

  A circuit can then have multiple inputs
  An “output” can be the current at any location or the

voltage between any two points (but NOT power)*
  In other words, we can think of a circuit as having many
different outputs.
  Scaling and superposition are then properties of linear
circuits.
  We can use these properties to our advantage for
analysis purposes. Superposition is especially important!!
* power is NOT a linear quantity
186
Scaling and Linear Circuits
+ _
+
+
_
_
  The “input” is the 20 V independent voltage source

  Possible “outputs” are:
  What if we increase the source voltage to 60 V ?
  Factor of 3 increase to the input
  Outputs are also increased by a factor of 3.
187
Superposition and Linear Circuits
  Superposition tells us that the total output is the sum of the

outputs from each of the individual inputs.
  For a linear circuit containing multiple independent sources,
the current or voltage at any point can be calculated by:
  1) finding the output contribution from each source acting alone
  2) adding the responses to find the total output.
  When an independent source “acts alone”, it remains active

while the other independent sources are shut off.
  Note: Dependent sources are not shut off! They are NOT inputs
188
Applying Superposition to Linear Circuits
1) Switch off all independent sources in the circuit except for
one and determine the contribution from that source.
  When turning a voltage source off, we replace it by a short circuit
(i.e., a wire)
  When turning a current source off, we replace it by an open circuit.
  Do NOT shut off any dependent sources at any time!
2) Solve for the desired currents and voltages from that one
active source.
3) Repeat for each independent source, one by one.
4) Sum the individual voltages and currents from each case to
obtain the desired voltages and/or currents in the circuit.
Note: Power is not a linear quantity. Superposition can be used to find the
total current and voltage for an element. Power can then be computed.
189
Superposition Example #1
Goal: to find
Let’s first shut off the current source and find the response from only
the voltage source. (current source off = open circuit)
190
Now we shut off the voltage source and find the response from only
the current source. (voltage source off = short circuit)
Now we combine the response from the two sources
A
191
+
+
_
_
_ +
Goal: to find
Let’s try using superposition
Determine voltage from each independent source
192
current source
turned off
+
+
_
_
_ +
Using NVA:
v1 10 v1 v1 2 ix
+ + = 0
5 20 20 v1 = vz1 = 6.875 V
10 v1
ix =
5
193
voltage source
turned off
_
_ +
We’ll use NVA to find

I’ve added a ground reference and labeled the other nodes
v1 v1 v1 v2 Node 3:
Node 1: + + = 0
5 20 10
v2 v1 v2 v3
Node 2: + 5 = 0
10 10
194
Superposition Example #2 (continued)

Solving the system of equations gives:
v1 = 7.8125 V
v2 = 27.3438 V
v3 = 3.125 V
vz2 = v1 = 7.8125 V
Now we can combine the voltage outputs from the two

independent sources:
vz = vz1 + vz2 = 6.875 + 7.8125 = 14.6875
195
Resistive Circuit Analysis Summary
  KCL, KVL, and Ohm’s Law form the basis of analysis
  We learned various methods to analyse resistive circuits
1) Simplifying the circuit using parallel and series equivalence
followed by applying Ohm s law
  Only possible with simpler circuits with one independent source and
no dependent sources.
2) Using voltage and current division with (1) in simpler circuits
  Voltage and current division are great intuitive tools to use
3) Node voltage analysis (NVA) and mesh current analysis (MCA)

  Useful in more complex circuits. Can help minimize the number of
simultaneous equations needed to be solved.
4) Superposition can be useful in circuits with multiple independent
sources. Significantly more computation in complex circuits.
  The intuition of superposition is extremely valuable in practice when
testing circuits with multiple sources. It s very useful for debugging!
196
Resistive Circuit Analysis Summary

5) Source Transformations can also be useful in some circuits if it
results in resistors in series or parallel and/or allow for the
combining of independent sources.
  There is more than one way to analyse a circuit, and if done
correctly, each way leads to the exact same solution.
  You can practice your circuit analysis by verifying one solution
with another technique.
  Example: Use MCA to verify a NVA solution, and vice versa.
  Example: Use MCA and NVA to verify a superposition solution.
  We will utilise all of the techniques all over again when we get to
AC circuit analysis in Week 6.
  You must learn to apply them now in order to use them later.
  You cannot analyse AC circuits without first understanding the
principles and being able to solve DC resistive circuits.
197
Diodes

Nilsson (no diodes)
198
Diodes
  We now consider a two-terminal nonlinear element called the diode.
  The terminal before the arrow is known as the anode, and is given
the positive reference polarity.
  The other terminal is called the cathode, and has the negative
reference.
  Diodes consist of a junction between two types of semiconductive
material, usually silicon with impurities.
  We will not be too concerned with the device physics of diodes in this subject.
This will be covered in ELEN300011 Electrical Device Modeling (S2 ’13).
  Our treatment of diodes will be to study a nonlinear element through maths.
199
Diodes
  One type of material is called n-type material, in which a large
number of electrons move freely. The other type is p-type material,
in which positively charged particles (electron holes) predominate.
  When no external voltage is applied, an electric field barrier appears
at the pn junction. The barrier holds the electrons on the n-side and
the holes on the p-side.
  If an external voltage is applied w/ + polarity on the n-side (cathode),
the barrier is enhanced & charge carriers cannot cross the junction.
  If an external voltage is applied with + polarity on the p-side (anode),
the barrier is reduced and large currents cross the junction.
200
Diodes
  Summary: A diode conducts very little current when a positive
voltage is applied at the cathode terminal, but conducts large
currents when a positive voltage is applied at the anode terminal.
  Using passive sign convention, we represent diodes as below:
  Unlike the resistors, capacitors, and inductors we’ve studied, diodes
are asymmetric devices. This means that if we reverse the polarity
of the applied voltage, the behavior changes greatly.
  Note that the symbol for a diode reflects this: the arrow indicates the
direction that current easily flows (from anode to cathode).
Current does not easily flow in the reverse direction of the arrow.
201
Diodes
  For an applied voltage vD (t) , positively referenced at the anode,
the current-voltage plot of a typical diode has three distinct regions:
  The forward bias region, in which small values of vD (t) yield
large positive currents.
  The reverse bias region, in which moderate negative values of
vD (t) yield very small currents.
  The reverse breakdown region, when a sufficiently large negative
voltage vD (t) yields large negative currents.
From the plot, we can easily see that

diodes are nonlinear devices.
Nonlinear devices can result in the
need to solve nonlinear systems of
equations to analyse circuits. This
can sometimes be extremely
computationally intensive.
202
Applications of Diodes
  The diode’s ability to conduct current easily in one direction,
but not in the reverse, is very useful.
  In cars, diodes allow current to flow from the alternator to charge the
battery when the engine is running.
  When the engine stops, the diode prevents the battery from discharging
its energy through the alternator.
  Zener diodes are voltage regulators that can produce a

constant output voltage from a voltage source that may vary.
  This is useful in car electronics as the car battery s voltage can vary
between 10 V and 14 V depending upon usage, age, and temperature.
  There are a wide range of diodes and an even wider range of

applications, from voltage limiting and regulating, rectifier
circuits (demodulating communication signals and converting
AC to DC), increasing voltage (doubling, tripling, etc.).
203
Load Line Analysis of a DC Circuit
  Suppose that for the below circuit, we know the DC voltage applied
and the resistor’s value. We wish to find the value of the diode
current and voltage.
From KVL we can write: VSS + R · iD + vD = 0
VSS vD
Rearranging terms gives us: iD =
R
This is a straight line relationship
between the diode current iD and
voltage vD .
This relationship obtained from KVL is
called the load line.
This should look familiar: We are
treating the diode as the load of a
Thevenin circuit.
204
Load-Line Analysis of a DC Circuit
  Suppose further that we also have a graph of the current-voltage
relationship for the diode (called the diode characteristic curve).
  The method of Load-Line Analysis involves drawing the load line
onto the graph of the diode characteristic curve:
The intersection of the load line

and the diode curve is called the
operating point.
This point gives the values of

iD and vD for the circuit.
205
Load-Line DC Analysis Example
Let’s consider the same simple DC series circuit with a slightly
different diode characteristic curve.
Case 1: DC voltage is 2 V, resistor is 1 KΩ
vD 0.7 V , iD 1.3 mA
Case 2: DC voltage is 10 V, resistor is 10 KΩ
vD 0.68 V , iD 0.93 mA
Case 2
Case 1
206
Load-Line Analysis
  Thus, we are finding the operating point by plotting
1) The current-voltage relationship the load must obey with respect to the rest of the
circuit (i.e., the resistor and DC voltage source); and
2) The current-voltage relationship that the load device itself obeys (i.e., the diode
characteristic curve);
then determining where these plots intersect, which gives us the
operating point which satisfies both plots (operating curves).
  The key is determining the current-voltage relationship at the diode’s
terminals.
  In more complicated linear circuits, this may involve finding the Thevenin
equivalent of the circuit from the viewpoint of the diode’s terminals.
  Load-line analysis works well with a linear circuit having a nonlinear

load (e.g., a diode). With multiple diodes in a circuit, the analysis
becomes much more difficult, and simpler (yet less accurate) models
are sometimes used instead.
207
Load-Line Analysis of Complex Circuits
  Below shows the Thevenin concept to obtain the load line equation.
  In more complicated circuits with multiple sources, it may be difficult
to tell if the diode is forward or reverse biased. Load-line analysis
can give the exact current-voltage operating point for the diode.
208
Thevenin Equivalent before LLA
Rt = R || RL
RL
Vt = VSS
R + RL
Load line analysis can now be
done with the equivalent circuit
209
Zener Diodes
  Zener diodes are used in voltage regulator circuits
  In the below, even if the source voltage varies, the
output voltage at the terminals will be nearly constant.
  For proper operation, the minimum supply voltage should be
greater than the desired output voltage.
The resistor limits the diode current to a
safe value so that the it does not overheat
The zener diode regulates with a
breakdown voltage that is equal to
the desired output voltage.
VSS + R · ( iD ) vD = 0
vD + VSS
iD =
R
210
Load-Line Analysis with a Zener Diode
  The below load-line analysis uses two values for the supply
voltage (15 V and 20 V) and a 1 kΩ resistor.
  The slope is “accentuated” for clarity in this example. Real
zener diodes have more nearly vertical slopes in breakdown.
211
Ideal-Diode Model
  LLA is useful for some simple circuits, but not for more complex
circuits with more than 1 diode.
  Often, a simpler model to approximate the diode behavior is used.
  One such model is the ideal-diode model, which assumes the diode
is either ‘on’ or ‘off’.
  In the ‘on’ state, the forward voltage drop is
modeled to be zero and the current has a
value determined by the rest of the circuit.
This is equivalent to a short circuit.
  In the ‘off’ state, the reverse current is

modeled as zero and the voltage is
determined by the rest of the circuit. This is
equivalent to an open circuit.
  How do we know if a diode is ‘on’ or ‘off’?
212
Analysis using the Ideal-Diode Model
  For analysis, we may not know in advance which diodes are ‘on’
and which ones are ‘off’.
  We therefore have to play a guessing game and test whether the

guessed assumption satisfies the ideal diode model.
1) Assume a state for each diode: on (short circuit) or off (open circuit).
For n diodes, there are 2n states.
2) Analyse the circuit to determine the currents through the “on” diodes
and the voltages across the “off” diodes (from anode to cathode).
3) Check to see if the resulting currents and voltages make sense.

“On” diodes should have positive currents.
“Off” diodes should have negative voltages (reverse biases).
KVL & KCL must also be valid in the circuit
4) If all diodes don’t satisfy (3), go back to (1) with new assumed states.
213
Example with Ideal-Diode Model
  2 diodes yields 4 possible states. We’ll analyse two of them here.
  As an exercise, try the other two state cases (off-off and on-on)and
show they violate the ideal-diode model.
214
Piecewise-Linear Diode Model
  A more accurate model than the ideal-diode
assumption may be desirable. We can use
piecewise linear models to do this.
  In the example below, the (zener) diode

then has 3 states (on, off, breakdown).
Note: The below is another symbol for
a voltage source (typically for batteries)
215
Simple Piecewise-Linear Diode Model
  The simple model below is often sufficiently accurate for analysis of
typical diodes.
  Differs from the ideal-diode model in that the “on” state has a
forward-bias non-zero voltage of Vf.
  Exercise: Analyse the circuit on Slide 213 using this simple model
and Vf = 0.7 Volts (0.7 Volts is typical for silicon diodes)
216
Capacitors

Nilsson 6.2 – 6.3
217
Energy Storage Elements

  Capacitors store energy in an electric field.
  Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.
  Both are passive elements (like resistors are).
  Reason: they cannot generate energy.

  They can only store energy supplied by the circuit
  Can return (release) stored energy to the circuit
  Cannot return more energy than they have stored.
  Capacitors and inductors are very important in filtering

electrical signals. (more on this in ELEN30009 and ELEN30012)
218
Capacitors
  Constructed by separating two sheets of a conductor (typically
metallic) by a thin layer of insulating material called a dielectric
(typically air, Mylar, polyester, mica, or polypropylene).
  The plates, being conductors, have a very large number of
free electrons.
  In their normal state the plates are uncharged (no excess or
deficiency of electrons on either plate).
  Applying a voltage across the terminals changes this.
Using
PSC
circuit
symbol
219
The Physics of Capacitors
  The dielectric medium, in theory,
doesn’t let charge flow through it!
  Suppose a positive current flows
downward in the diagram.
  Electrons begin to collect on the
lower plate, which produces an
electric field in the dielectric.
  This field forces electrons to leave
the upper plate at the same rate
they accumulate on the lower plate.
  This creates a deficiency of electrons (positive charge) on the top
plate and a surplus of electrons (negative charge) on the bottom.
The charges on the plates have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
  As the charge builds up on each plate, a voltage appears across the
capacitor.
220
The Physics of Capacitors

  We say that the charge accumulated on one plate is “charge stored”
in the capacitor.
  Note that the total charge in the capacitor is in fact zero. Otherwise,
it would violate the Lumped Circuit Abstraction (Condition #1).
The electric field outside the capacitor must be zero (Condition #2)
  We generally will use the positive reference plate (+ label) to
represent the amount of charge stored in the capacitor.
  Capacitors are measured by their capacitance, which is the ratio of
the charge on one plate to the voltage difference between the plates.
  Here represents the net charge on the positive reference plate.

  Hence, positive charge is always stored on the plate with higher potential
  Capacitance has the units of Farads (F), named after Michael Farady
  1 Farad (F) = 1 Coulomb/Volt (C/V)
221
The Ideal Capacitor: Current-vs.-Voltage

In an ideal capacitor, the charge stored is
proportional to the voltage between the
plates. The constant of proportionality is
the CAPACITANCE
Solving for the current flowing in and out of the capacitor
(from the definition of current

and then the above equation)
Linear relation between

current and time derivative
of voltage.
Therefore, capacitors are
linear circuit elements.
222
Obtaining Voltage from Current
(must include
initial condition)
(substituting in
)
NOTICE: the voltage depends on the history of the current

and the initial condition. Thus, capacitors have memory!
(initial voltage from initial

charge at )
(combining last
two equations)
223
Instantaneous Energy and Power
(from definition of power)
(substituting for current)
Assuming zero charge at time (also means zero voltage)
Equivalently, and
224
(From Hambley 3.1) Pay attention to units!
Example
Given:
(From Hambley 3.1)
225
Sinusiodal Current Given:
Initial condition:
(From Hambley 3.1)
Initial condition: 226
Square Wave Current Example
227
Thoughts From The Examples
  If given the capacitance and either the voltage-time function or
current-time function, you can derive all other quantities.
  You can start with another quantity in the previous examples and
try deriving the remaining plots. (not work or power though, as
these are nonlinear quantities and not reversible )
  If the example started with the current time-function, try restarting
with the voltage time-function and derive everything else. This
also means you can check your answers!
  Pay attention to units. Since practical capacitors are typically

low in Farads (generally or ), charge may be expressed
in , work in and power in
  Notice: current in the examples can change instantaneously,

but voltage cannot!
  Instantaneous change in voltage would imply infinite current and
instantaneous change in charge. This is physically impossible!
228
Capacitors Connected in Parallel
PROOF:
Using KCL:
229
Capacitors Connected in Series
Using KVL: v = v1 + v2 + v3
PROOF:
Cancelling i on both sides and solving

for the equivalent capacitance
230
Various Capacitor Thoughts
  Capacitors in parallel are combined in the same way that resistors
are in series.
  Capacitors in series are combined in the same way that resistors in

parallel are.
  Power into the capacitor can be positive or negative:

  Positive power = capacitor is storing energy
  Negative power = capacitor is releasing energy to the circuit
  You must pay close attention to sign convention to make sure you
know whether power is being stored or released!
  Although the examples did not show this, it is possible that the
positive reference plate holds a net negative charge.
  The voltage drop is then negative according to the reference polarity.
  No matter what sign the net charge is on the positive reference plate,
the energy stored is always non-negative (it is proportional to the
squared-voltage, a non-negative)
231
Various Capacitor Thoughts
  The time functions of charge and voltage across the capacitor
must be continuous functions.
  In theory, if an ideal voltage source is connected to just an ideal
capacitor, the charge and voltage would change instantly and an
infinite current would result. Such events are physically impossible.
  IMPORTANT RESULT: when is constant over time,
no current flows in or out of the capacitor’s terminals.
A capacitor is an open circuit to steady-state
direct current (DC)
  Practical capacitors:
  have parasitic events, and in addition to their capacitance, they have
resistance and inductive effects too.
  have maximum voltage ratings as the dielectric materials break down
and becomes conductors when electric field intensity (V/m) is too high.
  Size, capacitance, voltage rating, and materials are major trade-offs.
  Electrolytic capacitors can only handle one polarity of applied voltage.
232
Inductors

Nilsson 6.1, 6.3
233
Inductors
  Constructed by coiling a wire around some type of “form”
  Current flowing through the coil creates a magnetic field (or
flux) in which magnetic energy can be stored.
  If the form is composed of a magnetic material (such as iron), it
greatly increases the magnetic flux created by the current flow.
Using
PSC
here
Inductor Examples
circuit
symbol
234
The Basics of Inductors
  If the current through the inductor changes with time, the magnetic
field also changes with time.
  Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: a time-varying magnetic
field induces a voltage across the coil, and vice versa.
  For an ideal inductor, the voltage across the coil is proportional to the
time rate of change of the current.
  The constant of proportionality, L, is called the inductance and is

measured in Henries (H). 1 Henry = 1 Volt • second / Ampere (V•s/A)
  Named after Joseph Henry (who worked with Morse on the telegraph)
  An inductor is a linear circuit element due to a linear relation

between voltage and the time derivative of current.
  Typical inductors have a wide range of inductance values: from a
fraction of a microhenry to several tens of henries.
235
The Ideal Inductor: Current from Voltage
Starting with
Solving for the current flowing through the inductor
(we must be sure

to include initial condition)
Current depends on the past voltage

and some past current condition inductors have memory!
236
Instantaneous Stored Energy and Power
(from definition of power)
(substituting for voltage)
Assuming (zero initial current condition)

237
Example: Voltage Applied to 5 H Inductor
(From Hambley 3.4)

238
Example: Switch is closed at time 0
(From Hambley 3.4)
Initial condition:
no energy stored at time 0
What if we then opened the switch at time 1???

239
Example: Voltage Applied to 150 µH Inductor
(From Hambley 3.4)
Initial condition:
no energy stored at time 0

240
Thoughts From The Examples
  If you are given the inductance and either the voltage time-function
or current time-function, you can derive all other time functions.
  Pay attention to units: in the three examples, the units were all
“nice” to work with. Be careful of problems with micro or millihenries
and/or mA instead of A.
  Notice: voltage in the examples can change instantaneously, but

current does not.
  Instantaneous change in current would imply infinite voltage
(an infinite potential energy difference). This is physically impossible!
  Finite voltage across the inductor current is a continuous function
  Notice: when the current is constant, voltage across the inductor is

zero, power is zero, and the stored energy remains constant.
  Thus, an inductor acts like a short circuit to direct current.
  An inductor requires current to flow in order to maintain its stored energy
241
Inductors Connected in Series
PROOF:
(using KVL)
242
Inductors Connected in Parallel
PROOF:
(KCL)
Z t
1
= v dt + i(to )
Leq t0
243
Concluding Inductor Thoughts

  Inductors in series and parallel combine to form equivalents
in the same fashion that resistors do.
  Power delivered to an inductor can be positive or negative:
  Positive power = inductor is storing energy
  Negative power = inductor is releasing energy to the circuit
  You must pay close attention to sign convention to make sure
you know whether power is being stored or released!
  In keeping with the lumped circuit abstraction (LCA), we

assume that the magnetic flux outside the inductor’s
terminals is zero (Condition #2).
  Otherwise, magnetic coupling can occur, and the LCA is invalid.
244
Concluding Inductor Thoughts
  Inductance represents the tendency of an inductor to resist
change in the current flowing through it.
  The time functions of current and energy for the inductor
must be continuous functions.
  Current and energy cannot change instantaneously.
  IMPORTANT RESULT: when is constant over time,

no voltage appears across the inductor:
An inductor is a short circuit to steady-state
direct current (DC)
  Practical inductors:
  have parasitic events, and in addition to their inductance, they
have resistance (due to the wire s resistance and possible eddy
currents in the core) and an interwinding capacitance due to
electric fields created in the dielectric (insulation) in the coils.
245
Summary: Capacitors vs. Inductors
CAPACITOR INDUCTOR
cannot change instantaneously cannot change instantaneously

and must be a continuous function and must be a continuous function
of time. of time.
Behaves as an open circuit to a Behaves as a short circuit to
constant voltage (DC) constant current (DC)
Does not require a source to maintain Requires a closed path for current to
a constant stored energy level. Wants flow in order to maintain a constant
zero current to flow (i.e., can be energy in its magnetic field.
connected to an open circuit)
Both elements are linear circuit elements and have memory
246
Extra Comments on Capacitors & Inductors
  Do not short circuit a capacitor that has been charged up.
  Can create a large, instantaneous discharge (spark) of power
  Do not abruptly open circuit an inductor that has a current

flowing through it.
  Can create an arc across the open circuit to maintain flow.
  Turning off a voltage source is perfectly fine, as this creates a
short circuit, not an open circuit.
  Capacitor’s can also have the symbol
  Generally, this means it is a non-electrolytic capacitor, and allows
positive and negative voltage polarities across it.
  If an electrolytic capacitor has a positive voltage applied opposite
to its built-in reference direction, it could destroy the capacitor.
  For this class, we assume an ideal capacitor that can handle
positive and negative voltage polarities.
247
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Part 1: Sinusoids, Phasors, and

Complex Impedances

Nilsson 9.1 – 9.4, 9.12
  Next 7 slides give a review of complex numbers.

You really need to know them for this section!
248
Complex Number Review
Why j ? In Electrical Engineering, we already
use i to indicate current.
Rectangular Polar Phasor Polar

Form Form Form
249
Addition and Subtraction
Addition is most easily performed
in rectangular form.
Addition in polar form can only be done when the phases are
either equal or are 180 degrees apart:
250
Multiplication and Division
Multiplication and division is
most easily performed in
polar form.
Multiplication can be done in rectangular form, but is more difficult

251
Conversion: Rectangular to & from Polar
Rectangular to Polar Polar to Rectangular
Be careful determining the phase

252
Euler’s Formula
253
Complex Conjugate
254
Other Important Relationships

255
  We now consider circuits with sinusoidal “inputs”
  i.e., sinusoidal independent voltage and/or current sources.
  Circuits with sinusoidal sources have many important
applications.
  A well-known application is electric power distribution.
  Furthermore, it can be shown that all signals of practical
interest are composed of sinusoidal components.
  The Fourier Transform is the mathematical tool that shows this.
  This transform is central to many engineering disciplines,
including electrical engineering. It is first studied in ELEN300012.
  In this subject, with sinusoidal inputs we will only be interested
in the circuit’s behavior at steady state.
  It is also called AC analysis, where AC = alternating current
256
  For the circuit below, a 2nd-order differential equation can be written.
  Just as we did with DC circuits, the steady-state response can be
solved for without solving a differential equation.
  The particular solution is the steady-state response, and the “form” of
this solution matches the input function (the sinusoid)
  At steady state, all voltages and currents in the circuit will be
sinusoidal functions of the same frequency as the source(s), but with
various phases and amplitudes (determined via circuit analysis).
  Question: What are the sinusoidal current-voltage relationships
in terms of amplitudes & phases for our basic circuit elements?
257
Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
Some important relations

258
259
  For uniformity, we prefer to express sinusoidal functions in
terms of:
  The cosine function rather then the sine function
  Non-negative amplitudes
  Any sinusoid written in terms of sine can be rewritten in
terms of cosine using the identity:
  We can insure the amplitude is positive using the identity:
  Example: Find the phase after expressing in terms of cosine

with positive amplitude:
260
  Sinusoidal currents can also be similarly expressed.

  Like with voltages, we prefer to express sinusoidal currents in
terms of cosines with non-negative amplitudes.
  For AC steady-state analysis, we will need to add and subtract
sinusoidal functions with different amplitudes and phases.
  We can represent currents and voltages using phasors
(vectors in the complex plane) to greatly ease the analysis.
261
Motivation for Phasors
  Let’s say we want to express the following:
in the form:
  We could use trigonometric identities and substitutions, but this can

be very tedious.
  An alternative is to represent sinusoids by a vector in the complex
plane known as a phasor. Vector addition can then be used.
Euler’s formula
262
Phasors (because we use i for current)
is the phasor representation of
For simplicity, we express in the form:
Hence, sinusoids can be represented in two equivalent forms
Phasors are complex numbers. Therefore, your maths skills

with complex numbers need to be sharp.
is the time-domain representation. Essentially, the phasor

is a frequency-domain representation. More on this in future subjects.
263
Phasors and Addition
Phasors are complex numbers in polar form:
The magnitude is and the phase is
We’ll use phasors to only represent cosines with non-negative
amplitudes. Conversion to this form will be necessary.
V
Back to the addition example:
264
The phasor for a sum of sinusoids (of the same frequency)

is simply the sum of the phasors of those sinusoids.
Complex numbers cannot be added in polar form unless their

phases are aligned. We need to convert to rectangular form.
265
(convert pack to polar form. Use arctan( ) to get the phase)
V
266
Adding Sinusoids: Step-by-Step

1) Determine the phasor for each term
2) Convert each term to complex rectangular form
3) Add the complex numbers in rectangular form
4) Convert the result back into polar form
5) Write the result as a time function.
Note: the sinusiods must all be of the same frequency.

With subtraction, the negative sign can be brought into the
phase of the proceeding term (i.e. add or subtract 180 degrees)
267
Phasors as Rotating Vectors
Let’s consider a slightly different

representation that includes the term
At time t, the voltage is then:
The sinusoidal voltage can be visualized as

the real-axis projection of a vector rotating
counterclockwise with time.
The phasor for a sinusoid is a snapshot of the
corresponding rotating vector at time t = 0.
268
Phase Relationships Between Sinusoids
Angle between and is
Because the vectors rotate

counterclockwise with time, we say that
leads by
Alternatively, we can also say that
lags by
269
Phase Relationships Between Sinusoids

Looking at the plots of the two sinusoidal voltages, we can see
that the peak of occurs before the peak of
The phase difference can be

computed by measuring the time
difference between the peaks of
the sinusoids, then using:
270
Complex Impedances
The impedance describes the relationship
between the sinusoidal voltage across and
the sinusoidal current through an element.
Mathematically, the relationship is:
Impedance = ratio of the phasor voltage to

the phasor current. Its units are Ohms.
Phasor voltages and currents are related by an analogous form
of Ohm’s Law. This is the key to steady-state AC analysis.
271
Complex Impedances
  Impedance is a complex number (it must be since it is a ratio of
two complex numbers).
  It measures the tendency of a circuit element to resist the flow of
sinusoidal current. (similar to definition of resistance).
  Impedance itself is NOT a phasor because it does not correspond
to a sinusoidal function. However, it is sometimes expressed in
the same numerical form as phasors, i.e.,
  Impedance of an element can depend on frequency.
  A purely real impedance is a resistance. (Resistors)
  A purely imaginary impedance is a reactance. (C’s and L’s).
  Any impedance can be written as a sum of a resistive component
R and a reactive component jX :
272
Complex Impedances
  The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (in Siemens):
  As an example, consider the element two slides back:
  The use of phasors and impedances will allow us to use

KVL, KCL, and the analogous form of Ohm’s Law to do our
steady-state AC circuit analysis.
  We can use all the tools we ve learned all over again! 
  This includes, node-voltage and mesh-current analysis,
terminal equivalents (Thevenin and Norton), superposition,
source transformations, and parallel and series equivalences.
273
The Resistor’s I-V Phasor Relationship
274
The Capacitor’s I-V Phasor Relationship
+ 90 = ej( +90 )
= ej ej90 = · 90
275
The Capacitor’s I-V Phasor Relationship
(purely imaginary number)
In a capacitor, current leads voltage by 90 degrees

276
The Inductor’s I-V Phasor Relationship
✓ + 90 = ✓ 90
277
The Inductor’s I-V Phasor Relationship

(purely imaginary number)
In an inductor, voltage leads current by 90 degrees

278
Impedance Summary
Element Impedance Phasor I-V Relationship
Voltage leads current by 90 degrees
Current leads voltage by 90 degrees

279
Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram is just a graph of two or more phasors on the complex
plane. It’s purpose is to visualize the phase relationships between
various currents and voltages.
Ex: A voltage is applied to (a) 0.25 H inductor,

(b) 100 µF capacitor, (c) 50 Ω resistor. Draw the phasor diagrams.
(a) (b) (c)

280
Part 2: Phasors and Circuit Analysis

Nilsson 9.5 – 9.9
  Reusing all the circuit analysis techniques you’ve

learned, but now with complex numbers and phasors.
  KCL, KVL, Parallel & Series Equivalences, NVA, MCA,
Thevenin/Norton, Superposition, Source Transformations.
281
Phasors and KVL
KVL:
Algebraic sum of all
the phasor voltages in
a closed path is zero
We showed last lecture that a sum of sinusoids can be represented

by a sum of the phasors of those sinusoids.
282
Phasors and KCL
KCL:
The algebraic sum of all the phasor currents entering a node in a

circuit is zero. (also says, “current entering = current leaving”)
283
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors & Impedances
1) Replace the time descriptions of voltage and current sources
with the corresponding phasors.
2) Replace inductances by their complex impedance:
Replace capacitances by their complex impedance:
Resistors have impedances equal to their resistances.

3) Analyze the circuit using any of the previous techniques we
studied for DC circuits, but perform the calculations with
complex arithmetic.
4) Convert from phasors back to time domain functions.
284
Series and Parallel Impedances
  When multiple impedances are combined in series or
parallel, they combine in the same way as resistances.
Admittance:
285
Basic Example (Series RLC Circuit)
V
286
Basic Example (continued)
V Quadrant 1
V
287
Basic Example (continued)
V
288
Voltage Division for Impedances in Series
Also applies to 4 or more impedances in series

For impedances in series, the Equations have the same form as
phasor voltage drop across Slide #102, except now we have
each device is proportional to impedances and phasors.
its impedance.
289
Current Division for Impedances in Parallel
Easily generalized to 4 or
more impedances in parallel
Equations have same form as

Slide #105 except now we
have impedances and phasors.
Find all current phasors in the circuit
290
Another Example V
291
Example (cont.)
Using Voltage Division
Equivalent Circuit
A
292
Example (cont.)
Quadrant 3 ✓ ◆
1 0.1
135 = tan
0.1
293
Node Voltage Analysis with Phasors
We can perform NVA by using phasors in a manner similar to
that of resistive DC circuits.
_ _
+ +
+
For N nodes, can obtain N equations to
solve for the N unknown node voltages.
_
The equations form a complex system
of equations. May require a complex
matrix inverse to solve them.
294
Mesh-Current Analysis with Phasors
We can perform MCA for steady-state AC analysis by using
phasors in a manner similar to that of resistive DC circuits.
Mesh #1:
Mesh #2:

295
Source Transformation
296
Impedances
Node Voltage Example
Node 1:
Node 2:
297
Node Voltage Example (continued)
V V
298
Impedances
Mesh Current Example
Mesh 1:
Mesh 2:
299
Mesh Current Example (continued)
A
300
Superposition
Superposition also applies to steady-state AC analysis.
If you have two or more independent sources having the same

frequency, you can use the same procedure on Slide #188.
The difference of course, is phasors and complex numbers.
After you determine the phasor voltages and currents from each
independent source, you then sum them to obtain the total
phasor voltages and currents.
This likely requires converting from polar to rectangular (to add

the complex numbers) then back to polar to get the final phasors,
and finally, converting to back time domain sinusoids.
301
Superposition Example Find the voltage and current
time functions for each
element.
Same impedances as the circuit example from Slides 290-292.
Step 1: Turn off current source V

(replace by open circuit)
Same circuit (and solution) as Slides 290-292

302
Superposition Example (cont)
Step 2: Turn off voltage source
(replace by short circuit)
Impedances in parallel as
seen by the current source
V
303
KVL Check:
( j10) + (10 j30) + ( 10 + j20) = 0

304
(Used PSC when defining all currents) A
KCL Check:
305
EXERCISE: Draw the phasor diagram for the voltages & currents
306
Source Transformation Example
Goal: Find the voltage and
current phasors for the
capacitor.
Source Transformation
V
Identical circuit (mathematically) as slide 285.
307
Source Transformation Example
Voltage Division gives:
A
Same answers as on Slides 286-287.
308
Thevenin Equivalent Circuits & Phasors
Just as we have done with DC resistive circuits, we can construct a Thevenin
equivalent circuit for a two terminal circuit consisting of sinusoidal sources
(all of the same frequency), resistors, capacitors and inductors.
The equivalent circuit contains an AC voltage source in series with a
Thevenin impedance. Below, the source is expressed by its phasor.
Like with DC circuits, we can determine the equivalent circuit by determining

two of:
309
Norton Equivalent Circuits & Phasors
We can also construct a Norton equivalent circuit using phasors.
The equivalent circuit contains an AC current source in parallel with a
Thevenin impedance. Below, the source is expressed by its phasor.
Note that since phasors only apply in AC steady-state conditions, the

Thevenin and Norton equivalents can only be used in steady-state operation.
The concept and procedures for obtaining Thevenin and Norton equivalents
is the same as with DC resistive circuits (except phasors and complex
numbers are used to determine the steady-state equivalents).
310
Thevenin/Norton Example
Solving for :
No current will flow to the 50 Ohm resistor or the capacitor.
Need to find the voltage across the 100 Ohm resistor.
Use voltage division.
V
311
Thevenin/Norton Example (continued)
Solving for directly :

Turn off voltage phasor (becomes a short circuit).
Find equivalent impedance seen by the terminals.
312
Thevenin/Norton Example
Thevenin Equivalent
Norton Equivalent
A
Exercise: Find short circuit current directly
313
Impedance Versus Frequency A constant!
(not a function of time)
  Consider the case of
DC
current
  In other words, DC current (or voltage) can be expressed as
a sinusoidal signal, but with a frequency of 0.
  Recall that a capacitor is an open circuit to steady-state DC
With an impedance magnitude of infinity, no current flows

through the capacitor. Thus, it acts as an open circuit.
  An inductor is a short circuit to steady-state DC

short circuit
314
Impedance Versus Frequency
  In DC transient analysis (later this semester), when the switch
is closed, the instantaneous change in voltage or current is
equivalent to a frequency of infinity (for that time instant only).
Capacitor acts like a short circuit

when the switch is closed
short circuit
Inductor acts like an open circuit

when the switch is closed
With an impedance magnitude of infinity, no current flows

through the inductor. Thus, it acts as an open circuit.
315
Conclusions
  Circuits can exhibit different behavior with different sinusoidal
frequencies.
  This is due to the fact that impedances of inductors and capacitors
vary with frequency.
  Circuits can be designed to allow certain frequencies to pass

through, while others are significantly attenuated.
  This is demonstrated in the frequency sweep that is in the
workshop. An RC circuit can be used as a low pass filter .
  Filters are a critical part of electrical engineering. They are important
topics in both ELEN30009 (S1 15) and ELEN300012 (S2 15).
  AC steady-state analysis is very similar to analysing DC resistive

circuits. The difference is using phasors and complex numbers.
  Your performance on AC analysis problems will be highly correlated
to your ability to perform maths with complex numbers.
  Make sure you practice this and know the rules of doing the inverse
tangent (i.e. arctan) to obtain phasor angles.
  See the Complex Numbers review in the lecture notes.
316
AC Power
Part 1: Types of Power, Power Angle

and Power Factor.

Nilsson 10.1 – 10.4
317
AC Power
  Power engineering is an important area within electrical
engineering. It’s main goal is to deliver energy to do work,
and includes tasks such as:
  Designing generators, transformers, and wiring that provide electric
energy to household and industrial customers.
  Safety and efficiency of electric appliances (power ratings)
  Nearly all electric energy is supplied in the form of

sinusoidal voltages and currents. Thus, the understanding
of power in sinusoidal steady-state is very important.
  Circuit analysis and design is needed to insure efficient

use of the power delivered
318
AC Instantaneous Power + i(t)

Passive
Load Circuit
v(t) Impedance
=Z
  Given the sinusoidal voltage & current for a passive load
circuit are:
v(t) = Vm cos(⇥t + v)
i(t) = Im cos(⇥t + i)
  The instantaneous power delivered to the load is:
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = Vm Im cos(⇥t + v ) cos(⇥t + i)
1 1
= Vm Im cos( v i) + Vm Im cos(2⇥t + v + i)
2 2
1 1
using the identity: cos cos ⇥ =
2
cos( ⇥) + cos( + ⇥)
2
319
AC Instantaneous Power
1 1
p(t) = Vm Im cos( v i) + Vm Im cos(2⇥t + v + i)
2 2
Constant Power Sinusoidal Power at 2 t

(not a function of time) (twice the frequency)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
p(t) > 0 : power is absorbed by the load circuit

p(t) < 0 : power is being supplied by the load circuit
320
AC Average Power
  Average power is the average of the instantaneous power.
It is a constant and is not dependent on time.
⇤
1 T
Pavg = p(t) dt
T 0 Integrates to zero
over a period
⇤ ⇥
1 T
1 1
= Vm Im cos( v i ) + Vm Im cos(2⇥t + v + i ) dt
T 0 2 2
Vm Im
= cos( v i)
2
  As we shall soon see, average power is due to the resistive

part of the load (the real part of the impedance).
  Average power is sometimes called real power.
321
Root-Mean-Square (rms) Values
  For a periodic voltage v(t) (not necessarily a sinusoid), we
could write the average power for a resistive load as:
⇥ ⇥ T
1 T
1 T
v (t)
2 1
v 2 (t)dt
P = p(t)dt = dt = T 0
T 0 T 0 R R
⌅ ⇤ ⇥2
1 T
T 0
v 2 (t)dt 2
Vrms
= =
R R
  The root-mean-square (rms) value of the periodic voltage is:
⇥
1 T
Vrms = v 2 (t) dt
T 0
322
Root-Mean-Square (rms) Values
  Power calculations are facilitated by using rms values for
voltage or current.
  Sometimes, the rms value is called the effective value.
  We can define the rms value for a periodic current as well:

⇥
1 T
Irms = i2 (t) dt
T 0
  The average power for the resistive load can be written as:
P = 2
Irms R
323
RMS Value of a Sinusoid

  When the periodic signal is a sinusoid, two very important
relationships result (see Hambley 5.1 for derivation):
Vm Im
Vrms = Irms =
2 2
  The rms values are thus about 70.7% of the peak value.
  Note the above relations apply to sinusoids, and not other

common periodic signals (square wave, triangular, etc.)
  In Australia, residential wiring distributes a 50 Hz

240 V rms sinusoid. The peak value is then:
⇥
Vm = 2 · 240 V rms 340 V
324
Simplified Source-Load Example
  Consider the circuit below with an impedance consisting of a
resistive (R) and reactive (X) component: Z = R + jX
  We simplify the analysis by assuming that v = 0
  The current phasor is then:

V Vm 0
I = = = Im
Z |Z|
Voltage leads by
We now analyse the power

for the load for four different
cases
325
Power for a Resistive Load
  If the load circuit is purely resistive (zero reactive impedance),
then voltage and current are in phase.
= v = i
  Consider the case where = 0

v(t) = Vm cos( t)
i(t) = Im cos( t)
p(t) = Vm Im cos2 ( t)
Average Power
Vm Im
P = = Vrms Irms Watts
2
326
Power for a Resistive Load

  Instantaneous power is always non-negative for resistive load.
  Power rises and falls with the voltage

(and current) magnitude. It’s
frequency is twice the voltage’s and
current’s sinusoid.
  Energy flows continually in the

direction from the source to the
resistive load where it is converted to
heat.
327
Power for an Inductive Load
  If the load circuit is purely inductive ( Z = j L = L 90 ),
voltage leads current by 90 degrees.
v = i + 90
  Consider the case where v =0
v(t) = Vm cos( t)
i(t) = Im cos( t 90 ) = Im sin( t)
p(t) = Vm Im cos( t) sin( t)
Vm Im
= sin(2 t)
2
P = 0 (zero average power)
328
Power for an Inductive Load

  Instantaneous power oscillates between positive and negative,
again with twice the frequency of the source.
  The energy is stored in a ¼ cycle and then

released in the ¼ cycle that follows.
  Half the time, power is being absorbed

and stored in a magnetic field.
  The other half of the time, the load returns

energy back to the source.
  Notice that the average power is zero.
  We say that reactive power flows from

the source to the load.
329
Power for a Capacitive Load= 1/ C 90
  If the load circuit is purely capacitive ( Z = j/ C ),
voltage lags current by 90 degrees.
v = i 90
  Consider the case where v =0
v(t) = Vm cos( t)
i(t) = Im cos( t + 90 ) = Im sin( t)
p(t) = Vm Im cos( t) sin( t)

Vm Im
= sin(2 t)
2
P = 0 (zero average power)
330
Power for a Capacitive Load
  Similar oscillation of energy storage as an inductive load
(except energy is stored in an electric field in this case)
  Notice that the average power is zero.

  We again say that reactive power flows
from the source to the load
  Notice that power for a capacitive load has
the opposite sign of an inductive load.
  We say that reactive power is positive for
inductance and negative for capacitance.
  If a load contains both inductance and
capacitance with equal reactive power
magnitudes, the reactive powers cancel.
331
Power for a General Load

  We now consider a general RLC where we assume v =0
  We assume that current lags voltage by phase
=
v(t) = Vm cos( t) i
i(t) = Im cos(⇥t )
1 1
p(t) = Vm Im cos( ) + Vm Im cos(2⇥t )
2 2
Vm Im
P = cos( ) Watts (average power)
2
Vm Im Vm Im
= Vrms Irms cos( ) Watts 2
= = Vrms Irms
2 2
332
Power Factor and Power Angle
  cos( ) is called the power factor
  To simplify things, we assumed the voltage phase was 0

For the more general case of any v
= v i cos( ) = cos( v i)
  Often, power factor is stated as a percentage and

whether current leads (capacitive load) or lags (inductive
load) the voltage.
  Example: A 90 percent lagging power factor refers to current
lagging voltage and cos( ) = 0.9
  Sometimes, is called the power angle

333
Reactive Power
  With reactive loads, the average power is zero, but the
instantaneous power can be very large.
  Instantaneous power for a general load can be rewritten using

the identity cos( ⇥) = cos cos ⇥ + sin sin ⇥ , giving us:
Vm Im Vm Im
p(t) = cos( )(1 + cos(2⇥t)) + sin( ) sin(2⇥t)
2 2
= P (1 + cos(2 t)) + Q sin(2 t) Recall that:
Vm Im
= Vrms Irms
where Q = Vrms Irms sin( ) 2
  Q is called the reactive power. It is the peak instantaneous

power associated with the energy storage elements contained
in the load.
334
Reactive Power
  There is no average power consumed by a pure energy-
storage element (i.e., inductors and capacitors, which have
purely reactive impedances).
  Technically speaking, average power and reactive power have

the same physical units of Watts.
  However, to emphasize the fact that Q does not represent the

flow of net energy (i.e., average power = 0), it’s units are
usually given as Volt Amperes Reactive (VARs).
  Reactive power is important even though no average power is

consumed by the pure energy-storage elements.
  Very high amounts of current can still be drawn (requiring

heavy duty wiring), even though little average power is
consumed.
335
Apparent Power
  Another quantity of interest is the apparent power
  It is defined as the product of the effective voltage and effective
current (recall that “rms” and “effective” are synonymous)
apparent power = Vrms Irms

  The units for apparent power are volt-amperes (VA). This is
to distinguish it from Watts (real power) and VARs (reactive).
  The relationship between the three types of power is:
P 2 + Q2 = (Vrms Irms )2 cos2 ( ) + (Vrms Irms )2 sin2 ( )

= (Vrms Irms )2 (cos2 ( ) + sin2 ( ))
= (Vrms Irms )2
336
The Power Triangle
  The relationship between real power P , reactive power Q ,
apparent power Vrms Irms , and the power angle can be
represented by the power triangle
P = Vrms Irms cos( )

Q = Vrms Irms sin( )
337
Additional Power Relationships

R
Z = R + jX = |Z| cos( ) =
|Z|
Vm Im R X
P = · sin( ) =
2 |Z| |Z|
2
Im
= R = Irms R
2
2
Vm
since Im =
|Z|
338
Additional Power Relationships Summary

  The following relations can be shown in a similar fashion as on
the previous slide:
P = Irms
2
R Q = Irms
2
X
VR2 rms VX2 rms

P = Q =
R X
VR rms = rms value of the voltage across the resistance
VX rms = rms value of the voltage across the reactance
339
AC Power
Part 2: Power Calculations,

Power Factor Correction, and

Nilsson 10.5 – 10.6
340
AC Power Example (same circuit as Slide 290)
Calculate the average power and reactive power taken from the source
v = 90 i = 135
= v i = 90 ( 135 ) = 45 (Power Angle)
|Vs | 10 |I| 0.1414

Vs rms = = = 7.071 Vrms Irms = = = 0.1 A rms
2 2 2 2
341
AC Power Example (continued)
Source Power Calculations
P = Vs rms Irms cos( ) = (7.071)(0.1) cos 45 = 0.5 W
Q = Vs rms Irms sin( ) = (7.071)(0.1) sin 45 = 0.5 VAR
apparent power = Vs rms Irms = (7.071)(0.1) = .7071 VA
= P 2 + Q2 = 0.52 + 0.52 = .7071 VA
.7071 VA
= .5 VAR
= 45
Inductive load since positive
= .5 W
342
AC Power Example (continued) XL = Im(ZL )
Power to the Circuit Elements: XC = Im(ZC )
QL = Irms
2
XL = (0.1)2 (100) = 1.0 VAR
⇥2
0.1
QC = IC rms XC = ⇥
2
( 100) = 0.5 VAR
2
⇥2
0.1
PR = IR rms R =
2
(100) = 0.5 W
2
Things to Notice:
P = PR (the total average power is the resistive power)
Q = QL + QC = 1 0.5 = 0.5 VAR

(the total reactive power is the sum of the element reactive powers)
343
AC Power Example (continued)

Things to Notice and Remember:
XC < 0 QC = 2
IC rms XC < 0
Capacitor reactance is negative Capacitor reactive power is negative
For this example: |QL | > |QC | Load circuit is inductive

Total reactive power is positive
Power angle is positive
Power factor: cos( ) = cos(45 ) = .7071
If there had been more resistors, the total average power would
equal the sum of the powers delivered to each.
344
Example of Using Power Triangles

Calculate the average power, reactive power, and power factor from
the source, as well as the current phasors.
Approach: find the average power and reactive power for each load,
then sum to find the total delivered from the source.
Notice the units! Load A is in kVA, which is apparent power.

Load B is in kW, which is average power.
V=
345
Analysing Load A Power Triangle for Load A
Power Factor is 0.5 leading

Current leads voltage
Load A is capacitive
QA < 0
A < 0 apparent power = 10 kVA
cos( A) = 0.5 Vrms IA rms = 10 kVA
PA = Vrms IA rms cos( A ) = (10 · 103

)(0.5) = 5 kW
QA = (Vrms IA rms )2 PA2 (notice the negative sign!)
= (10 · 103 )2 + (5000)2 = 8.660 kVAR

346
Power Triangle for Load B
Analysing Load B
Power Factor is 0.7 lagging
Current lags voltage
Load B is inductive
QB > 0
average power = 5 kW
B > 0
PB = 5 kW
cos( B) = 0.7
B = arccos(0.7) = 45.57 (chose the positive angle)
QB = PB tan( B) = 5000 tan(45.57 ) = 5.101 kVAR

347
Total Power Delivered By Source
= total power “absorbed” by Load A & Load B
P = PA + PB = 5 + 5 = 10 kW
Q = QA + QB = 8.660 + 5.101 = 3.559 kVAR

(negative reactive power) < 0
⇥ ⇥
Q 3.559
= arctan = arctan = 19.59
P 10
Power Factor
cos( 19.59 ) = 0.9421
348
Solving for the Phasor Currents
Vrms Irms = P 2 + Q2 = 102 + ( 3.559)2 = 10.61 kVA
|V|
Vrms = = 1 kV
2
Vrms Irms 10.61 kVA
Irms = = = 10.61 A
Vrms 1 kV
|I| = 2 Irms = 15 A
i = v = 30 ( 19.59 ) = 49.59
I = |I| i = 15 49.59 A
349
Solving for the Phasor Currents
Vrms IA rms 10 kVA
IA rms = = = 10 A
Vrms 1 kV
✓i = ✓v ✓
A = arccos(0.5) = 60
p
IA = 2 IA rms 30 A = 14.14 90 A
⇥
VB rms Irms = PB2 + Q2B = 52 + (5.101)2 = 7.143 kVA
Vrms IB rms 7.143 kVA

IB rms = = = 7.143 A
Vrms 1 kV
p
IB = 2 IB rms 30 B = 10.102 15.57 A
Can verify KCL: I = IA + IB

350
Power Factor Correction

  Large currents can flow into energy-storage devices (inductance
and capacitance) without average power being delivered.
  In heavy industry, loads can be partly inductive.
  Can result in large amounts of reactive power
  May require power lines and transformers with much higher ratings
(more expensive) to deliver the same average power as a purely
resistive load.
  As previously mentioned, power companies charge industry for

reactive power (or a higher rate for lower power factors).
  This forces industrial customers to choose loads that operate near
unity power factor by doing power-factor correction.
  A common approach is to place capacitors in parallel with an
inductive load to increase the power factor.
  These capacitors can be very large in size. A large room can be full of them.
351
Power-Factor Correction Example

A 50-kW load L operates from a 60-Hz 10-kV-rms line with a
power factor of 60 percent lagging.
With 60 percent and current lagging voltage (inductive load),
there is a large reactive power, so we would like to correct the
power factor by placing a capacitance in parallel with the load.
We would like to achieve a 90 percent lagging power angle.
PL = 50 kW Vrms = 10 kV
Power
cos( L) = 0.6 Triangle
QL
L = arccos(0.6) = 53.13
L
QL = PL tan( L) = 66.67 kVAR PL = 50 kW
352
PF Correction
Capacitance
Vrms
= 10 kV L C
KEY IDEA: adding the capacitance in parallel does NOT

change the average power in the load.
Reason: The voltage across the load does not change!
This insures the average power is the same.
We want: cos( new ) = 0.9
new = arccos(0.9) = 25.84 L new = arcc

353

(new reactive
Qnew = PL tan(✓new ) = 24.214 kVAR power is lower)
QC = Qnew QL = 42.45 kVAR

2
Vrms (10 · 103 )2
XC = = = 2536
QC 42450
⇥ = 2 60 = 377.0 radians/sec
1 1
C = = = 1.126 µF Qnew
|XC | 377 · 2356
new
Pnew = PL = 50 kW
354
  Given a Thevenin equivalent, find the impedance that results
in the maximum average power delivered to the load.
  Solution: Complex conjugate of Zt
Zload = Zt
Zt = Rt + jXt
Zload = Zt = Rt jXt
Ztotal = Zt + Zload = (Rt + jXt ) + (Rt jXt )
= 2Rt
Reactances cancel each other out
355
Max Power Transfer

Maximum power transfer occurs when the load
impedance is matched to the Thevenin impedance.
This is called impedance matching
It’s similar to resistance matching in resistive networks.

The resistive part of the load is exactly that of the
real part of the Thevenin impedance.
The imaginary part of the load is to cancel out

the imaginary part of the Thevenin impedance.
The load impedance and the Thevenin

impedance dissipate the same amount of power
356
Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
  Much of the power transmitted over power lines comes from a
three-phase electric power source.
  Three equal-amplitude voltage sources having phases that are
120 degrees apart.
  This is called a balanced three-phase source.
  Our analysis has been single-phase power (just one source).
  Advantages: requires less conductive material for transmission

and instantaneous power is constant with respect to time.
357
AC Power Thoughts
  Electrical power is distributed on transmission lines, which are
NOT perfect conductors.
  In addition to having some resistance, they also exhibit a
reactance as well. The transmission distance can affect what this
overall impedance is.
  Transmission lines are generally modeled as 2-port network

(two inputs, two outputs). More about this is in ELEN30011
Electrical Device Modeling (S2 ’15) and ELEN30009 (S1 ‘15)
  Power is transmitted with very high voltages (over 100kV).
Transformers are used to step-down the voltage to levels that we
use on a daily basis.

FoEN Lectures 1-22 Color 1up

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

FoEN Lectures 1-22 Color 1up

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FoEN Lectures 1-22 Color 1up

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELEN20005

What is ELEN20005 About?

 Physics (VCE level or higher)

 Basic digital logic (Engineering System Design 2)

 Date to be announced early in the semester

 Final Exam = 60% (Note: the Exam has a hurdle)

 Consultation Hours: Room 5.12, EEE Building

 To be posted to the LMS and displayed in Lecture 1.

Lecture Notes and the LMS

 A Workshop Booklet plus is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

 A FoEN Problem Booklet is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

 All assignments and solutions will be posted in a timely fashion on

Textbook and Additional Materials

 Alternate Textbook: “Electric Circuits”, by Nilsson & Riedel, 9th ed.

Textbook and Additional Materials

 Lessons in Electrical Circuits , by Tony R. Kuphaldt

 There are many online resources on the web. Use Google!

 Expect many this semester (at least two per week).

 I will be emailing weekly lecture summaries giving the main

 Will post these emails on the LMS in the “Blog Tool”

 When emailing me, please put “FoEN” in the “Subject”

So Why Should You Take FoEN?

 You wish to study Mechanical Systems or Mechatronics and

 Automotive systems  Industrial manufacturing

 Thermo-electric devices  Sensing and control systems

 Electric power conversion and power engineering

 As an elective due to interest in physics and electrical effects.

What Subjects Follow FoEN?

Surviving FoEN: What I Expect From You!

 GOLDEN RULE: Memorisation without understanding leads to poor

 Do NOT adopt the philosophy of just trying to find a magical formula

 Mid-test and Exam will focus on understanding of concepts and a

Surviving FoEN: What I Expect From You!

 Understanding the subject does not happen overnight or by

 SUGGESTION: Reinforce lecture material by going over it very soon

 40% of your final mark is from continuous assessment during the

 WARNING: Skipping lecture and not keeping up with the material in

 Prime examples of storage and processing of electrical signals

 There are MANY applications of electrical engineering in everyday

 For more details on electrical engineering see Hambley 1.1 or

 From this point of view,

 Maxwell’s equations are the set of four fundamental equations describing

Models and Engineering

 Example: Consider a light bulb connected to a battery. What if we want

Abstraction: A Powerful Engineering Tool

Force F Mass m Acceleration = ?

 You might say: right ??

Abstraction: A Powerful Engineering Tool

 This is an abstraction, whereby the object is reduced to a

Abstraction: A Powerful Engineering Tool

 A three-dimensional object (light bulb) has been “lumped” into an element

 Similar concept as lumping an object into a point mass.

Abstraction: A Powerful Engineering Tool

 It is important to understand the abstractions that has

 Real-life systems do not always behave as predicted by

 In the light bulb example, I neglected any resistance in the

Basic Modeling Example

More Advanced Modeling Example

 To help compute its output power, frequency

  Physics (VCE level or higher)

  Basic digital logic (Engineering System Design 2)

  Date to be announced early in the semester

  Final Exam = 60% (Note: the Exam has a hurdle)

  Consultation Hours: Room 5.12, EEE Building

  To be posted to the LMS and displayed in Lecture 1.

  A Workshop Booklet plus is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

  A FoEN Problem Booklet is sold along with Lecture Notes and is

  All assignments and solutions will be posted in a timely fashion on

  Alternate Textbook: “Electric Circuits”, by Nilsson & Riedel, 9th ed.

  Lessons in Electrical Circuits , by Tony R. Kuphaldt

  There are many online resources on the web. Use Google!

  Expect many this semester (at least two per week).

  I will be emailing weekly lecture summaries giving the main

  Will post these emails on the LMS in the “Blog Tool”

  When emailing me, please put “FoEN” in the “Subject”

  You wish to study Mechanical Systems or Mechatronics and

  Automotive systems   Industrial manufacturing

  Thermo-electric devices   Sensing and control systems

  Electric power conversion and power engineering

  As an elective due to interest in physics and electrical effects.

  GOLDEN RULE: Memorisation without understanding leads to poor

  Do NOT adopt the philosophy of just trying to find a magical formula

  Mid-test and Exam will focus on understanding of concepts and a

  Understanding the subject does not happen overnight or by

  SUGGESTION: Reinforce lecture material by going over it very soon

  40% of your final mark is from continuous assessment during the

  WARNING: Skipping lecture and not keeping up with the material in

  Prime examples of storage and processing of electrical signals

  There are MANY applications of electrical engineering in everyday

  For more details on electrical engineering see Hambley 1.1 or

  From this point of view,

  Maxwell’s equations are the set of four fundamental equations describing

  Example: Consider a light bulb connected to a battery. What if we want

  You might say: right ??

  This is an abstraction, whereby the object is reduced to a

  A three-dimensional object (light bulb) has been “lumped” into an element

  Similar concept as lumping an object into a point mass.

  It is important to understand the abstractions that has

  Real-life systems do not always behave as predicted by

  In the light bulb example, I neglected any resistance in the

  To help compute its output power, frequency

  An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop, giving a

  In other words, an electrical circuit is a special case of an electrical

  We will mainly be dealing with electrical circuits in this subject.

  Charge is measured in Coulombs (C) and is bipolar (can be positive or

  The charge of 1 electron is -1.6 X 10-19 C (1 proton is +1.6 X 10-19 C)

  -1 C of charge has 6.24 X 1018 electrons

  The standard symbol for charge is q

  Like charges repel, opposite charges attract

  Conductors are materials with a large number of free electrons

  Semiconductors are materials with half-filled valence shells

  Energy is the capacity to do work, and measured in Joules (J).

  Work is required to move positive and negative charges apart,

  The unit for current is Amperes (A) (1 A = 1 Coulomb/sec)

  If current is constant with time, it is called direct current (DC)

  Voltage, or electrical potential difference, between two points in a network

  Note that voltage is defined between two points in a network. It is

  Typical symbols are v and V.

  The unit for voltage is Volts (V)

  Also called the voltage drop between “a” and “b” or

  We will use both voltage and current to represent the

  A voltage with a single subscript, i.e. va , signifies either

  Example #2: A positive charge moves from b to a, where vab > 0

  Example #3: A negative charge moves from b to a, where vab > 0

  If , how much energy is transferred when 3 C

  If and an electron moves from a to

  An electron moving from a to b is the same as positive charge

  We can also describe power as “the rate of doing work”

  Measured in Watts (W) (1 Watt = 1 Joule/second)

  When you get a “power bill” from Origin, AGL, etc.,

  How do we know if power is absorbed or supplied?

  When the current reference direction is

  Power is computed as Passive Sign

  If p < 0 , the device supplies energy (it is a source)

  Positive current (positive charge flow)

  Energy is then being transferred from

  The device is therefore absorbing

Passive Sign   Verified by ,

  Negative current (negative charge flow)