Introduction To Communication Systems: Chapter 3: Angle Modulation

Introduction to Communication Systems
Chapter 3: Angle Modulation
ECED | Girma G. | 1
Outline
1 Angle modulation methods
2 Representation of FM and PM signals
3 Representation of FM and PM signals
4 Narrowband angle modulation
5 Wideband angle modulation
6 Angle modulators and demodulators
7 AM radio broadcasting
8 FM radio broadcasting
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Angle modulation methods
Angle modulation: collective name for frequency modulation (FM)

and phase modulation (PM).
FM: frequency of carrier fc is changed by the message signal.
PM: phase of carrier φc is changed by the message signal.
Nonlinear modulation unlike AM.
More complex to implement, much more difficult to analyze.
Expand BW; effective BW of modulated signal is usually many
times the BW of the message signal.⇒ Poor power efficiency.
ECED | Girma G. | 3
Angle modulation methods
Advantage: high degree of noise immunity. (trade-off BW for high

noise immunity.)
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Representation of FM and PM signals
General expression for angle-modulated signals is

u(t) = Ac cos(θ(t)) = Ac cos(2πfc t + φ(t)), where θ(t) is the angle of the
signal and φ(t) is the phase.
Instantaneous frequency is given by

1 d
fi (t) = fc + 2π dt φ(t)
If m(t) is the message signal, then in a PM system we have
φ(t) = kp m(t),where kp is called a phase deviation constant.
In an FM system, we have
fi (t) = fc + kf m(t)
1 d
→ fi (t) − fc = kf m(t) = 2π dt φ(t), where kf is called a frequency deviation
constant.
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From the
 previous relationships we have
kp m(t), PM
φ(t) = Rτ
2πkf −∞ m(τ )dτ, FM

PM: u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + kp m(t))

Rτ
FM: u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + 2πkf −∞ m(τ )dτ
PM the carrier with the integral of a message ≡ FM of the carrier
with the original message.
Another expression
 is
kp d m(t), PM
d dt
dt φ(t) =
2πk m(t),
FM
f
FM of the carrier with the derivative of a message≡ PM of the
carrier with the message itself.
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Demodulation of FM signal involves fi of the modulated signal and

then subtracting fc .
Demodulation of PM signal: finding phase of the modulated signal
and then recovering m(t).
Maximum phase and frequency deviations are given by
∆φmax = kp max[|m(t)|]
∆fmax = kf max[|m(t)|]
Phase and frequency Modulation index
βp = kp max[|m(t)|] = ∆φmax
kf max[|m(t)|] ∆fmax
βf = =
W W
ECED | Girma G. | 8
Narrowband angle modulation
If kp , kf and m(t) are such that for all t we have φ 1, angle-modulated

signal can be approximated as
u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + φ(t))
u(t) = Ac cos2πfc tcosφ(t) − Ac sin2πfc tsinφ(t)
u(t) ≈ Ac cos2πfc t − Ac φ(t)sin2πfc t
Very similar to conventional AM signal.
BW is similar to the BW of AM signal⇒ 2W .
Doesn’t provide enhanced noise immunity compared to a conventional AM.
Seldom use in practice for communication systems.
Used as an intermediate stage for wideband angle-modulated signals
generation.
ECED | Girma G. | 9
Wideband angle modulation
Consider an angle-modulated signal u(t) = cos(ωc t + βsinωm t)

u(t) = cosωc tcos(βsinωm t) − sinωc tsin(βsinωm t)
cos(βsinωm t) is an even periodic function with a Fourier series
expansion
cos(βsinωm t) =
J0 (β)+2J2 (β)cos2ωm t+2J4 (β)cos4ωm t+...+2J2n (β)cos2nωm t+...
sin(βsinωm t) is an odd periodic function with a Fourier series
expansion
sin(βsinωm t) =
2J1 (β)sinωm t + 2J3 (β)sin3ωm t + ... + 2J2n−1 (β)sin(2n − 1)ωm t
The functions Jn (β) are called Bessel functions of the first kind and
of order n.
Numerical values of Jn (β) are tabulated in texts of mathematical tables.
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Using the identities

cosAcosB = 21 cos(A − B) + 12 cos(A + B)
sinAsinB = 12 cos(A − B) − 21 cos(A + B)
The wideband angle-modulated signal becomes
u(t) = J0 (β)cosωc t − J1 (β)[cos(ωc − ωm )t − cos(ωc + ωm )t]
+J2 (β)[cos(ωc − 2ωm )t + cos(ωc + 2ωm )t]
−J3 (β)[cos(ωc − 3ωm )t − cos(ωc + 3ωm )t] + ...
Spectrum of the modulated signal consists of
A carrier with an amplitude J0 (β),
A set of sidebands spaced symmetrically on either side of the carrier
at frequency separations of ωm , 2ωm , 3ωm , etc.
⇒ Wideband!
Bessel functions
∴The actual bandwidth of the modulated signal is infinite.

However, the amplitude of the sinusoidal components of frequencies
fc ± nfm for large n is very small.
Hence, we can define a finite effective bandwidth for the modulated
signal.
Effective bandwidth
FM-modulated signal for sinusoidal signal is(carrier amplitude set to Ac )

n=∞
X
u(t) = Ac Jn (β)cos(2π(fc + nfm )t)
n=−∞
Total power is
n=∞
X (Ac Jn (β))2
P =
n=−∞
2
Determined by carrier amplitude only. (P = A2c /2)
But for large n the Jn values become insignificant.
To make sure at least 99% of the total energy is within the effective
bandwidth, we have to choose k large enough such that
n=k
X (Ac Jn (β))2
≥ 0.99 × P
n=−k
2
Effective bandwidth
K can be found by trial and error and by using tables of the Bessel
functions.
Symmetry of Bessel functions (i.e Jn (β) = J−n (β))used to ease
finding k.
In general, the effective BW of an angle-modulated signal, which
contains at least 98% of the signal power is given by
Bc = 2(β + 1)fm
Double underlined on bessel table (page:13).
Effective bandwidth
To conclude, let the message signal is given by m(t) = acos(2πfm t)

The BW of the effective bandwidth of the modulated signal is given
by 
2(kp a + 1)fm , PM
Bc = 2(β + 1)fm =
2( kf a + 1)f , FM
fm m
Or 
2(kp a + 1)fm , PM
Bc =
2(k a + f ), FM
f m
Effective bandwidth
Angle modulation by a periodic message signal
General case: angle modulation by an arbitrary periodic message

signal m(t).
Consider a PM-modulated signal where
u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + βm(t))
= Ac Re[ej2πfc t ejβm(t) ]
ejβm(t) is a periodic signal with the same period as m(t), with a
Fourier series expansion of
n=∞
X
ejβm(t) = cn ej2πnfm t
n=−∞
where Z Tm
1
cn = ejβm(t) e−j2πfm t dt
Tm 0
n=∞
X
u(t) = Ac Re[ cn ej2πfc t ej2πnfm t ]
n=−∞
n=∞
X
u(t) = Ac |cn |cos(2π(fc + nfm )t + ∠cn )
n=−∞
The modulated signal contains all frequencies of the form fc + nfm .

Spectral analysis of an angle-modulated nonperiodic message signal
m(t) is quite involved.
However, there exists an approximate relation for effective BW,
known as Carson’s rule given by
Bc = 2(β + 1)W
whereβ is the modulation index defined as

kp max[|m(t)],
 PM
β = k max([|m(t)])
 f

, FM
W
W is the BW of the message signal m(t).
In wideband FM the value of β is usually around 5 or more.
∴ BW of an angle-modulated signal is much greater than the BW

of various AM schemes (W in SSB or 2W in DSB and conventional
AM).
Angle modulators and demodulators
Angle modulators are time-varying and nonlinear systems.

Cause linear systems don’t produce new frequency component
needed in modulation.
FM generation using VCOs
VCO → Voltage controlled oscillator
FM signal generated directly by an oscillator whose frequency
changes with the input voltage.
One approach is to use a varactor diode.
varactor diode: a special diode used as a capacitor whose
capacitance depends on bias voltage.
Varactor connected to m(t) used as a capacitor in an LC
oscillator→ VCO.
Varactor capacitance is
Cv = km(t) and when
1
m(t) = 0, fc = √
2π Lo Co
Total capacitance of the system
is
Cv ||Co = Cv +Co = Co +km(t)
Frequency of the tuned LC circuit is
1
fi (t) = p
2π Lo (Co + ko m(t))
1 1
= √ q
2π Lo Co 1 + ko m(t)
Co
1
= fc q
ko
1+ Co m(t)
ko
If Co m(t) 1, following approximations can be used;
ko
m(t)
q
ko Co
1+ Co m(t) ≈1+ 2
1 ko
and ko ≈1− Co m(t)
1+ C m(t)
o
ko
⇒ fi (t) u fc (1 − m(t))
2Co
⇒ Relation for an FM signal!

FM generation using a reactance tube: reading assignment!
Indirect generation of FM
Step 1: Generation of a narrowband FM signal: easy as it is very
similar to AM signal.
Step 2: Generation of wideband FM signal from the NBFM

generated in step 1.
Multistage system.
Stage 1: NBFM generator discussed above.
Implementation of Angle modulators and
demodulators
Step 2 continued
Stage 2: Frequency multiplier; if input is u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + φ(t)),
output become
y(t) = Ac cos(2πnfc t + nφ(t))⇒ Wideband angle modulated signal.
Stage 3: Up or down conversion
• To center the modulated signal at the desired frequency.
• Using a mixer and a BPF.
If fLO is the frequency of the local oscillator of the mixer, and down
conversion is performed, the final WB angle-modulated signal is
u(t) = Ac cos(2π(nfc − fLO )t + nφ(t))
n and fLO can freely be chosen, so any carrier frequency and

modulation index can be achieved by this method.
Implementation of Angle modulators and
demodulators
FM demodulators
Generally, a two step process,
1. Generation of an AM signal whose amplitude is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal,
2. Recover the message signal using AM demodulator.
To convert FM signal into an AM signal (step 1),

⇒ FM signal is passed though an LTI system with a frequency
response approximately a straight line in the frequency band of the
FM signal.
If the frequency response of such a system is given by

|H(f )| = V0 + k(f − fc ) for |f − fc | < B2c
and the system input is
Rt
u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + 2πkf −∞ m(τ )dτ ),
The output becomes,
Rt
vo (t) = Ac (Vo + kkf m(t))cos(2πfc t + 2πkf −∞ m(τ )dτ )
AM demodulation of vo (t) will result in the envelope
Ac (Vo + kkf m(t)).
m(t) can then be recovered.
Circuits to convert FM to AM
Many circuits exist.
Typical example is a differentiator.
|H(f )| = 2πf
Another circuit is a tuned circuit.
Can easily be implemented, but linear region may not be wide

enough.
How to increase the linear region?

Balanced discriminator(consisting of two tuned circuits at two
frequencies f1 and f2 ) used.
Balanced discriminator circuit diagram is shown below
AM radio broadcasting
Commercial AM radio broadcasting
Employs conventional AM
message signal m(t) limited to a BW of approx 5 kHz.
Frequency band: 535-1605 kHz
Carrier frequency allocation: 540-1600 kHz
Intercarrier spacing: 10kHz
Most commonly used receiver is the so called Superheterodyne
receiver.
Every AM radio signal is converted to a common IF frequency of

fIF = 455kHz.
This conversion allows the use of a single tuned IF amplifier for
signal from any radio station.
IF amplifier BW is 10kHz, matching the BW of transmitted signal.
Frequency conversion to IF is performed by the use of a mixer.
Frequency of local oscillator is
fLO = fc + fIF , where fc is carrier frequency of desired AM signal.
Tuning range of LO is 955-2055kHz.
By tuning the RF amplifier fc and mixing its output with the LO

frequency fLO = fc + fIF , two signal components are obtained.
1. Signal component centered at the difference frequency fIF
2. signal component centered at the sum frequency 2fc + fIF
Only the first frequency fIF passed by the IF amplifier.
At input of RF amplifier, antenna picks up multiple signals from all
radio stations.
With RF amplifier bandwidth Bc < BRF < 2fIF (Bc = 10kHz AM
0
signal BW), radio signal txd at image frequency, fc = fLO + fIF is
rejected.
Assume two signals r1 (t) and r2 (t) are picked by the antenna and
m1 (t) is the desired message signal.
r1 (t) = Ac [1 + m1 (t)]cos2πfc t
0
r2 (t) = Ac [1 + m2 (t)]cos2πfc t
When both signals are mixed with the LO output cos2πfLO t, mixer
outputs two signals
y1 (t) = Ac [1 + m1 (t)]cos2πfIF t+double frequency term
y2 (t) = Ac [1 + m2 (t)]cos2πfIF t+double frequency term
⇒ r2 (t) with the image frequency interferes with the demodulation
of the desired signal r1 (t).
To prevent such interference, RF amplifier BW is designed so as to

reject the image frequency signal.
Signal rejection from adjacent channels is provided by IF amplifier.
Output of IF amplifier is passed through an envelop detector to get
the desired audio-band message signal m(t).
Output of envelop detector is amplified and the amplifier signal
drives a loudspeaker.
Automatic volume control (AVC) is provided by a feedback control
loop to adjust the gain of the IF amplifier based on the power level
of the signal at the envelop detector.
FM radio broadcasting
Commercial FM radio broadcasting

Utilizes the frequency band 88-108 MHz.
Carrier frequencies are separated by 200 kHz.
Peak-frequency deviation is fixed at 75 kHz.
Most commonly used FM receiver is a superheterodyne type.
Common tuning between RF amplifier and LO allows the mixer to

bring all FM radio signal to a common IF BW of 200 kHz and
fIF = 10.7M Hz.
Any amplitude variation is removed by an amplitude limiter.
A BPF centered at fIF = 10.7M Hz and BW of 200kHz is
included in the limiter, to remove high frequency components
introduced by the nonlinear hard limiter.
A balanced frequency discriminator is used for frequency
demodulation.
Resulting message signal is passed to the audio frequency amplifier.

After LPF to remove out-of-band noise the signal drives a
loudspeaker.
FM stereo broadcasting⇒ ReadingAssignement
References
Communication Systems Engineering John G. Proakis & Masoud

Salehi, [2nd ed]
Communications systems by Simon Haykin, [4th ed]

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Introduction to Communication Systems

Chapter 3: Angle Modulation

1 Angle modulation methods

2 Representation of FM and PM signals

3 Representation of FM and PM signals

4 Narrowband angle modulation

5 Wideband angle modulation

6 Angle modulators and demodulators

Angle modulation: collective name for frequency modulation (FM)

Advantage: high degree of noise immunity. (trade-off BW for high

General expression for angle-modulated signals is

Instantaneous frequency is given by

PM: u(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t + kp m(t))

Demodulation of FM signal involves fi of the modulated signal and

If kp , kf and m(t) are such that for all t we have φ  1, angle-modulated

Consider an angle-modulated signal u(t) = cos(ωc t + βsinωm t)

Using the identities

∴The actual bandwidth of the modulated signal is infinite.

FM-modulated signal for sinusoidal signal is(carrier amplitude set to Ac )

To conclude, let the message signal is given by m(t) = acos(2πfm t)

General case: angle modulation by an arbitrary periodic message

The modulated signal contains all frequencies of the form fc + nfm .

whereβ is the modulation index defined as

∴ BW of an angle-modulated signal is much greater than the BW

Angle modulators are time-varying and nonlinear systems.

⇒ Relation for an FM signal!

Step 2: Generation of wideband FM signal from the NBFM

n and fLO can freely be chosen, so any carrier frequency and

To convert FM signal into an AM signal (step 1),

If the frequency response of such a system is given by

Can easily be implemented, but linear region may not be wide

How to increase the linear region?

Balanced discriminator circuit diagram is shown below

Every AM radio signal is converted to a common IF frequency of

By tuning the RF amplifier fc and mixing its output with the LO

To prevent such interference, RF amplifier BW is designed so as to

Commercial FM radio broadcasting

Common tuning between RF amplifier and LO allows the mixer to

Resulting message signal is passed to the audio frequency amplifier.

Communication Systems Engineering John G. Proakis & Masoud

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If kp , kf and m(t) are such that for all t we have φ 1, angle-modulated