HISTORY BOOK 1 - CHANGESHeinemann Educational Publishers Halley Court, Jrdan Hil, Oxford OX2 8] a ivison of Reed Educational & Professional Publishing Ld MELBOURNE AUCKLAND FLORENCE PRAGUE MADRID ATHENS SINGAPORE TOKYO SAO PAULO CHICAGO PORTSMOUTH (NH) MEXICO IBADAN GABORONE. JOHANNESBURG KAMPALA NAIROBI (© Pal Shaner and John Chis 1987 st published 1987 P98 2019 1817 16 15 14 ‘Brith Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Shute, Paul ‘Skin Hiory. EHisory 1 Tie ict Si Ba ISBN 0-435-1062-4 ls, Joh Desig and typeset by. ‘The Pen and Ink Book Company Led, London Printed in Mala by totrprint nied ISBN 0 435 31865 9 (Teacher's Set) Cherie in he Skin Histon series Book 2 Reval This ok oaks at ewe types of revelation: one putes the nberccamomic: Pt Oc eawers England thesevsenthconrry Pare Te deserts Britains Indesit Revol Book 3 The Twentieth Centiry ook 3 wil ie extremly waa for hiedca work and fer GCSE. aio concepefocued doblepage pred ‘Srinain srs of oda wold story andl secon ‘Sesome a the advantages at th robes o using We hie nocd hat aon fen dete ths book eo he wit nove we kw hy For Jae and MarianContents Acknowledgements PARTONE HISTORY 1.1 What is Chronology? 12 Dividing History into Bits 13 Counting Years 14 Clues 1.5 Thinking about Evidence 1.6 Primary and Secondary Sources 17 Different Types of Sources 1.8 Photographs as Sources 1.9 How Historians Use Sources 1.10 Why Did the Mary Rose Sink? PARTTWO THE ROMANS ~ Julius Caesc's invasions: the Background 2.2 Julius Caesar's Invasion: he Landings +23 Everyday Life in Rome 2:8 Hovsing and Health in Rome = 25 Slwvery and the Games = 26 The Religions of the Romans 2.7 Claudius Conquers Britain 28 Boudicea’s Revolt 29 Religion in Roman Britain “210 Roman Roads in Britain 211 Hadrian's Wall 2.12) The End of Roman Britain PART THREE THE SAXONS ED Who Were the Saxons? ‘The Written Sources 3.2 Who Were the Saxons? Other Evidence 3.3 Who Were the Saxons? Ships 34 King Arthur: Legend or History? Chronology Chronology Chronology Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Causation Causation Empathy Evidence Empathy Empathy Causation Causation Empathy Evidence Evidence Chronology 35) Saxon Settlement Evidence 3.6 Government and Society Empathy —3.7 Life in Saxon England Empathy 3.8 Eatly Saxon Laws Empathy —3.9 Christianity and the Synod of Whitby Causation 3:10 The Viking Raids Evidence 3.11 Alfred and the Vikings Chronology “342 TheReignof King Alfted Role oftheindividval’ 3.413 The Danclaw Evidence 3.14 How England Became United Chronology 2 4 6 FPRSSRLGSBREGSSPARTFOUR THENORMANS. 441 Backgromd tothe Norman Conquest Chronology 76 4.2 The Battle of Hastings Causal 43. William Completes the Conquest Cho Role of the Indi 4.4 The Domesday Book Evidence 45. Who killed William Rufus? Evidence 4.6 Motte and Bailey Castles Evidence 47 The Site of a Castle Causation 88 48 The Square-keep Castle Evidence 90 4.9 The Feudal System Causation 92 4.10 The Chuech Empathy 94 4.11 The Village and Open-field Farming Evidence 96 PARTFIVE THE TUDORS 5.1 Henry Tudor and the Battle of Bosworth Causation 98 5.2 Henry VII Evidence 100) 5.3 Cardinal Wolsey Role of the Individual 102 54 The Reformation and the Dissolution of the Monasteries Causation 104 55 The Castles of Henry VII Evidence 106 5.6 Religion in the Reign of Edward VI Empathy 108 5.7 The Reign of Mary | Evidence 110, 5.8 Queen Elizabeth I Evidence 112 5.9 Entertainment I: Primary Sources Empathy 114 5.10 Entertainment Il: Secondary Sources Evidence 116 5.11 Sir Francis Drake's Voyage around the World Chronology 118 5.12 The Spanish Armada Cousation 120 5.13 Poverty in Elizabethan England Empathy 122Acknowledgements “The suthors and publishers wold ike to thanks allowing Fr permision reproduce phorographs on the pages indeed “The Acoeslgil Jounal, Roya Archacoogic lost: ‘Ahinelean Mase, Onl p ° Baas Fm Library. 19 BEC HilonPicure Library pp. 1S and 117 Uh. {oh Beth p17 awe ng Malle Booker and Hcnemann Edactonal Boks: p.5 (pl. “The BekeaLibeary p15 le), 62,96 (ove ud) Mad ‘The Testes o the British Mase: pp. 4.5 lp right andor), 15 (pane 21 26,27 eh, 3 le 4, 8,92, 61 i od 1 Gone, James Carpal nd the Pon Prep. 50 (ef “The Govemning Body of Christ Church Callege, Oxo p17 (weet Peer Cayton pp. S32 (rt sod “The Coleg of rep 101 (ee MeSimon Weng Digby, Sherborne Cate: p.112 (owe. EM Disa: p 32h and hh. “The Goveroe of alech Cllege p 115, English Hereage: pp. fp nd noe a 7 Mary Evans Prete Liban pp 101 fl). Gatton Books p12 we, {Grosvnoe Museum, Chester. 2 (i) Enc Hall 96 owe. Historic hiding’ and Monuments Commision or England pp dland WF Water Hodges p_ 108 ih. Mice Halton: p96 upper mil). WT ones. 3 [Nigel sn ary Ker p94 (and) Kumars Museu, Viena. 1 ile ‘The Master and Fellows, Magdalene Calle, Cambridge: p22 Manchester City Ar aller. 12 ep) ‘The Manel Collection: pp. 24, 4.23. 38 101 (tp, 108 up, 12 14 (ep). 16,117 Gwe and 123 “The May Re ru p33 od. Munisty of Defence: p71 op (Crown Copyright Rexered). Mascuof Angus ofthe University snd Soke of Aniqses ‘tNeweasl-opon- Tyne p. #4 id) sn fs). ‘National Parts and Monuments Branch, Dubbs p., National Pores Gallery, London. 18 we) The Northbourne Colleton, Ashmolean Masetin, Oop. 5. Joan Non and the Heber: Pres p13) toy Pncbeck and Margaret Hews Routledge Kegan Pak p. 13 idle, Procter Gamble Lip. ‘The Roundwood Pres ie Kineton, Warwick pp 1 (pf idle ef, tude i) ‘The Board of Teste ofthe Royal Aemoure:p. 10 [Royal Commision onthe Hore Monuments of England pp 71 (nw) vedo Devid Speer: p13) The Marqucreof Tavistock, sd the Trastesof the Bedford Esser: p.113, University of Cambridge Commitee for Aesl Photography: pp. 18 “Tl 0495 op Unser Library, Utes. 14 Gp. ‘University Mescum of National Angus, One pp. 53 snd 6 Ville de Baye pp 6,79, 80, and 7, ‘eidenfld & Nicouon Archives: 95. emer Forman Azcive p34 RA. Wakon: Souree Con p. 123stken fom: John Pound, Povey on Vag in “Taer Elon Longman 1971HISTORY 1.1 What is Chronology? F —-;; ‘wa, ood tates | - come and have oul! 7 a look at & c= & [= (tes 3h get caught! ) & hat do nk Wha, 2 pes What do the School Wat 3 ng an the Playground ? “eachers dont have te ghond oot bere frecting “The body inthe room ‘here is body of murdered mman onthe flor in rm ‘Arman screamed LUirimtatesaaonre stanton dome [A iin som ake tense unless what happened i to nthe Hight ander. So one ofthe Bs things» historian does, shatever - their interest, is work out the order in which things Activity. happened. You will not have been able co answer the [Melee wo porogrphs ving he Guesions about the cartoon without working at the vight_|rantinthe ox cbove,Uecnty the lord for the pictues. ‘thi Rings happen sothat you Sometime towing the onde hat things happened in is |S Rinatnanven a atm so important that i ean change the soy Activity. ‘Wher s wr with he conoan sory you howe jus wood? Workout wiatyou thnk hoppened 2—— Wii's so cad [Tm not sure, Mf | Booker. 1 and thought it qt dafficult to ea ae Ie s not just historians who need to know exactly wh something happened. We often need to know when something is going to happen, or has happened, in our everyday lives. This was teue in the past as well, and is the reason why one of the first things early civilisations, ike Babylon and Egypr, did was to work outa way of measuring time. We call these systems calendars. The calendar we use in Britain divides time up into days, weeks, months and years. To make the calendar easier to use, the days are given names and numbers, the months names. and the years numbers, Historians use this system as well, For instance, we say the Gunpowder Plot was a plan to blow up Parliament on | 5 November 1605, which is also what the people living at the time would have called that day ‘The study of time and dates is called chronology, To put something in chronological order isto organise itso that the eatliese things come frst, and so on, until the latest things ‘come last. Chronology is important o historians, but history js more than just chronology. A lis of things inthe order that they happened would not be very interesting. Historians reed to understand chronology as first step so that they can ‘work out why things happened, ‘One good way of showing the order in which things happen isa time-line. This can be used to show the events of | a day, or whole centuries, depending on the scale ofthe line “This line could be used to mark the events of your school day, Something that happens at 9.30 a.m. goes in the middle of the space between 9 and 19. On this line the scale is one hour for each space By changing the scale, a line could be drawn showing, the ‘events of a whole year: Questions. 1 Whats chonalogical order? 2 Why dohistorions need te know the otde in which eveats hapoened”? 3 Why serimedtine useful? 4 Drewa timeline ta show «the thing that hoppened to you oat week, 1 the mort importnt events in your feHISTORY 1.2 Dividing History into Bits hhere have been peopl living on the Earth for about che last 600,000 years. This is avery long time indeed. Hisrorians need some way of dividing up this length of time s0 that they know what "bit they are talking about. If someone asked you where you live, you would noc say, "The arch’, and leave it a that, You could give the continent in which you live, and the country, the county, the city, cown ‘or village, and even the street and house munber, Historians have divided up time inthe same way that geographers have divided up the worl. Historians divide time up in various different ways. They talk about the prehistoric period. This means the period before writing was discovered. Iris called prehistoric because 4 one time historians thought they could write only about iviscions that had left writen records which could be studied. In the same way that Europe is acontinene which is spit up into lots of diferent countries, the prehistoric petiod is 2 ‘ime-continen’, and ie can be split up, too. You have probably beard ofthe Stone Age, che Bronze Age andthe Iron Age. These are all divisions of the prehistoric period. Because there ae no ‘writen records, historins study the things that have survived, specially took, and the best way of dividing up the pechistonc| period is by what people made thei tools from. A Bronze Age cauldron An Tron Age helo a 0 However, this diagram is not quite right. Historical periods vere not ll the same length. The Stone Age lasted an especially Jong time. More than 99 per cent of human history in the prehistoric period was spent in the Stone Age. Tf we shows the Same information on 3 time-Fne~see below=it i very diferent, ‘There is another complication about these divisions. They describe the way that people lived, but different people in ‘ferent places developed at different rates, This means that ‘while people in Britain were still n the Stone Age, people in ‘other areas such as the Middle East had moved into the Bronze Age. So far we have looked only at the prehistoric period Historians use lots of other ways of dividing up time, One way is to choose what seems 10 be the most important Inappening of the period. The Reformation, for instance, is the name given tothe period when the reform of the Church happened in most European countries. Perhaps in the future “The prehistoric period showing the Stone, Bronze end Ion Ages Questions. 1 isthe objec in Sources A-F in hvonolegeal acer Explain why {ouhave pul them in thecrder hat youhave Draw « time-line of your own life, like the personal ime ine oppo See fyou con divide your lite up into vections. The words histrions tse for these ection oe periog ‘age ond or! A time-line ofthe prekistorc period ‘showing the Stone, Bronze and ron Ages ——— ee eTii Souree@_ z a A history textbook published i 1980. A fin hand ae, Source A flint arrowhead A Bronze Age necklace A pervonaltinesline, Noppy Paved our time will be called the Space Age or the Computer Age. “Anaer way of dividing up tine by who wat ing the country. The nanes of files of kings and queens are fen sed In ngland and Wes wel of the Tudor Ag or the Stare Age Histone in other courses do not divide up thir comity Eni history, 10661980, divided into story by whorl Bian, Tey dive ne op by the ames royals of thar own mars Lenco Yor ea Paros a oe 1000 “1100” 1200°~=«1300~=« 400 T500=«1800=«1700. = 1800-1900» -2000 (Chinese history 500 BC AD 1911, divided int the families of the emperors (called dynasties). Chow ty Forth] Soum] 5 hing le; ‘sores. Hl Forty [MEET sixynosios rang ec San) 5 | io] Sse, le sho” 960 1WO%™ i000 Sby 7860140 ~ do0 ” 100” 17001900 Bronze ond ton Age(3.000 yeors)—,HISTORY 1.3 Counting Years Hitters nsdn be ch more ses an use giving the name of period during which something happened. ‘They use the number of the year. For instance, Columbus discovered Ameria in 1492. Bu 192 yes from ‘when? When did people star to count from? Christian countries all use a system of counting years which starts fiom the birth of Christ. They bave used this method since AD 525 when Dionysius Buguus, a monk worked out how many years had passed since Chests birth We should say thae Columbus discovered Amerie in AD 1492, aD sands for Anno Domini, which is Ltn for ‘in the of our Lord. So Columbus asived in Ameria 1.492 years afer the birth of Christ. History, ofcourse, docs not begin with the birth of Christ, so we also count years backwards from that point. Something which happened tea years before the bitth of Christe sid to have happened i 10 1c (before Chris’). Ten yeas before 10 nC was 20 Hc. The bigger the number when the date is BC the earlier it happened 800 BC was a Tong time before 80 BC “There are other ways of counting Years. In the countries where Islam is the main religion, for example, they stat counting thie years from Muhammad's Might from Mecca This happened in the year we call AD 622, so in Islamic counties the number ofthe year isnot the same as ours. The Jewish ealendar stats back further than the Christan on, and the year that we call AD 2000 wil be the Jewish year 5760 andthe Islamic year 1420, One last word is important before we leave the ways historians count years, and that words century. A century is one hundred years. We say that we live in the twentieth century, That means we live in the twentieth set of 10 years alter the bieth of Christ: However, the date of years in the twentieth century doesnot start with ‘20° bue with 19" The year 1966 was not in the nineteenth century, but in the twentieth century. The following diagram should lelp you see why. Isteontury AD 2nd cantury A 35 755100125 738 ° ‘The est nv centuries AD. The year 150 is in the second century because it is in the second set of 100 yeats after the birth of Christ. The ist century was all the yeats up t0 100 Questions. 1 What da the brevictions aban stand fo? 2. From which even! do Christin counties str counting their yrs? Why do you thik they chose it 3. you hod to newspapers forthe some day, one from London anon fram Maes the lomic holy cy), ‘why ule they hove ifferent tes? 4. What century were the following yeorsin? 21537 b ease 1973, 4106 121s Far 91654 hasgec itn Toe 5 Giveone year in each of hese 1 twentieth century B sinthcontny « fourteenth contiry J nintneontury ‘9 eightoomth century £ fifeentheontury 49 cighthcontry fh, sesond contury ac 7 sratcontury { ninetesnth cantry 6 Julius Cosor fist vised Britain in 55 He come back the next yeor Wht ‘was the dtethen? 7 someone offered sell yous omen cain withthe date 72 con ‘would you buy 1? Give a reoson for yourenswerA reconsruction ofa Stone Age village, w Anachronism Historians have to be cateful about dividing up time, in just the same sway that travellers have to be careful about exsedly| ‘where they are. Just imagine what would happen ifa person from Britain, used to driving on the left, went ro France and forgot that people there drove on the right. When historians make the same sort of mistake, and mix things up from the vwrong time periods, itis called an anachronism. If you are Tired in school, your teachers may suspect itis because you "were up too late the night before watching television. If in the nineteenth century a child working ina factory was tired, the same explanation would be wrong because television had not been invented in the nineteenth century. It would be an anachronism, 7HISTORY 1.4 Clues the main task of historian isto Hind out whae happened in he past and to try to explain why it happened. Ifyou wanted c know about an event in the past, such a8 the coming of the Spanish Armada, you would look it up in a bbook, But the historians who weite the books cannot Find ‘hings out in such a simple way. The nexe six units show you the methods historians use to find out about the past. You will have to use these ideas and skills yourself through the rest of the book. Many people say that historians work like detectives Detectives have to gather clues about the crime they are laying to solve, and then work out what the clues mean. Historians gather as much information as they can about the thing they are studying. Then they try co work out what happened by trying to reconstruct the event from the clues they have collected. The following exercise should show you how this works. Questions. ‘The sections af the dsb where the various Hm were found 8 ‘The problem You wor foro secret doportment ofthe ‘government catching spies. Your department ‘thinks thatthe poople wha live te eertain house might b spies. Thay went ova for several days ond then retuned, During the time that they ware away, some imporiant tecrte were stolen from @ bose in Selland ‘The deporiment has got hold ofthe people's dustbin You must wile report saying “whatheror not you think they are langerous Spies by working out as much 2s you con ‘bout the people ram what iin thee Sustbin. Use he investigation deportment Fepen form help you Table 1: The contents ofthe dustbin, tem ‘Section ofthe tin ‘where we ound Three opened envelope all ° oderesndo MeN. Laie Emply box of 12 ih fingers e 0d box of wotercolours and ° paining book Broken children's pode ° Potato peelings one Empiytubof chocoloteleteam Eimply in of baby food ace Used 20 bogs eee reditcordalips eeSoure A) Empty box of corel « Used rozor loss « Opened can of boked boone « Wrapper for packet ofscusoges Empty pocket of woshing powder < (eee Source B) Twobroken hoirculer « ado Tins and TV Times fr wook 14-20 ‘September Broken doll e The Day Meron Wednesday 18 September Thursday 19 Septomber Friday 20 SeptemberSource A. ‘Some people py for ing ih eit we card ratbe than at. For er em yo Sepia ced cardyorestene, ve Coote indeed | ips hw choy ova Te | 25 Greteadipwetondnietens | Sz io dt a "Avwel astscp, thee werewo [EAL I others for petrol, both for garages ames between London and Bournemouth. (One of eee card lis found inthe dustbin. Source B. ‘The washing- powder box. INVESTIGATION DEPARTMENT REPORT FORM (case: 654153 Date: Reporting Otier Feasons for your answer: Number of ait men Number of aut women: Number a ikon Names of people (iowa) Listotitems they have in their house: Car: YesINo. Type Giown} Eating habits ther observations (explanation fortime spent away ftom home} Conclusion: The subjects are definitely spies. probably spies. probably not spies. definitly not spies. (delete those that donot appty)HISTORY 1.5 Thinking about Evidence Tie re 1987 The mos daring jewel aid in hinory has just been discovered. Shordly after midnight, guard pairolling the Tower of London disturbed an armed nhider stealing the priceless Crown jewels. The guard was shot dead trying to make an arrest. But there had obviously been a struggle, because police found, on the floor near the body. a wallet dropped by the thief. The fire detectives on the scene were the experienced Inspector Shisley Holmes, and her young rival, Inspector ‘Theo Coaljack. Boch realised that solving a crime like this could make them fimous, Each was determined to solve the case before the other. Equally, esch of them realised that the thief would be trying to leave the country. He had to be stopped ‘The two detectives decided to study the contents of the wallet to build up a picture ofthe owner so that they could circulate a description to airports and docks. They were particularly keen to find out the thies © appearance, © age and © occupation to help customs officals checking passports, ‘They opened the wallet and shared the contents beeween them. We shall call the documents they found inside the wallet sources. Shirley Holmes looked at Sources A, B, then C, while Theo Coaljack looked at Sources D, E, then F. ‘They each began to take notes about the owner of the wallet. When they had finished, they swapped documents, so Shirley could see Sources D, Eand F, and Theo Sources A, B and C. They quickly finished their notes, ready to send the description. ‘Quickly! said Shirley to the nearest constable. ‘Send this, description. We're after a young fairchaired man named Albert Smith. He's 25 to 35 years old, fashionably dressed and he probably works in a surveyor's office “Hang on,” said Theo Coaljack. "You've got it ll wrong. Albert Smith isthe name ll right. but our man is about 45: 55 years old and dark iced: in fit, he's probably going bald, My guess is that he's a partner in a firm of surveyors Something was obviously weong. Both police officers were good detectives, They had studied the same evidence yet they had come up with very different pictures of the owner of the wallet. 0 Questions. 1 Split into pois, One person in each poieshould become Shirley Holmes {dhe oer Theo Coalack. The {im isto prove thot your dees Fight Remember tha each deve lsdeterminedto be the one Io salve thease, Fellow thor investigation exact is veryimporant tha you study the 2urces nthe some oder as they did ‘and that you sud yout fit three sources ond then tole note bofore ssodying the remaining hve, st Tike hoy ‘when you'va both finished ryt onvinge your parner that your solution irightand hot your Portner is wrong, (Once the dete i over, discuss your ralutions in css, 19 Which sources provide! the strongest evidence for Shiley Holmes? 1b Which sources provides Theo Coaljack with his stonges! evigonee? « Could any of he sources be used ‘evidence for tom opinions?er YOUNG IDEA, “Trendseting fashions formen 31 High Set Greenway VAT No, 310000879 ‘GOO0s ele ea Tora eas, Cisiomers receipt A photograph There ivr onthe back, saying Alloy Aveceph fora We rom a modem fusion shop or me love, Chrisie’, and the dave 1977 “The detectives" problems ate similar ¢o the ones that historians have. What should happen is that detectives and historias use sources as evidence to form their ‘opinions. However, sometimes the evidence fits more than one opinion, so there's no right answer. ‘But there are times when we don’t lke to think that wwe don't know something, or that someone else's ‘opinion is better than ours. Then our opinions become fixed and we stat to ist the evidence eo suit ourselves, 0 prove our opinions. For example, Shirley Holmes believed that the thief was a young person and she ‘ignored the evidence ofthe ballfoom dancing because i¢ didn’t sui her opinion. She might have become angry when Theo Coaljack pointed out that young men rarely go ballroom dancing these days. But on the other hand, ‘Theo probably conveniently overlooked the tie from the fashion shop, because it didn’t suit his theory ‘second photograph: rales has the date 1977 id you get angey or «wise the evidence? ‘ere on the back Source D. Source ‘Source F. CREENIAY MUST SHOPS 8 —< 13941000 RECORD 5.95 Dancing Club 4 > Brown, Smith and Jones & ASD veTorAL Registered Chartered SeTOTAL S98 oe surveyors Membership card no: 0721 PLEASE RETAIN Kember's aignature YoURRECEIPTAS nema Ibert. Sas no oF vuncnase Abst See Arewiptforalong-playing A printed busines card Arnemberhip card fora ballroom dancing record ‘lab.HISTORY 1.6 Primary and Secondary Sources he main differences between the way detectives work and the way historians work are the events they try 0 explain and the evidence they work with, Detectives look For witnesses and go and question them, In history this wally not possible. You cannot find any survivors from the bate ‘of Hastings to ask them why they thought that the Saxons Tost. Instead, historians have to collect their information feom various sources, and do the best they can with what they have managed to collect. The big problem is that the sources ‘may not tell chem what they want to know. A detective could go back and ask the witness more questions, but the historian is stuck with whatever the source says. “Think back to the story about the Lewis family in History 1.4, Ifthe investigator had wanted to find out more about the family he or she could have done. He or she could have thought that the family did not really go eo Bournemouth, bbut instead sent people to pretend they were the Lewises. He for she could check this by questioning people in the hotel, and perhaps by showing them photographs of the real Lewises. A historian studying a problem that happened a Tong time ago cannot do this, [Because historians have only a limited number of sources to work from, they have to be very careful about hove they use che sousces that they do have. The souces that historians use can be divided into two main types, called primary and secondary, Primary sources A primary source is something that comes from the time that the historian is studying. Ifa historian is studying the Trst World War, then letters and diaries written by soldiers, the uniforms they wore and the weapons that they used are all primary sources. [Fa soldier who fought in the trenches ‘wrote about his memories of the war a long time after the war had finished, it would stil bea primary source, Secondary sources sources ate sources which do not came from thae che historian is studying. These sources have {got their informacion from other sources. Hooks about the First World War by historians, or school textbooks about the First World War, are examples of secondary sources. Seconda the tin A seventeenth-entury nobleman and his family painted in about 1625, in 159, “LANGE M sciioatt LAE OREN ‘A modern book about schoolchildren i the late 1970s,‘See quston 4 below on S ‘Are the following sources peimary ar secondly? Cconterbury Cathedral Bran snc 1700 by RA. Coote (Longrnan 1968) Bepor onthe Excavation cf Canterbury Cal (1982) by Pou Bennet The Shs Wives of Henry Vil (im on television) Letters from Lord Nelson foLedy Haron AVietrian photo of he fei where you school wos bul ‘ha tent fe epaech by Olive Crome The Block Prince's armour Inanhoe by Sir Walter Sof (2 histoial novel) The Times, 5 August 191. (he doy afer the Fst Weed War broke oul) ‘You may have found this exercise dificult because you do not know what you are supposed to be studying. Infact, you cannot reilly decide whether a source is primary or Secondary until you know what it i that you are trying co find out about. Take example b from the exercise. If you want to know about life in Britain after 1700 the book will be 2 secondary source. However, if historian in the future ‘wanted to know about how people were taught in schools in the 19865 then the book by Cootes would be a primary Source, because itis a texthook used in schools in the 1980s, Questions. ‘Section A 1 Why ist harder fora bisterion to use soures thon for ]@ Selective? 2 Write a definition ofa primary source, and give an exemple ‘book about children in England from | 8 Writeadefintion of o secondary sore “Tador mest the eighteenth century. ond give on exemple Sections 4 Youre oisorien wha is going write vee books: one bout the wey peaple have dressed, called Changing Fshion ne obaut childhood, collec Chitren fem 1086 othe Present Boyreond one called choos inthe Lot Ten Yeors For each of hove books Sources A~F might be primary ()secondory() ‘rn ool use (NU). Drow yp tobe like he one below, one than workout what ype of oure och would for each ook hanging CRIAren om 1006 to Schesy Fe Gain’ She Present Day Last Tenens Source A {Seuree 8 _ ceria {5 Makea ist of on bes primary sources you ean think of fr someone whole gong fo wie a hstory of your seheo Explain “thy ys think eoch source willbe 0 good one, 6 Give yourewn exomple ofa source that con be both primory ‘one seconary,Expn why it ould be bth ‘School pupil dresed up in historicalHISTORY 1.7 Different Types of Sources ‘hen people think of the sources that historians use they : tend to think of old manuscripts and other documents {In fact, historians will use anything that has survived from the past. One of the most fimous historical finds in recene years has been the Tudor warship the Mary Rose. Not one ‘written document has survived inthe ship, but from the ship historians have leame all sorts of things from some of the ‘medical treatments chat were used atthe time to what games the sailors played in their spare time. ‘The diagram below shows the various sources that 4 historian could use ‘The various sources used by historians “4‘Sumerian clay tablet, 8 3500. Source (oH S| eet ARMAMAS SMIdIE i ALM STFITEISR TR Egyptian hieroglyphs, BC 700, ‘Mayen hierglyphics, 761 AD. The differences between primary and secondary sources were explained in the last chapter. The ‘previous study of the past, which isin the box leading to secondary sources inthe diagram showing the various sources used by historians, could be either the study of primary sources, or the study of calier secondary sources, ot both In some cases, when they are studying fairly recent events historians can talk to people who were there at the time. This is not done very offen because most history i written about events too long ago for there to be anyone lef alive ‘The most obvious division between eypes of primary source is between those sources which ate written and those Which are not writen Activity. Are Sources A, Bend Cexompes of writen or not-writen sources? Source A is 2 clay tablet made by people called Sumerians about 3500 HC, Ie ells of a war and of a man’s illness, and is ‘written in cuneiform, a system of writing using a erimgular wedge to make marks in wet chy Bis also a written source, It describes the conquest of part, of Egypt by a king from Nubia, Ie was writen about 700 BC, and is written in hieroglyphies, a type of piceure-writing used in Ancient Egypt C is also a written souree, and is also written in hieroglyphics, but this time che picture-writing is by che Maya, who lived in South America, The written text is on the right-hand side, and the pillar was put up in AD 761. Written sources ‘Written sources can be divided into thrce types Official documents ‘These are any written sources which are to do with che government or the law. Examples are the records of Parliament, income tax forms, school registers, and Source , which was set up by the king Private documents ‘These have to do with one particular person. Letters and lars are good examples. Source A is also an example, ait wwas a leter Non-official documents ‘These include all documents that are neither official nor private. Newspapers, adverts and Source B, which is 2 history of recent events, are all examples of non-official documents 15Sources that are not written To describe all the sorts of non-written documents we need four categories Archaeology ‘This sche study of remsins that are under the earth and have to be excavated. Probably the most famous example ix Pompeii, the Roman city which was buried by a voleano and which has been ancovered in the last eo hundred years by archacologist. Questions. Section A. 1 Copy he diogram of he sources vied byhistorions (see page 14) nto your book 2 Wile a sentence describing each of thetypas ol primary source Given ‘example fr each type ofa source “whieh could be used bya historian stdying life ot your school ode. Section 8 3 lookot sources E-K. Ifa historian ‘wor studying the English Civil War “which type would each of he sours be? Give reasons fr your answer. The landscape The land itself holds many clues about life in the past. Most things which happen to the soil leave marks that can be spotted. In Source D you can see the marks that have been left by a Roman fort. Buildings Source E: Aerial view ofa ballin Those buildings which survive are very useful The earliest the English Civil War. tailing in Britain isa prehistoric bridge: and as you get et Seypee B: Eircom the burial in time, so mote buildings have survived rete of Capredy Church, 1644. The reir eds “Five soldiers brid he lat Artefacts > “The Roman for tha stood on this ste has Tong since disappeared, bu ‘thas eft marks on the landscape that can be see clearly from the ar4, Ge Source tain Cte RELATION FIGHT ‘copes Bese 4 3] Source m: Page from the ‘Happy Progress’ by Sir Edward Walker, This pag describes the Royalist order of march before he Bate of Cropredy Bridge in June 1644. Source: Tile page af book about the Battle of Cropredy Bridge published in 1644. Sources: Tile page of ook about the Bate of Craprety Bridge published in 1970. Painted glass window, Farndon Church 7HISTORY 1.8 Photographs as Sources ‘Peroerapis give ws glimpses of he past ai appeared when they were taken, which makes them vivid historical sources. You may have heard the phrase, "The camera does not lie,” which if eis true~ makes photographs very special historical sources indeed, This unit looks 2¢ photographs 2s historical sources. Do historians need special techniques to use them? Are they always reliable? Activity, ‘Study Soure A coeflly. What could histrion ey, having locked athe photograph? Source A. Having thought carefully about Source A you can probably say more about it now than you could when you first looked at it, So photographs are the same as any other source a historian might use-they have to be studied carefully and interpreted ‘All photographs are taken with a purpose. This is clear in Source A where the people ae posing for the photograph and have been carefully arranged by the photographer. Source A records an important event in che life of a family. A historian does not have to have the same purpose in order to find the photograph usefal 18 Activity. How mony woys could ahistorion sete photograph in Source A?“The importance of knowing why a photograph was taken is clear when we look at Source B. In the 1870s there were thought to be about 30,000 homeless children sleeping rough jn London and getting money for food in any way they could. Selling matches on street comers was one way of ‘making 2 litle money. Activiti 1 Do you think Kate Sith Source 8) would hove had three (00d mealse day onda warm bed ot nigh!? 2. Does Source B sugges that something needed tbe done to look otter London's homeless children? 3. Oves Source 8 suggest children wore not acked afters wll in ‘he 1870sa8 they ore naw? 4. Why do-you thnk the photagroph of Kotla Smith was token? You cannot answer question 4 about Source B very well without having some extra information, The photograph was taken by the photographic unit of Dr Basnardo's Homes. ‘The charity’ rescued homeless children from he streets and provided them with a home, education and training fora job. Thomas Barnardo raised the money to run his homes from gifts from the general public. To encourage the public t© give money he ran what we would call an advertising campaign. Another charity worker at the time ‘wrote of his methods: ‘Barnardo's method is to take [photographs of] the children as they are supposed to enter the home, and then afer they have been atthe home for some time. He is not satisfied with taking the children as they realy ae, buthe ‘ears their clothes t0 make them appear worse than they’ really are. They are also taken in purely fictional positions.” Barnardo was taken to court for his ‘advertising’ methods. He was found guilty. Katie Smith was child in one of Barnardo's homes, but she had never been a match seller, and she had dressed up in rags and posed specially forthe picture. Activity. ‘Think back o yourenswers othe questions about Source 6. Which answers would you naw want fo change? Katie Smith, a London matcher, tout 1874, Questions. 1 Source Adoes not havea caption Wintea caption for tone explain why you thik your eopion i « good one 2 Look the coption a Source Ether ‘ites now caption fer itor keep the fxisting caption Whichever you choose, explo why. 13 Copy thet statements ino your back ‘ard thon explain whether you agree wrth them oF not ‘9 Photogrophs neve bb Aphotogrash sonly or rlicble os hseapionHISTORY 1.9 How Historians Use Sources Oe Ete hing sh hisorian ave wo be very afi bout is whether they can trust what their soutces say They want to know ifthe source is reliable, Both primary and secondary sources can be reliable ot unreliable, It docs hhot make any difference which type of source itis. However historians do need to know which type of source they are using because they check to sce whether or not primary and secondary sources ate reliable in different ways “To check a primary source, the historian will be most concemed with twa things. Fist, did che person who Wrote ie actually know what they were talking about? You could ‘write something about what i felt like to orbit the Earth in the Space Shuttle, bur it would not be reliable because you would have to imagine what it would feel ike “The second check has to do with the ideas of the person who wrote the source. Some people may not tell the «ruth because of the way they feel about things. A good example of this can often be found afer football matches. Supporters of he two teams sometimes give completely different accounts ‘of the game, Working, out whether a source is reliable or not is just one fof the jobs that historians need to do with their sources Sources that are not writen documents often need co be interpreted, The historian has to work out what the source s saying, —_____—-Ativity. What can you lern bout the ancient Gres from the wine orn Sours A? You should have thought of things co do with Greek clothes, arms and armour and perhaps pottery. But did you ‘work out anything about their firming, theie knowledge of geography and the methods of ransport availble at the When historians use sources to back up their statements we call the sources evidence. For example, a historian cold make the following statement: ‘Ancient Greek farmers grew {grapes The picture ofthe wine jar could be used as evidence to support this statement, because wine is made from grapes 0 Questions. [Section A 1 fochof the folowing statements is ‘ther re or flee, Capy out each otomontand write a sentence ‘xploining whether he storemect i ‘rumorfole {© Abistorion con only rst certain B All primary sources must be ‘elicble, Aprimary source must berelableit the person wos ecvally here when the event hoppened 4 Sacondory sources oe never reliable 1# Azource bacomes evidence only “when's historian ves io prove omething \Section 12 Explain how Source Acan be used os ‘evidence to suppor the folowing «© The oncient Gress knew howto mmoke wine bb The onciont Gress ured ormaurto protec their bck. « The ancient Greeks hod highly developed sein panting. 4 The oncient Greske new how to «The oncien Graeks had sme contact with Atrio. 13 Make yp statement af yourown ‘bout he Greeks and explain how the photo of the wine er con be used os ‘vicenea fo support |4 Using Sour Bos evidence, what con you say about ifn Ur? Make alist fat least ten slotements, ond in each {oie explainhow you have been able to work out your statementHISTORY 1.10 Why did the Mary Rose Sink? T ecinsh this part of the book we wil lok at one problem historians have tied to solve. We will see how the skills you have learnt so far can help you to come up with your own solution to the problem, Background information In 1545 a French fleet attacked the English fleet in the Solent, the stretch of water berween the Isle of Wight and. the ‘mainland. The weather was not good for ssiing ships: there ‘was not enough wind. The French had some galleys (ships which were rowed by oarsmen), and these came close «enough to the English ships to shoot at them. When the wind 1vas strong enough, some English ships sailed towards the French. At about this time the Mary Rose sank. Was the Mary Rose sunk by French cannon-fte, of was there some other Source A. A picture ofthe bate painted soon aferwards, showing he snking ofthe Mary Rose, You can see the mast ofthe Mary Rose sticking up ou ofthe water ust shove Southsea Catlin che centre. ‘The coast ofthe Ile of Wight ison she ‘ef The only contemporary picture of the Mary Rose.Questions __ “Our galleys [caused] great damage tothe English, who could no move because there was no wind, they could not avoid our cannon and hardly a shot missed them. Fortune favoured our etn thismanne for above an hour, during which time the Mary Rose was suk by our cannon, and of 500 or 600 mea which were on board only 35 escape.” The problem | which ofthese theories isms likely to bere? 18 The French sonk he Mary Roseby cannon tire bb The Mry Rose tiled over, water come inthough the gunpars, and it Answering the allowing questions Should help you make up your min: 1 By therelve do Sources And hap you solve the problem? 2 tethereany reason why Source © rmoy not berelable? Isthere any reason why Source D ‘may not berelable? bout 4 Do Sources Cond Dog conyting? Does Source & support the version From an account hy D Anshan, the Prenscommande. Source D. George Carew commanded every man to take his place, and the sails tobe hoist, but the same was no soner dane than the Mary ‘Rosebegan to lean over to one sie, (The captain of another ship] passing bythe Mary Rose called out o Sir George Carew asking ‘what was wrong. He answered be had a srt of naves he could not rule [the crew woul nt obey hin] and it was not long after thatthe ‘Mary Rose, leaning more and mote, was drowned. Of the 700 men who were in he, very few escaped.” From am accor by an English eapain presto he bale Source E. Besween 1967 and 1983 the wreck ofthe Mary Rose was found and excavated by underwater archaeologists. Two of their findings ae useful ou: 1 Thesit ofthe wreck 2 The anpors. ‘When the archaeologists got down othe side of the ship they found ‘evidence that suggested that the gunpors had been xed open, oF ither Source or Source O? 6 What odvontages wil Source E hve forthe historian? 7 Does Source E support theory a? 8 Does Source E suppor theory b? 9 Supporting your answer with os much evidence as you con, soy vt you think happened tthe Mary Rose. 10 Do you think your answer's detinitly rue or probably Woe? Give eotons fr your answer Ieleof Wight Souhseo Where the Mary Rose sank 23THE ROMANS 2.1 Julius Caesar’s Invasions: the Background ne moming in August 55 BC, large group of Britons stood on the clifs near Dover. They were looking ont to sea, prepared for war. Theie fices were painted blue with ‘woad (a form of war-paint), They were armed with swords and spears, and some were on horseback or in chariots. A feet of about one hundeed ships appeared, carrying 12,000 first-rate troops led by Julius Caesar, the allconquering Roman genera. ‘The frst Roman invasion of Briain was about to begin, Who were those Britons? Who were Julius Caesar and the Romans? Why was Caesar invading? Who were the Britons? “The people who lived in Britain had come in large numbers from central Esrope and fom what is now France. Many thousands of these people, known as Celts, had crossed the English Channel during the last six hundeed years. They ‘were divided into small tribal groups and were ruled by tribal kings ‘The Britons looked different from the Romans. They were mostly taller, with blond hair and blue eyes, and they dressed in rough tunies, cloaks and boots. Since most of lowland Britain was at this time covered in thick forests, people lived in small villages in the upland areas like the South Downs and the Chiltern and Cotswold hills The Celts had developed the use of iron, horses and chariots. Their craftspeople used the potter's wheel. They minted metal coins and built large Impressive hillorts, protected by eatth banks Caesars andngs ‘ros of chalk or Imestone uplonds ‘oxtupied by Cele setloments ‘bol boundaries changed opi ot {hs tie, but his on 00 of he lection ofthe Celi bes, ae Area invodel by Caesor fnSSana SteeThe Celts were farmers, producing com and wool from the fields and raising horses. They also mined tin, lead, silver, copper and gold, and traded with Esropean merchants fiom the Continent, Who was Julius Caesar? ‘The strong and growing empire of Rome was hard to rule Power was in the hands of army generals like Julius Caesar and his rival, Pompey. Both generals led success and loyal fries. Caesar hoped to increase his power by conquering, more land for Rome. He had conquered most of the land of Gaul {now called France). By 55 BChis army had reached the English Channel. Why did Caesar invade Britain? During his batles, Caesar had seen that the Gauls were helped by the Britons. Caesar may have wanted revenge against the Britons. He may also have wanted so make his control of Gaul stronger by defeating the Britons. Britain was rich in grain and metals, and Caesar could demand ‘money or eapture prisoners and sell them as slaves, Fortunately for Caesar, British tribes often fought among, themselves. Some Britons had asked the Romans to invade and help them against their enemies, Ik was late summer, and the good weather needed for campaigning was running out. ‘Even if there were not time for a campaign that season,’ wrote Caesar “it would be of great advantage to visi the island to see what the inhabitants ‘were like," Another victory would help his reputation in Rome A Roman ship atthe te ofthe Questions. Section A 1 Hake tstof the ciffrent ibe southem Englan, using the mop, 2 Lis the things you know about the Britons which show they ware ot simple savages. 2 Julius Caesor fought «long campaign ingout «Why doyou think be needed ships Tice the one in Sores to help him? bb Dovyou think Source A iso e piturect one he ships Caesar trea? Sections 4 Three possible causes of Caeso's invosion of Briain ae ven in points ‘a bande Copy them into your book. Can you find ony rove? ‘© Coesor would get more fome ond aly from on invasion. bb Some Britons had asked for hap ‘gaint thes hosie neighbours. «¢ Caesor could ge grein and precious etl for Rome, 5. Now write cutthe lt again inorder ofimporianc. Wee down th eoson fecthe invesion which you think wos the main one fis ond se on ual you ‘mite the one Ino! impotant at. [6 Notoll she causes of Cossor's invasion of Briain were equaly important Some were very important causes and some were no Important a ell ‘lost excuses fr invoding rahe ‘hom rearons From your lit pourible coures, write down ane thet {ou think wor an important caus, DDnctone thot you think wo justo treuee Explain youranswerTHE ROMANS 2.2 Julius Caesar’s Invasion: ~ the Landings The first landing [ 238 20litins Casa decided to invade Briain wth 90 legions, the Seventh and the Tenth. Each Roman legion had about $,500 soldiers in it. A supporting flet careying supplies and’eavalry would follow soon afterwards. When his ships arrived off the Kent coast, and he saw the waiting Britons on the cliff ready co hue their spears down on bis troops, Caesar decided to sail along the coast to a safer landing place, He had been told that Richborough harbour would be suitable, bur he could not find it. Caesar landed at a beach neat Deal, still watched by the Britons. However, his boats ran aground some yatds from the beach and the Romans ‘weee sitting targets for che British spears—read Source A which explains how Caesar's oops overcame these problems. Caesar's troops had won their frst victory in Briain. The Romans could have pressed on, but Caesar decided that his small army could be attacked by the Britons in their horse-drawn. chariots. So he ordered his men to build a forttied camp, and waited for his supplies and eavaley Four days later there was a storm. Heavy sain and winds dashed the shore, The tide swept high up the beaches. Caesar was taken by susprise, Several of the Roman ships were wrecked, the supplies and cavalry were delayed, and the Britons’ chariots began co atack the camp. Aficr beating off the ateack, Caesar held negotiations—calks with the Britons He kept quiee abou his army's difficulties and asked for money and hostages in exchange for leaving the Britons alone. The Britons agreed, and Caesar sailed back to Gaul He sent reports to Rome of his discoveries and his victories, saying litle about his hurried departuce The second landing In the following year, $4 HC, Caesar returned. This time his force was better prepared. The Romans took about 800 ships and five legions with cavalry, in all more than 30,000 men Source (Source A. The sles, unfamiliar wth the round and with hei hands fll, had to ump dove from the ships, ge footing inthe waves, and ight. The enemy, standing on dryland, threw spears and galloped thee horses nto the sea. This frightened our soldiers until the standard-bearer shouted Jump down, comrades, unless you want tose our Eagle.” He leapt fom the boat and advance towards the enemy. When they saw ti, the solders jumped fom the boat and followed him. Both sides fought ard. Caesar loaded sal fast boats with ops to be sent to any point wher is nen were in trouble, Once the soldiers had] got foothold on the beach they charge the enemy ad put them to ight.” From Jlins Caesar, “Te Conquest Gaul, . 52 8C translated by S.A Handford (Penguin, 1982) A Calihan with nek fap A.Cebic shor sword“The newly designed Roman ships could now sail closer to the beach, Caesar set sal earlier than he had the year before, on 6 July, and again landed near Deal This time there was practically no opposition from the Beitons. The Roman legions marched inland. But news then acrived that some of the ships had been lost and damaged i a storm, and Caesar ordered a retreat to the coast. Repairs cost fen days before the army again went inland, “The most powerful wibe among the Britons was the Catuvellauni, under their king, Cassivellaunus. The CCatavellauni wisely avoided a full-scale butle, and raed the Roman columns with swift chariot attacks instead. The Romans struck north to. Cassivelunus's base at Wheathampstead. Ifthe British qibes had banded together they could have fought off the invaders, but some cribes hated the Catavellauni, They did nothing, and this allowed Caesar to capture Wheathampstead, Even a surprise attack by another tibe, the Cantiaci, on Caesar's base in Kent could not unsettle the Romans, They looked secure. However, Caesar decided to leave. He may have felt he had gained ‘enough glory from his victories. Possibly he worried that he hadn't enough troops oF that future storms could again wreck his fleet. He had also heard rumours of ‘rouble in Gaul, Roman bases there were short of manpower, Thecause of the number of soldiers taken to invade Britain, Caesar again took hostages and money, and sailed back 0 Gaul, Te would be nearly one hundred years before the Romans conquered Britin Source D. ‘Source E. A Celie shil ‘A Roman legionary with a variety of weapons. % Me, x Questions. Section A 1 White i of ive eosans why Coes’ invasion of 898 wert less Well hen he bad hoped. Use fhe tille ‘3500: Couses of Fle 2 Write et of he reasons why Coesor'ssecand invasion wert beter thon the fist, Use the ile Sa Covsesof Succes 3. Using Sources A-E, which side do you think wos batter equipped and baner organised inthe fighting the Romans the Bitons? Give reasons foryour answer Section B 4 Here isis of phrases called hoods! on els hich go together to moke Seotenees Wiileout he sentences, totehingeoch head with 0 Each ‘tence has @ cause and an effet rite (nent othe cause ana ext ‘otheetfoct Heode Toit © Goosor's ships bacause he had ico ronogroundin few men dep voter bb Coctarhad ne sathe Romen omy hope ‘os nover seriously ‘eonguering—_indenger Bevainin 55 8c € The Brtonsfalled endhis solders tocombine forces over herefera ata disedvontage 5 Julus Caosor goined great fame and inonourin Rome fom hs victories in Britain, even though he filed 6 conquer he county. «2 Some af the things thot happened ‘wore boyend hiseantal. Find one couse of Coes’ fallure fa conquer ‘Betoin which wos beyond hs ‘contol as due a bed luck. Explain why you have chosen i 'b Some of the events were influenced by Coesar and is men Findone couse of Coma’ sucess bate ‘which wos the raul of so his frmy'soations. Explain why you have owen i eo aTHE ROMANS 2.3 Everyday Life in Rome Tisai i ep you build up picture of every ie n Ancient Rome at the time of Caesar's invasions. TBut remember that the hfe ofa Roman person depended ‘on whether they were rich, poor or a slave, and on their ex. dnd theie age. Life in Ancient Rome was not the same in 200 [BCs was in AD 200, and living conditions were different in Roman Gaul, Roman Africa and Rome itself So there were ‘many variations to the details of lie described below Clothes Roman men and women wore a short-sleeved tunic, tied at the vaist. These were usually knee-length for men, ankle-length for women. Poor people, workmen and slaves ‘would wear these tunics inthe street, but che wealthy would alovays wear a toga over thee tunic, This was a lrge piece of loth wrapped around the body and draped over one shoulder. [¢-was the symbol of the Roman citizen, a sign of status, Cloaks would be worn in cold weather, when leather shoes replied open sandals, Slaves usually went barefoot. Eating Breakfast was usually bread, cheese and a litle wine or water. Lunch was a bigger meal of cold meat, vegetables and fruie, again with bread and wine or water. The main meal was dinice i the carly evening, perhaps at Gve o'clock Thete would be several course. Bee, mutton and pork Were the most common meats eaten, but rch people tated their guest fo more exotic meats, ncluding amingoes. peacocks, Sorks, doves and dormice ‘Spoons and knives were used, bu forks were not, because most eating wae done with the fingers. Men ustally lay on thee side ona couch and helped themselves to food from 4 tow cental able; women and children often sat on upright chairs. For many Roman fais, the meal would be seved by saves Family life ‘The Roman wife shared her husband's social position outside the home and his authority inside it. Men were very much in control of thei children, who were expected to be loyally ‘obedient a ther father even when they were grown up. This sense of duty helped the Roman army control its solders Fathers found husbands and wives for their children during theie teens. Girls could marry at ewelve, boys at fourteen, 2 A carving showing a shop selling cutleryA carving showing Romans enting a meal Questions. [Section A 1 Whats being sold inthe shop in Source A? 2 Whots the mam in Source A wearing? 3 Which figure the customer ond shih one the radesmom in Source BP Explain your answer 4 Which figures in Source Care men ‘ond which ones are wormen? Exploin 5 Whoore the figures on theleftaf Source C ond what are hey dong? 6 @ Describe he peal hoi-styleof omen men 'b Were Roman men usvlly clean shaven or bearded? 7 Cony out the fllowing paragroph, Choosing he bet alternative orn the brackets The (motherfother) was he dominant pereon inthe Roman fori. At omy ‘reals (men!women) ly on couches ‘aie (ren!women) ad (hile slaves) sarin upright chairs. There ‘would bea (roa! vrieyfsmall Selecion) of meets, andthe main ‘meal wos (af midayfin he evering). Alcosses in Roman socety wore (togostunic) but weathiaciens ‘wore 6 (ogofbalt over i. Reman men ‘were usvely (bore heodedheted) ‘ond (cleon-shavenvbearded), Section 8 How would Roman chiens have felt bout «boing inthe sree without their togaersandels? bb being offered beet one muton by theirhos ot inner? € two teenagers ha fll in love ond vwanted'o mony? Explain each answer. »THE ROMANS 2.4 Housing and Health in Rome ¥ AD 200 the city of Rome contained about 1.2 million people, They needed a large number of buildings~ shops, temples, theatres and public baths. But mose of al they needed homes, ‘Most people in Rome lived in blocks of flats, five or six storey’ high, in which they rented one or two rooms. They ‘were furnished with afew bare stools and tables and ne beds at all, people usually slept on mats and blankets, These fats, talled insulse, had windows, but no glass—just wooden shutters. There was no water Supply or plumbing above the ground floor, Sewage was disposed of through the Wwindows-see Source A, (Qurside the blocks of flats the strets were narrow and crowded, often unpaved, unlit and filthy with rubbish and sewage. According to the writer Juvenal, it could be dangerous to be out at nighe. [Richer citizens lived in a one- or two-storey house, called a domus, built of brick or stone and whitewashed a the front. ‘These homes were pleasant, set back from the roads. They hnad entranice areas of shops at the front to cut dovn the noise fiom the street. Inside, rooms faced on co courtyards with gardens and sometimes fountains. Some rooms might be heated by an under-floor hot air system called a hypocaust. ‘Only about one in twenty ofthe inhabitants of Rome lived in stich houses. Grander still was the country house, of villa, ouside the city. The remains of many villa, with their splendid mosaic floors, have survived because they were not built upon over the cencuries. But these homes were not typical of the average Roman ciizen's dwelling ‘Apart from housing, the huge population of Rome caused many other problems. ‘The amount of traffic on the narrow roads became so great that for many years cats were banned except at night. Flow to get fresh water and What to do with sewage were also problems. Rome came to have the best water supply and sewerage system of any city in the ancient world, Romans recognized the importance of fresh water for healthy living, and theit public baths became regular meeting-places for the middle and upper clases We can read descriptions of the Roman fountains, baths, sewers and agueducts written at the time. We ean also study their remains. Look at Sources C~G about public health in Roman times 20 ‘Source A. long your way each open window may bea death trap. So hope and pray, you poor man, tha the housewives drop pothing woron your head than a bedpan| al of stops From Juvenal, “Satie Second Entrance Shrine othe household gods Counyord or garden Dining room Summerbedrooms (bedrooms ied in winter on upper lor) 6 Kitchen 7 ving room 8 sudy ° 10 Basin tocllac rainwater Enna hall atu) 11 Serve sore 12 Stole o upper floor 13 Shops(run bythe avner af hehouse) 14 Enronce A plana te howae ofthe Tragic Poet at PompeiSource €. “My jb concerns the health of tect, 50 thistas has always been handled by the ‘most important of men. For 441 years Romans wer satisfied to use water fom the Tiber and nearby springs and wells Now, nine aqueduct bring water tthe cy. Compare such building works aed, baths and sewers) with the idle Pyramids ad wees though famous ‘bling ofthe Greeks.” From Jlins Frontous, “The Agueducs of ons’, AD 97 (Frominus was in charge of Rome's wate supply) ‘Source D- Water is brought othe ity in such quantities trough aqueduts that is ike a ver flowing through the ity.” From Strobo, ‘Geography, ft century 18 (Strabo wasa Greek geographer). Source F. ‘Public baths were an esentil part of town planting. Ifthe Britons were to become Romans they had to adopt a king fora daly bath... Though drainage war an mportant feature of Reman owns [in Britain), only Lincoln is known to have hada planned sewerage sytem.” From Anthony Bley, Lifein Roman Britain’, 1964 “Men sill admire the city sewers, They were built 700 years ago by Tarquimis and they ae sill undamaged. He made the tunel big enough fra waggon to passthrough.” From Pliny, century AD, ‘Naural History’ ist Lavatores inthe foron bath at Ostia Questions. Section A Why wos hovse-bulding important in Rome? 2. Drowaplan ofthe house of he Tragic Poe! Source 8) in your book. Give your drowing a key explaining which af he rombere go with the following lobes ‘Courtyord Shops Entrance Living-oom a besroom ‘Would the hovrein Source Be the son of home most Romen people lived in? Explain your answer 4 Moko« lis ofr mony differences o you con between the home ofthe ich ond! thore of he poor. Sections 5 oes Sours show tho the oman looked efter the heolth of ‘heir ciizene?| 6 Whot do you know abou Frontinus Source C) that mokes you think he might be reliable source? \ethere ony reaton a think thot Frontnus could be on Unreliable wuree? 4 Re-red all he sources, Does och ofthe other sources agree oF ‘isogree with Frontinos? Write sentence explaining your loner foreach sure, 9 Do you ogre thot becouse we hove ats sritlen evidence ‘beut Roman water supply ond sowers we do nt neo bother 0 excovote the remeins of th Romen ches tone out bout hem? 3THE ROMANS 2.5 Slavery and the Games A Tilion or mor pope lve in Ancien Rome inte third century AD, Some were wealthy generals, Senators and. magistrates; many were middle-class -mé chants, business people, craft workers and shopkeepers; but the majority were poor. The biggest group of all was the slaves, workers who were the property of their owners People could become slaves in many different ways: by being in debr, as punishment for certain crimes, or by being captured in wars. Some poor parents even sold thie children as slaves, though this was against the law. Slaves’ children became the slaves of theie patents’ owners. House slaves lived with the family who owned them. They were usually fairly created, sometimes becoming almost one ofthe family. By about AD 300 most middle-class Roman houscholds had several house slaves, The famous writer Pliny the Younger had 500 slaves, and the Emperor ‘may have had 20,000 oF more. Flogging 2 slave to death was not illegal. There were many cases of cruel treatment, although the spread of Christianity probably led «© improvements ‘The Romans mostly saw nothing wrong with slavery. The Greek verter Aristotle had taughe that few people were good ‘enough to be trusted with complete freedom. Slavery saved the slave from evil temptations and idleness and saved the owner unnecessary work, Ie was thought that slavery was the resule of normal bad luck and not a matter of shame. Slaves could become clerks, teachers, bank managers and bailiffs i they were clever, and could even buy their freedom. The only area of Roman life that they were banned from was the amy. ‘Another use for slaves was in entertainment. Most actors Source A. Thesnall tear at Poet Theanphiletrea Pompe"were slaves: their performances took place in the open-air or small covered theatres, "The great amphitheattes like the Colosseum in Rome were forthe games’ rather than plays. Rich private individuals or the government would arrange entertainments, often on one ‘of Rome's 120 public holidays each year. ‘The games were Ineld frst to please the gods, but later they became weekly cevents. Some of the amphicheatres were huge; the Circus ‘Maximus could seat 150,000 people ‘These entertainments might include chariot races, fights between gladiators and even mock sea-batles in a flooded arena, The chariots usually had four horses, and between four and twelve chariots would race around a naerow oval circuit with dangerous tight turns at either end. Chariots ‘often collided and crashed: the charioteers were sometimes killed ‘Other games would involve fights to the death between men or between animals and men, The gladiators, like the chariotoers, were slaves; and the crowds at the fights, like those at the racing, loved the combination of spectacle, bloodshed and skill. Gladiator fights were common for more than five hundred years in Rome, from about 260 BC fonvwards, Sometimes huge numbers died. For the onc- thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome, 2,000 gladiators were balled’ to die in fights between men on horseback, ar in armour, or with tridents and nets, or with swords and shiclde. Successful gladiators would turn to the Emperor orto che organiser of the games to get the “thumbs up’ or ‘thumbs down’ signal. Depending on this, they killed ‘oF spared the life ofthe fighter they had beaten Men also fought bulls, bears, lions and other wild beasts, ‘The practice of theowing Christians and others unarmed 10 the wild animals was common, although during only one period of the Roman Empite. AS more and more Romans became Christians, the games were made less bloodthirsty Bur the games listed until the end of the Enspize Source € G Seale plans ofthe mall theatre and the amphiheateat Pompe. Questions. 1 Write litof he dierant wove in ‘hich people could become slaves 2 st the obs tha slaves might hove sone. 23 Winch do you thnk wos more ‘popular, the theatre or the games? ‘Give veasons for youranswer, 4 Make ypa poster which could have then uted fo acveree the ome, Moke sure fincas deterptions of the hinge har would be heppening. Sections 5 Roman slaves were allowed to buy ‘hair freedom, Many slwes whe hed ‘Snaugh money to buy ther reedarn ‘hose oto Does his mean hese floves must hove been spi? {6 The Romon amphitheotres ond the games tha ware put on in them show ‘hot the Romans were uncivieed barborians? Do you ogres? Give ‘casos for your answerTHE ROMANS 2.6 The Religions of the Romans hhe Romans knevr that they could not conteol every part of their lives, Storms, floods, drought and illness could all bring disaster. Like many other early civilisations, they began to believe that powerful spirits or gods controlled the ‘world around them. These beings lived inthe eat, the ky, the forests and the rivers, To get good luck, the Romans tried to please these spirits and gods with gifts and prayers. Household spirits Every Roman houschold honoured spirits of the house, or Lares. These included Vesta, the spirit of the hearth, and Janus, who protected the doorway. (We still call a ‘door-keeper the janitor, and the month January opens the year.) The Penates were special spirits who guarded the family's Food stores. In wealthy Families at mealtimes, the head ofthe household would put wine on the altar and throw a piece of sat-cake on the fire to please the spirits, The Gods Hundreds of gods and goddesses were worshipped by the Romans. ‘The main ones were Jupiter, the father ofthe gods and god of rain, thunder and lightning, his wife, Juno, and Minerva, the goddess of healing and wisdom. Others This ica highly decorated shrine, typical of thos found in Roman houses, showing petres ofthe household sprit Carving froma Mithrac rerple ot Alar fons the Temple of Vespasian,included Mars (wat), Nepcune (the sea), Venus (love) and Mercury (messenger of the gods). All the important gods had their own temples and shrines, On special days the Romans ‘would offer gifts of flowers or frit to the gods. Sometimes they sacrificed animals asa gift or because they believed that they could tell ehe fucure from their entrails, ‘As the Romans expanded thei Empire and taded acound the ancient world, they came across many other gods ‘worshipped by other peoples. They usually allowed people they had congucred to worship in their own way. The Roman army and the citizens of Rome sometimes adopted cother people’: gods as their own=the Persian god Mithras and the Egyptian goddess Isis were examples of ths Mithras ‘Worship of Michras became especially popular. Mithras was supposed to be a messenger between humans and the gods ‘who had saved the Earth from evil forces. He had killed a saceed bull, whose blood was said to give life to plants and animals. Only men were allowed 0 worship Mithras. They did this in mysterious ceremonies, weating coloured cloaks and masks. Followers of Mithras had co pass ests. For example, they would be blindfolded, shut ina coffin and made to endure extreme heat or bitter cold. Many Reman soldiers worshipped Mithas Emperor worship From the reign of the Emperor Augustus (27 BC 10 AD 14) the Romans began to se their Emperors 38 gods, All over the Empire, Roman citizens were encouraged to build temples 0 the Emperor, and i was their duty to bring gifts to his sacred altar. The Roman army always celebrated the birthday of | ‘Augustus, on 23 September. Christianity ‘The Christian faith also began to spread through the Roman Empire. Christians believed in one all-powerful God, and refused to agree to Emperor worship. They also objected to the cruel Roman sports held in the amphicheatres. Because the Christians followed a humble carpenter's son, not 2 powerful and wealthy ruler, this teligion appealed to poor ren and women. At first, they were persecuted (criticised, arrested, even killed) by the Roman authorities. They often had to worship in secret places like the underground caves of Rom, but their numbers grew, The ill-treatment ended in the fourth century AD, when the Emperor Constantine bbecame a Christian. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Theodosius in AD 392. Sy, austin 1 Whot were hovihald spins? 2 Study Source A.Do you think the Romans believed thot the worship of household spins was vary import? Give reasons for your ans: 3 Nore some of he main Roman gods tnd goddesses ond what hay ware feonaedted with, e.g, Mars—god of 4 Daseribe the worship of Mitre. 5 What do you thinks hoppening in Source B? Explain youranet 6 @ Oescribethe scene in Source C B How mony press do you think shore orem Source C? Give reasons foryourenswer. [Sections 7 fe Rornan former's crops filed mysteriously one year and his fomily rant shertf food what might he think hod coused his problems, one wht might hed about? 18 Four af the five tomplestoMihros hat hhave been found in Rrnan Britain ore ‘ner the ses of Raman army Etlaments Mithros was. populor ged among soldiers © Why did Roman solders hoveo specol need for ligion? bb Why ia tthras appeal so much fo soldier? 9 mogine thot you ore spy sent comang the Christians who ore ‘worshipping secret in Rome to fing urabout thir beliefs Wire letter the Emperor explining why you thik ‘hey must be persecutedTHE ROMANS 2.7 Claudius Conquers Britain be Emperor Claudius began his invasion of Britain in AD 43. This was nearly one bundred years after Julius Caesar's landings, As with Caesar, there were a number of possible reasons why Claudius wanted his troops ¢o ross the Channel He may have needed a military victory so win the loyalty ‘of the public and the army. The merchants and generals in Rome, who had most to gain from the conquest of Britain, ray have talked him into it. Britain could produce wheat, metals and taxes for Rome. The Druids a group of religious leaders among the Britons and the Gauls~had been easing trouble in Gaul, and Claudivs may have wanted to strike 3¢ their base, which was in Briain, The Rhine frontier was peacefl, so there were troops available in Germany. ‘The Britons were divided; in aD 42 War broke out between rival British tribes, and one of them asked Rome for help. The time seemed right ro invade The invasion almost failed before it set off When the Roman ships gathered in Boulogne, the troops refused to get Some of the key place involved in the fongues of Brian.fon board, Rumours had spread that Britain was full of lemons and that the flect could fll off the edge of the ‘world the Romans called Britain ‘the islands at the end of the Earth’, Mutiny was near. But when a silly-looking lieutenane called Narcissus stood up to shout at chem, the men fell about laughing, the tension broke and the «roops poured on board. ‘Aulus Plautius was the general in charge of the invasion His force of more than 40,000 men landed in the sheltered harbour of Richborough before moving inland. The leader of the Caravellauni, Caractacus, was the legions’ main ‘opponent. The Romans won a hard ewo-day battle at the river Medway, then a shorter fight near the Thames, before they reached the new base of the Catuvellauni at Colchester. There the Roman army paused. ‘The Emperor Claudius arrived with important Roman public figures and a troop of elephants to add to the Importance of the occasion and then the legions quickly ‘overran British resistance, Claudius stayed in Colchester only sixteen days=long enough to accept the surrender of some of the British kings. He made Plautius governor of his new province, and returned in glory co Rome. The Emperor's two-year-old son was given a new name Britannices, “The conquest of Britin followed in four more waves. Becween AD 43 and 47 the Romans advanced forward ¢o a Tine running across the country from about Exeter to the Humber. Their most famous victory was by troops led by Vespasian at Maiden Castle in Dorset. They built the Fosse Way to help defend this frontier Between AD 48 and 51 the Roman Second Legion went after Catactacus, who had fled to join allies in the West. The legion defeated the British teibes in Gloucestershire, North Wales and then Yorkshire before they captured Caractacus [Another stage inthe eonguest came between AD 59 and 61, sven Suetonius Paulinas marched into North Wales. and ‘massacred the Druids in Anglesey. Bur chs advance came to an end because of the dangerous rebellion in the South-East Jed by Queen Boudicca (see the next unit) ‘Roman control grew between AD 71 and 84, mainly under the neve governor of Britain, Agricola. Agricola reconquered North Wales, northern England and southern Scotland. ‘The Romans never advanced further inco the Highlands, Instead they decided to defend theie northem border first with Hadrian's Wall, started in AD 122, and then with the Antonine Wall, begun in about AD 142, Roman control of Britain south of Hadrian's Wall stayed firm until about AD 360, when invaders from the Continent began to attack the ‘coasts in large numbers. By this time, Rome itself was also under attack, and troops were often called back to Italy to defend the Empire's capital city. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in about aD 410. &, Questions. Section A 1 aw a time-line f the conquest of Brin fam AD 42 t0AB.410, Mark on ithe evento hisunt, 2 Draw the mapin your book. The map ‘avidedintodifferent secions Ada ‘key showing when each section fll Under Roman conta Socti 3 Histrions coll the rotons why an ‘event hoppens the causes of tha! vent, Thay eal o persons reasons for ‘cing inane woy rather thon enether that perens motives. 1 Wie alist of Cloud's possible ‘motives in otoking Bian. bb Wieiealistof te other posible feasont for heinverion. «¢ Do you thin Clousivssoctins wen be come to Brin help us 0 Understond hie motives? Explain youranswer. 4. Some reasons for invading Britain in ab 43 had existed for many yeors These were long orm {euses! Nome oe, b Some eosons fo nvoding hod tecorne important only 9 hor time before, Those wore"shor-orm ceused’.Nomeone 5 The conquest of Britain depended on schonce even! when ally loking Tieotenont by accident, made the men laugh Write about fifty words ‘Supporting Ihisstotement. Then write ‘bout ty words arguing against 37THE ROMANS 2.8 Boudicca’s Revolt [2.22.2 Setonias Patna, a experienced genera was appointed governor of Britsin By the Emperor Nero. Paulinus wanted to inerease Roman control beyond the Fosse Way. He planned an attack on Anglesey, a large island off the north coast of Wales, Anglesey was the base of the British priests called Druids, whose religion involved human sacrifices in sacred oak groves. The Druids also acted as judges and advisers to many of the British eres. Several Ikings looked to them for guidance, and many Britons who hnad fled from the Romans had gathered on Anglesey. Paulinus attacked Anglesey from North Wales in AD 64. The Druids were massacred without mercy and the sacred oak {roves where they held their ceremonies were ext down, ‘Whilst he was in Anglesey, Paulinus heard thae the Iceni had rebelled, The Iceni were a eibe who lived in present-day Norfolk. They had surrendered to the Romans in about AD 47, but many of them had suffered from Roman money-lenders and tax collectors. The Iceni were also followers of the Druids and made human sacrifices; they were angered by the killing of che Druids. Earlier in AD 60, the king of the Iceni had died, He had no sons, so he had arranged for hie wife, Boudicea, 0 become queen and for his wealth to be divided between his twa Gaughters and the Emperor Nero. The Romans, though, ‘wanted all of his wealth and power. Boudieca was flogged and her daughters were raped whilst Roman officals looted their palace and stole their lands. ‘The Iceni rebelled, killing every Roman they could find. Other tibes, each with its own reasons, joined the revolt ‘The Catuvellauni hated having 0 give up ther lind to reticed Roman soldiers. The Trinovantes disliked the large temple at Colchester dedicated to Claudius which they had to pay for and where they were told to worship the Emperor as 4 god. The rebels were successful. Colchester was overrun, and its inhabitants, Roman or otherwise=men, women and children—were slaughtered, many of them as they took refuge inthe temple. Next, London was attacked and burned to the ground. Verulamium (St Albans) soon suffered the same fate. Possibly as many as 70,000 people lost thei lives. ‘The Emperor Nero considered withdeawing all his troops from Britain, but before Nero could make up his mind, Paulinus acted. His army marched quickly back from Wales along the new Roman road, Watling Steet, and he prepared for batle. Paulinus’s 10,000 soldiers were outnumbered ten to one, But Boudicea’s rebels had destroyed most of the Romans’ food stores, and winter was approaching, They had to stand and fight or lave Briain. 38Question Brion Paulinus chose his ground well. He drew up his men on. tap of a slope, shielded by thick forest behind and woods on cither side. The Britons were so sure of victory that they had brought their wives and children in carts behind them to swatch the battle. They rushed theie charioes ina disorganised charge up the slope into the marrow clearing. The Romans threw volleys of spears into their ranks and chen advanced in 2 wedge formation, driving the Britons back. Roman Auxiliaries on horseback skirted round the side of the fighting and killed the oxen pulling the carts at the rea. ‘The retreat of the Britons came so a halt as they stumbled through fallen horses, chariots, bodies and then the carts, which were now impossible co move All of the Britons and their families were killed mercilessly, The revolt was at an end. Boudicea escaped from the battle but is said to have taken poison co avoid cape, Section A 1 The fromes ofthe cartoon can be reorrongedto ell ne soy of Boukera, Copy them into your book in the ight order Give eoch romeo Caption so hot explains thestory of Boveiecae revolt From the derription you have ead of ‘heighing, crow diagram 9 show ‘shat yu ink happened nthe Bate, Use okey ane make sure your sSagiom includes te toes, the ‘wegen theories the otters, he Teteat ofthe Britons Sections 3. The Romans normally allowed the people they conquered to fallow their own religions. Why dia Poulinos attack ond il he Oruide? inte dows the reasons under these easing « Paulinu’s pereonal motives (Gersonolreorone bb How the Orde threatened Roman ful etrotegi reasons. « Objecons the Orie aligion (eligious reorons) 4. How did the Romons svcned agains! ‘he Brieh robe? Writecown the ‘rosons under here heedings 4 The leodersip of Poulinus. B thedigeniseton of the Ramon «The stokes ofthe Britons. 5 ‘The Roman ormy wos much bei crmed ane beter rgonsed than the Betis Sothe Romane were bound 0 Sefeat the rebellion inthe end! De {you ogre0? Give rearon for your »THE ROMANS 2.9 Religion in Roman Britain Tis Beton: ik the Romans and many pagan people before them, believed that spirits existed among the everyday things around them, How else could they explain mysteries like hailstorms, floods, the wind and the growth of crops? They worshipped the sun and the moon, as well a5, Inundreds more gods and goddesses among the rivers, forests and mountains. Some gods were local, hike the river gods Deva and Sabrina, which gave their names to the rivers Dee and Severn. Some were worshipped by whole tribes, ike Brigantia, the goddess of the Brigantes in northern England. Other gods were linked with special activities, ike Nodens, god of hunting, Pigs, bulls, dogs and snakes were the Britons’ sacred animals and were often sacrificed to the gods. Simple shrines, bften of wood, served as temples, and small glades of trees were also used as open-air plies of worship. After the conquest and Emperor worship When the Romans invaded Britain, they found many of the British gods similar co their own. They mostly allowed the Britons co continue to worship their gods. Some Romans «even believed that British gods were Roman gods in disguise there are many examples of temples for the worship of British and Roman gods together. ‘The British god Sulis of the hot springs at Bath was combined with the Roman goddess Minerva, and the Romans built a magnificent temple ‘0 Sulis-Minerva next to the baths there. But there were problems. The Romans wanted the Britons to worship cheir Emperors. A huge temple was built at Colchester to the Emperor Claudius. The Britons were expected to pay forthe state of the Emperor that was in the centre of the temple. It is likely that many Britons were angry at this, and it was probably one cause of the revole by the Iceni under Boudicea in AD 60. Emperor worship was never popular in Britain Druids and Chvistians ‘The Romans would not toleate the Druids, The lst chapter showed how Druidism was wiped out by Paulinus in aD 60. ‘The Druids were the povwerfal high priests of the Briish tribes. They held mysterious religious services in groves of jak cress, where they would climb an oak and cut mistletoe 0 Source A. A reconstruction ofa Romano- British temple at Silchester, The Chi-Rhe monogram, «symbol ofthe Christan Church, onthe wall of hidden private chapel in Roman villa at Lallingstoneswith a golden knife before using the same blade to saerifice an snimal, a prisoner ot even a child. The Druids would predict the fate from the ewitchings of the body. Besides being the religious leaders of the Cees, they acted as judges and as politcal advisers to the tibal chief. Christianity entered Britain during the Roman occupation ‘We know ltee about the earliest Christians. They preached that there was just one God and refused to worship the Emperors. Because of this they were persecuted by the Romans for many years and had to worship in secret. One Briton who had served seven years with the legions was executed by the Roman soldiers, probably in AD 209, for hiding a Christian priest. His name was Albanus. A shrine was builtin his memory, then a monastery, and later the town of St Albans grew up there. Christianity gradually became accepted throughout the Roman Empire. In AD 313 the Emperor Constantine announced that all religions would be permitted; and Christianity became the official religion of the Empire in AD 392 Questions A wall panting fom the villa at Ladlingstone, Section A 1 The beginnings and ending of the following sentences have bbeen mixed up Match the correct heeds andi Heads Tails 1 Before the Romans care, the | viel ollowed conquered Batons peop 0 keep theirown ge bb TheRomant \worthpped he sun ond moon ‘swell os spine of he wood ‘ond iver. ¢ Oneraligion which the cihe Druid Romans ried to imove upon the Britons was 4 The Romons nevertleroted — Mido Anglo ron South Folk 9 ihem- Torino Northumbria was the most powerful kingdom in the seventh century, Mercia was strongest in the eighth century. In the tenth century the royal family of Wessex united the ‘whole of Saxon England under one ruler. So in these years ‘he English nation began to form. The old Roman ways were forgotten, and the Britons gave way to the Saxons. What kind of society did the Saxons bring to England? 38 The early Saxon kingdomsSaxon kings were war leaders. They could demand service in the royal army, or fyrd, from their followers. They also had to keep order, give out justice and collect enough money to run the kingdom. Their personal qualities were so important that the sons of kings did not automatically inherit, the throne. Each king chose as his successor the most suitable ‘male of royal bieth. Kings ruled with the aid of che thanes. These were the nobles, who might be appointed as eorls to run parts of the kingdom, or might be members of the Witan, a council of| “wise men’ which advised the king on important decisions The early Saxon kingdoms had no capital where the ruler lived, He would have to travel around his lands to ensure good order. As he jourmeyed he would live on the food taxes, oF feorms, collected all over the kingdom by royal officials known as reeves, ‘At the heart of the Saxon kingdoms were the ceorls, or ‘churls, These small farmers cultivated an area of about one hide, enough to support a family. They provided the kingdom with food, taxes and soldiers. Although their lives were hard, they were free men, and if their farms were successful enough they could themselves become thanes. Lowest of ll in Saxon society were the thralls, or slaves. ‘These may have been the descendants of slaves, or captured Britons, or those who had fallen on hard times and had been forced to put themselves in the ovmership of anyone who ‘would clothe and feed them. Thralls were the property of | their owners as much as cattle or buildings were From the time they first setled in Britain, the Saxons were threatened on all sides~either by Britons of by other groups fof Saxons, So Saxon society was shaped by war. Their first leaders weee popular and successful fighters, but they needed long-term support, Loyalty and service were necessary for 3 kingdom to survive, and a man’s bonds with his lord ‘outweighed even family ties. The tales of Saxon battles are fall of the heroic loyalty of soldiers to their leaders. Bede records, for example, the story of Lilla, a servant of King. Edwin of Northumbria; Lilla threw himself in front of his lord to take upon his own body the enemy blows intended for the king. It was shameful fora soldier to return from 2 baal in which his lord had been killed, and men followed dlfeated leaders into exile if they survived ‘This kind of loyalty is just one example of the way Saxon society worked. They sotally accepted that people of noble oF royal bith were superior. Ie was 3s important in peacetime as in wat for those of lower birth to do service to thet lord. In this way, Saxons accepted their lord's justice, worked on his lands and paid him eaxes. In return, they expected fair rule and protection from attack. Questions. Section A 1 wie. definition ofeach of he fallowing words fyré thane eo Witon tearm reeve chute ide tral 2 Drowa tongle and write NG the top indicate that the king was ot the top of Saxon society. Then write cam, ‘easiLond teancon your tional, in the places you think most sulable 3. Wte none sntence underneath the ‘rangle why thr isa sable rhope to (es repretent Soxon socio Sections 4 nis horvesttime for Oswald, Ase ‘ond their eildren. They need gen ‘he crop fo feed themselves in the coming winter. How 30 you nik they ‘woul foe «the weather was good? 1 ireained ell day? Oswald gt allo join hislors omy fran etiackona neighbooring kingdom? Activity. ‘The Norhumbrians woul hove ‘ocmired lila for ne way he ced Pot {yourself inthe place of Narthombrion and writs one phrote a ‘on epitaph for illa(e.g He died for hiscountry). Then get inte croups of {four ond choos ha bes! eptoph in ‘your group, Discuss hy athe bet ‘Tha example given above is probably rat uitble, Why not? 39THE SAXONS 3.7 Life in Saxon England he Saxons had no tradition of living in stone buildings ‘They didn't have the will or the skills to rebuild or repair the Roman towns and villas, and they were superstitious about the spirits or ghosts which might inhabit these stone ruins, A few early Saxon setlements were sited in the streets beside the Roman ruins, but most were farming, villages among. the fields ‘The Britons had firmed only the upland areas of Britain, the chalk of limestone hills sch asthe South Downs and the Chileeras. The Saxons farmed these areas, but also axed down the thick lowlind forests. They used heavy ploughs drawn by eight oxen to turn the thick soil, The Saxons also introduced the opensfield system of farming. This meant turing all the farmland around each village inta two or three large fields and dividing chem into strips of land which were shared amiong the villagers. This system was meant to share out the best and worst land ‘equally. But the Saxons knew nothing about ferlisers and found that using the same land year after year led to poorer and poorer crops; so they had to leave one of the fields fallow, or unused, every year, which was very wasteful. This system of land use was to last for more than a thousand yeats in most areas of England, Barley was the main crop, used to make bread and ale, Wheat, rye and oats were the other main cereals grown. Beans, peas, leeks and onions were about the Saxons’ only vegetables. There vas some milk, cheese and meat, but tbis ‘was limited, The Saxons could nor grow enough fodder 0 feed thei livestock through the winter, and so most of the animals were killed in the autumn slaughter. The villages could still supply most of their needs; and they relied on travelling pedlars only for sat, to preserve che meat, and for iron, to make tools and weapons. ‘The typical Saxon village, ot tan, contained a number of | timber huts with thatched roofs of straw, reeds or heather. “The largest, for the thane or lord, could be a 24-metre hall with benches and trestle tables along the sides for eating, and A large fire inthe centre for heat and light. Followers and {guests would slecp ether on the benches or on che hard earth floor, which was strewn with rushes or sta. "There might bbe a private living area for the lord and hh family. Other buildings would include barns and byres, or sheds, and che Inuts of the churls. These were primitive wooden thatched homes, probably just a single room, sunken into the ground to make them easier to build, very dark, damp and cold. 0 ‘These are the contonts ofa grove excavated in Kent, H contained the skeleton ofa woman andthe following photographed objects: «+ to small brooches with semicircular heads two mall brooches with oblong heads; «larg iron buckle; {8a smaller bronze buckle; € two small but roaces with human fees {Ff asilver spoon with perforated bow; {¢ parts ofa ivory charm 1 silver earings with las ead; i various bead of crystal, blak as, amber and pate. Alo inthe grave were: © an iron knife three coins~thettest made in shout AD S70.“A reconstruction ofa Saxon home, The hat measured about 6 meres by 3.5 metres. Inside you can sea upright lon Life for the lord and his family included hawking and Questions. hunting, and feasts in the great hall, with minstels, songs, [ggesiom a sagas and plenty of mead and ale, Theie clothes were made from fur of wool or fine cloth, and they wore ornamental buckles and brooches. We know from the finds at Sutton Hoo that the wealthiest Saxons owned very fine jewellery Bust life was hard and perilous forthe churls, Theie clothes were made from coarse linen and leather; their diet must have 2. Match up the numbered cbjecs in 1 Write a bref porogroph te describe each of he following © Tholord’holl ¢ Thechurl's diet B Thechurfehut, Saxon forming been poor and monioconous, Skeletons that have been found. | Source A with the lit of abate given show that their living conditions produced many illnesses | inthecopion, eg. lem 13 = (}the like rheumatism, silver spoon. Slowly, some towns began to grow, especially in the fai era South Eas. Saxon place-name endings, inchading -burgh or | © why pga carson dora tink “bury (a fortified place), -port (a harbour or market) and | Souree8? Ge reasons for your “chester (an old Roman site), suggest why towns developed | answer where they did, Trade also increased as some areas built up | _& What kindof person do you think wos buried in he gave whose belongings ere pitured in Source ‘A? explain your answers, thei resources of wool or metas. As in Roman times, ships again began to take goods back and forth across the sea tothe Continent ‘With the growth of trade came the need for money: some | Section B towns became minting places, licensed by kings to produce |. g How would you feel if you hod to bronze, silver or gold coins, By the end ofthe Saxon period, lie ina house ike Souree 8? in the eleventh century, towns like London, Canterbury, |b How would. thall feel? Winchester, Oxford, Lincoln and York had populations of | ¢ How would chur fel? between five and ten thousand inhabitants Explain your answer. stTHE SAXONS 3.8 Early Saxon Laws G sons nee used on cstoms boughs ovr om the ‘Continent and adapted in England. They allowed a man’s kindred (his relatives) ro claim compensation if crime was committed against him. The level of compensation depended fon the seriousness of the crime, For example, if'a man was murdered, his kindred would claim compensation according tohis wergeld, or price, The price ofa thane was 6,000 silver pence; fora chur it was 2,000 pence in Kent, 1,000 in Wessex: ‘and 800 in Mercia and Northumbria, Britons were usually valued at half che price of a Saxon, but thralls had no wergeld; they were treated as property rather than as poople, There were even wergelds for parts of the body. For other crimes, such as theft, a man and his kindred mighe claim compensation, or the wrongdoer could be whipped or have a hand or a foot cutoff. Serious crimes such as reason against the king or the lord were punished by hanging. To escape punishment, offenders sometimes ran away. They were then declared outlaws and could be hunted and killed on sight Ifa man’s kindred could not get the compensation they thought they deserved, then they would often carry out 2 blood feud againse the kindred of the offender. This involved attacks and murders, and in some cases went on for generations, “rials wete held by the ealdorman (elder) a large open-air ‘meetings of the village, called folk moots. If the person avoused ofthe crime filed to appear, he was assumed guilty THis kindred paid the compensation, or he was declared an futlaw. If he did appear, he swore on oath chat he was innocent: “By the Lord, [am not guilty of the crime with ‘which Tam charged.” He alsa produced oath-helpers, usually his kindred; they swore: ‘By the Lord, the defendant's oath is tie and nor filse." “The more oathhelpers there were, and the higher their rank, the more they were believed. If the oaths were convincing, the accused was cleared, If there were witnesses to crime, the accuser would also produce oath-helpers: “In the name of almighty God, I saw with my eyes that of which speak" Tf the oaths seemed 0 show guilt, the accused had to undergo an ordeal, either by water or by fire. A priest would ask the accused to admit his guile Ifhe refused, he might be given holy water to drink, tied up and thrown into a deep Steam or pond, and iThe floated he was pronounced guilty. ‘Or he might be made to carry a red-hot iron nearly three @iclypodon to As ne eho eure ike Ee ygecs Sock pple Bie Dace ‘Soon punishment, The man ed up is Being whipped. The man fon the ight heating up a branding iron metres, or to plunge his hand into boiling water to pick up a stone; if three days later the wound had started to fester or became septic, then he was declared guilty Saxon women could own land in their own name and took far in tls ay oxth-hlpr; but wergeld didnot apply to Defendants and witnesses in court-room trials are today asked to sweat an oath that they will speak the truth—something passed down to us from the Saxon system. Saxon law was Surprisingly effective: guilty men would be less likely to find oath-helpets, and an oath-helper who was telling lies would be less convincing. Guile had really been established before the ordeal took place. Saxon law also had a religious aspect, because oathchelpers risked offending God if they ied. Ie was believed tha the ordeal gave God a chance co establish innocence through holy water or fire: Sy, Questions. Ms, Section A 1 The beginning end endings ofthe {allowing senteness have been mised up. Match the correct beads ‘onda Heads © Aman's vwergeld wos Folk moots ¢ Oathshelpere ¢ Amon's kindred were 1 Theordeol wot Section B Toe his relatives who protected heights flow vitesse who Spoke up forthe ‘ccuted at hs Wl open-sir meetings ‘here the role ‘wore hols test osaeif God cated the ‘man's gull his alue-orpricein low. 2 You know the wergela for man’s ives ake vpo listo show the ‘compensation which might have been poidin Soxon times forth ot of) {neyo {e)an ea, (can arm. Write fut the reasons for youranswers. 3. Gottogether in groups of obout four Plan and oc out the tral which ‘might hove ed tthe punishment fhown in Source A. Show whot the following people would have sid, done and felt) he ealdorman (6) the accuser, (the accused, () he athehelpers 4 When 2 cow disappsoted rom the village, Eade, en ole herent who lived alone ithe forest, was accused, Osweld; one of he lors Hell seid thot he sow Enc tal the cove Endre could produce only one oath- helper athe rol, an he wos forced tosulferthe ocdecl of fir. Unexpectedly, his wounds roomed quite clean thee doy lotr. {2 How would you explain these events now? 'b How woulda Soxon villogerhove ‘explained them ot hetime? 63THE SAXONS 3.9 - Christianity and the Synod of Whitby Cissy cme stain daring the Roman oer fon and remained after the Roman legions had let. The [Anglo-Saxon invaders were not Christians but pagans. As the newcomers swept across most of present-day England, the Britons seem either ta have let their Christian faith lapse for to have fled to Cornwall, Wales, Ireland or north-west England, taking their Christian beliefs with them. “The conversion of the English to Christianity began with Pope Gregory. In AD 59 he sent a Benedictine prior named Augustine and forty monks to spread the faith in Britain. ‘The mission did not go well at first. Dismayed at tales of Saxon barbarity which he heard in Gaul, Augustine returned almost immediately, Gregory had to pursuade him ¢o try again, ‘ih 597 Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in the kingdom of Kent, King Ethelbert was mistrustfil, but ‘Augustine had the advantage that Eehelber’s wife, Bercha was a Christian princess feom Gaul; pare of her marriage settlement had been that she was able to keep her Christian faith, Kent also had long-established contacts with Christin traders from Gaul, Ethelber's doubes were soon overcome and he was baptised before the year 35 out “The Kentish king's influence stretched over several smaller kingdoms. Bede reports: "The king would not compel anyone to accept Christianity, but he showed greater favour to believers.’ More baptisms followed amongst kings and robles in Essex and East Anglia, and many English peasants faithfully followed che example of their ruler. In 6D1 Pope Gregory made Augustine Archbishop of Canterbury, head of the Church of Britain, and bishops were installed in Rochestee and London. “This success was shortslived. Gregory died in 604; ‘Augustine died soon after, In 616 King Ethelbert died, and his successor was not Christian, Other Christian kings either renounced their fith of were followed by pagan kings. The bishops were expelled from Rochester and London, In 627 another monk, Paulinus, was sent by the Pope to Northumbria. A pagan king there, Edwin, had married a Christian daughter of Ethelbert and he was converted. ‘Again, large numbers of his people followed suit. However, when Edvvin was killed in bate in 633, by the pagan King Penda of Mercia, this was said to bea sign of the anger of the pagan gods. The conversions stopped. Monks remained in Kent, but che spread of Christianity feom the South had halted ot The Celtic church in about 600 AD CUA Converted by the Celtic monks Converted by omnon manks; than raconvetad by Cte monks Converted by Roman monks ingisforne suhiby ‘The conversion ofthe English Ee fale of Tosa! car RiGUSTINE 327‘The revival came from the North, Christaniey had survived strongly in the Celtic Church~among the Britons of Wales, Ireland and Seotland=since the Anglo-Saxon invasions. In 634 Aidan and twelve other Celtic monks tuavelled {fom their monastery in Iona to try to bring Cistianity back to Northumbria. They set up a mission on the island of Lindisfarne, and although they had the support ‘of King Oswald they preached among the ordinary people, ‘Their following grew. Even whea Oswald was killed in battle by the fierce King Penda in 641, the conversions contined. The Christan influence of the monks. spread southwards into Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex, gradually reaching all of the English kingdoms ‘The Celtic Church had developed ts own customs, which were different from the teachings of the Roman missionaries in Kent. The Celic and Roman Churches celebrated Easter at different dates. More serious, the Celtic abbocs and bishops Thad refused to accept the Archbishop of Camterbyry, appointed by the Pope in Rome, as the head of the whole (Chistian Church in Britain. They had grown used ro more freedom and seanted to Keep it Tt was illogial to have two groups of Cheistians—Celtie and Roman worshipping the same God and working side by side but using different customs. Something had to be done, King Oswy of Northumbria was England's most powerful king at thae time. In 664 Oswy called a synod, oF council, of Church leaders at Whitby. Not all of ‘the differences could be removed at once, but most of the Celtic priests agreed on a new date for Easter and accepted the leadership of the Pope. After the Synod of Whitby the ‘Church became more unified A Cebiceross. These crosses were made in ‘wood and the stone by the Celie monk wherever they regularly preached before ‘they could manage to build «church. They were erected all aver the north af England Questions. [Section A 1 Drow a timeting ofthe events inthis 2 Wie biel about each ofthe following people: Gregory ‘Augustine, hela, Aidan, Oswy. Section 3. Wiite ast of ive eosons why Augustine's mission England wor sucha greot seco of ist 4 Write let of fourreasons why the “conversion ofthe English by ‘Augustine In Kent and by Poulinusin Northumbria fol 5 These reasons ae the coves of succes snd flue Put hem together ond then divide her no causes conteled by people, B causes beyond the cntralaf peonle. 6 “Augustine's mission wae doomed a foil'Do you agree? Ure your answers soquestont 3, and 5 in your 7 Why was the Caic conversion fom ‘he Non so succesful? 6THE SAXONS 3.10 TheViking Raids he people of Scandinavia that is, Sweden, Norway and SOUree € Denmark~began to explore, raid and chen invade the | Th heathens poured out the blood of countries around them from about AD 730. They were | se around te aa, and temple on known as the Vikings or Norehmen. the Dod of saintsin the temple of Gd, "The Bt Viking ras on Bris coasts were for food and) Rebar sts te temo riches. Then bigger attacks started to come, caching inland. Later there was widespread invasion by lage armies in search of land. From th description by Aleun fa ‘The sources that follow give a picture of these Viking English monk) ofthe Viking raid on the ateacks. monastery at Lindisforte, 793 Primary sources SourceD_ “Thi arm ed brand he ad fer pace Bed a toro rand idee espe he ‘fercsandnonatesith read sor When departed te ting “enn wall Source A. “AD 789. In this year came ist hee ships of Norsemen: andthe reeverde there and tried to compel them to goto the royal manor: tnd the lew bi, Thee wee te fs ships ofthe Danes to comme to England. From “The Anglo-Saxon Choise Writen by Simeon of Duan, a (You may find it useful corer to The Saxons 3.1, 32 and tet ae gg 33, ‘Who Were the Saxons? for information about The “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) Source B. ‘Source E. "From the teror ofthe Northnen, good Lord deliver us." From-a ninth century Eaglsh prayer A Viking ship fund at Gokstad in ‘Nona. ts owner had been buried nit with fod, drink, pots and pons, sledge sand many ater articles, inchading chess st for entertainment in the afer!‘A historian would frst evaluate the primary sources and thea we them to build up a picture of the Viking raids. Secondary sources Source F. “These men of Norway and Denmark found it hard to keep thir ames by sng and farming the infer slopes ofthe fod Tnsead they set otto rab the wealthy monasteries and villages of England. Theis dragon ships sided smoothly along the coast, then ‘the warriors leapt quickly ashore ad began their work of killing, looting and burning, Then they made a quick getaway before the ‘exons could raise an army to meet the From Valerie B. Chancellor, Medieval and Todor Brain” (Penguin, 1970). Source G. ‘TThe Vikings] were strange mixture, both savage and yet cirned. Very sifu as soldiers, sailors and farmers, they were also very vain, They bathed fequelly, changed thir clothes often, combed out their lng golden hair and delighted in wearing sks, soft furs, fine inen and jewelry of ver and gold. Yet in battle they were wil to the point of madness, burning and king for pleasure even defeneless women and chile In partclar they ‘delighted in robbing and destroying churches and monasteries.” From John Barcham, ‘Changing World History" (Halmes ‘McDougall, 1976) “They believed that ony men who were lin bate went to ‘Valtall, their heaven, and so they almost weleomed deat, and it ‘thought that they chewed highly poisonous toadstool called fly ‘agarc, which sen them berserk, or fighting mad, before bate” From Peer Mons, ‘History Alive, 55 8-185 (Harr Davis Educational, 1977) Questions. “ Soction A 1 Who wore he Vikings and what lands id they come tom? 2 Describes typical Viking attack on an English oot village Sections 3 a Secondorysoures ore sed on primary sources Can you ind any totem a Source Phich oe ot supported by the priory Surcas given inthis unit? bb Does this mecn thot these 4 From which type of primary sores owe get ourinformotion obout the Behaviour of the Vikings on theirs? bb Arethese sources kal tobe fir, ‘or coullthey be biosed? € Hove weany ater primary ‘evidence which giver eiffrent ctor the characier ofthe kings? '5 How much do the secondory sources show these to ses of he Vkinge? 6 Tho Vikings wore ecru and borboric race De you agree? Use all the evidence available you in your 0