ARTICLE IN PRESS

Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Testing the sufficiency of the theory of planned

behavior: a case of customer dissatisfaction
responses in restaurants
Simone Cheng, Terry Lam, Cathy H.C. Hsu
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom,
Kowloon, Hong Kong

Abstract

This study tested the sufficiency of both the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the
extended TPB models by adding the variable of past behavior. In addition, the present study
examined the mediating role of the TPB variables on the relationships between past behavior
and customers’ intentions to engage in different types of dissatisfaction responses (i.e., voice,
negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit). Results of the study demonstrated the
strong predictive power of the original TPB mode but the inclusion of past behavior did not
significantly improve the predictability of the three dissatisfaction response intentions.
Furthermore, the mediating analyses indicated that the influence of past behavior was
mediated by TPB variables. In the contexts of negative word-of-mouth communication, the
effect of past behavior on intention was mediated by attitude. Meanwhile, both subjective
norm and perceived behavioral control mediated the relationship between past behavior and
the intention to engage in voice behavior.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Theory of planned behavior; Attitude; Subjective norm; Perceived behavioral control; Past
behavior

Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2788 7865; fax: +852 2362 5962.
E-mail addresses: mksimone@cityu.edu.hk (S. Cheng), hmterry@polyu.edu.hk (T. Lam),
hmhsu@polyu.edu.hk (C.H.C. Hsu).

0278-4319/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2004.10.006
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476 S. Cheng et al. / Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

1. Introduction

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has shown strong predictive utility for a
wide range of behavioral intentions and actual behaviors, including condom use
(Reinecke et al., 1996), premarital sex (Chan and Cheung, 1998), health behaviors
(Armitage and Conner, 2000), alcohol consumption (Conner et al., 1999), and
unethical behaviors (Man, 1998). The general findings in the literature support the
predictive power of the TPB on behavioral intentions. A recent meta-analysis
conducted by Armitage and Conner (2001) also provides support for the efficacy of
the TPB. Ajzen (2001) states, regarding the inclusion of variables other than attitude,
subjective norm and perceived behavioral control in the TPB, that ‘‘even when
improvements were found, for the most part the improvements in prediction of
intentions or behaviors were relatively minor’’ (p. 45). Ajzen (1988) also notes that
the effect of variables other than the TPB variables on behavioral intention was
likely to be mediated by the variables included in the TPB. However, some studies
have challenged the assumption that the three variables in the TPB model (i.e.,
attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) are sufficient to permit
prediction of behavioral intentions (e.g., Conner and Armitage, 1998; Sparks and
Guthrie, 1998), and argue that other variables could further enhance the model’s
predictive utility and significantly improve its predictive power (e.g., Conner and
Armitage, 1998; Norman et al., 1999). Furthermore, Bentler and Speckart (1979)
have suggested that more distal determinants of behavior, such as past behavior,
which were not included in the TPB could have a direct impact on the formation of
behavioral intention. Ajzen (1991, p. 202) also believes that past behavior can be
used to test the sufficiency of any model because past behavior provides a control for
at least some of the omitted variables.
In studies of customer dissatisfaction, Day et al. (1981) found that past
complaining experience was positively related to customer dissatisfaction responses.
Other previous research in consumer behavior also demonstrates that past history of
a particular act exerts a direct influence on future behavioral intention (e.g., Conner
and Armitage, 1998). Explicitly, past behavior is likely to play a significant role in
determining dissatisfaction response intentions (Ouellette and Wood, 1998). There-
fore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that past behavior can enhance the predictive
utility of the TPB, and that the effect is mediated by the variables in the TPB.
Although customer dissatisfaction responses have often been the focus of research
in consumer behavior, only a small number of studies have employed this widely
supported TPB framework to measure customers’ intention to engage in different
types of dissatisfaction responses. East (1996, 2000) used TPB in a study of customer
complaint, but the results did not support the TPB. He argued that the insignificant
results were attributed to the use of scenario method in measuring customers’
complaint behavior. The use of scenario approach appeared to produce a strong and
unexpected shift in responses because dissatisfaction could occur under a variety of
dissatisfactory circumstances, and the artificially created dissatisfaction might lack a
specific focus. East suggested that further studies using different methods to measure
customer complaint behavior could help test the effectiveness of the scenario method
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in measuring customers’ dissatisfaction responses. Therefore, this study measured

different customers’ dissatisfaction responses by addressing the pitfalls in East’s
study with the use of a combined recall and scenario approach suggested by Singh
(1990). That is, respondents are asked to recall a dissatisfactory experience during
the past 12 months before conducting the survey and image that a similar experience
is occurred again.
Although a number of variables that determine customers’ dissatisfaction
responses have been examined in the literature, research on this topic has been
criticized as fragmented and largely without theoretical support. Some researchers
have proposed the use of simplified models that focus only on a very limited set of
exploratory factors to predict customers’ dissatisfaction responses, instead of
covering the whole array of determinants identified by prior research. Morel et al.
(1997) have argued that the application of universal factors could decrease the
richness of detail but improve the prediction of behavior by taking into account the
determinants of behavior. Therefore, a simple but comprehensive and well-
developed TPB model was employed as the research framework in this study. The
TPB has shown a strong predictive utility for a range of behaviors (e.g., Chan and
Cheung, 1998; Reinecke et al., 1996). A meta-analytic review of the TPB by
Armitage and Conner (2001) also provides support for its predictive power.
Therefore, the accumulated evidence shows that the TPB can be used to explain
various social behaviors and behavioral intentions, and applies to most people.
The objectives of this study were threefold: first, to examine the mediating role of
the TPB variables (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control)
on the relationship between past behavior and future dissatisfaction response
intentions in terms of voice (i.e., voicing dissatisfaction directly to the restaurant),
negative word-of-mouth communication (i.e., conveying dissatisfaction privately to
family, friends, and co-workers), and exit (i.e., refusing to patronize the restaurant
again in future); second, to test the applicability of the TPB in predicting customers’
dissatisfaction response intentions in restaurants within a Chinese context and, third,
to investigate the effect of past behavior on the predictive utility of the TPB in
explaining customers’ dissatisfaction response intentions.

2. Literature review

2.1. The theory of planned behavior

The TPB (Ajzen, 1985) is a cognitive model of human behavior, in which the
central focus is the prediction and understanding of clearly defined behaviors.
According to Ajzen, the principal predictor of behavior is intention. People tend to
act in accordance with their intention to engage in a behavior. Intention can be
regarded as a motivation to engage in a particular behavior and represents an
individual’s expectancies about his/her behavior in a given setting. Fishbein and
Ajzen (1975) operationalized intention as the likelihood to act. Intention is
influenced by attitude, subjective norm, and perception of control over the behavior.
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Attitude toward a particular act represents a person’s overall positive and negative
beliefs and evaluations of the behavior. In turn, attitude is derived from salient
behavioral beliefs of particular outcomes and evaluation of those outcomes.
Subjective norm is an individual’s perception of general social pressures from
important others to perform or not to perform a given behavior. It, in turn, is
determined by an individual’s normative beliefs and his/her motivation to comply
with his/her referents. Lastly, perceived behavioral control represents an individual’s
perception of whether the performance of the behavior is under one’s control;
‘‘control’’ reflects whether the behavior is, on the one hand, easily executed (control
beliefs) and whether, on the other, the required resources, opportunities, and
specialized skills are available (perceived control) (Conner et al., 1999).

2.2. Customer complaining behavior

The actions that customers take in response to dissatisfaction are usually referred
to as customers’ complaining behavior (Singh, 1988). It is regarded as a behavioral
outcome of a perceived discrepancy between one’s expectations for a product and the
actual performance of the product (Hunt, 1991; Oliver and Swan, 1989). Customer
complaining behavior (CCB) is generally considered as a set of multiple responses,
some or all of which are triggered by perceived dissatisfaction with a purchase
episode (Rogers et al., 1992; Singh, 1988). These responses may be non-behavioral or
behavioral, involving any and all actions intended as an expression of dissatisfaction
(Rogers et al., 1992; Singh, 1988). Customer complaining behavior can take the form
of no action, exit, voice (Hirschman, 1970), or negative word-of-mouth commu-
nication (Day, 1984). These responses have been viewed by many researchers as a
combination of negative responses stemming from dissatisfaction (Scaglione, 1988).
In this study, the three customer complaining behaviors of voice, negative word-of-
mouth communication, and exit were analyzed.

2.3. Direct effect of past behavior on behavioral intention

Eagly and Chaiken (1993) and Ouellette and Wood (1998) suggested that the best
predictor of behavioral intention is the frequency of a past behavior. A possible
reason that past behavior can predict future behavioral intention is the assumption
of value consistency imposed by individual customers (Cialdini, 1988). Given a
general preference for consistency and an individual’s systematic striving for it, one
would expect a high level of consistency between past and future behaviors. Leone et
al. (1999) demonstrated that the inclusion of past behavior in the TPB could help
explain a substantial portion of additional variance in behavioral intention. Ouellette
and Wood (1998) also state that past experience and behavior can explain more of
the variance in behavioral intention than can attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioral control individually. Other studies empirically tested the direct
effects of past behavior on the behavioral intention. For example, Verplanken et al.
(1998) have shown that the prediction of intention in car use as a travel mode was
significantly improved by the addition of previous experience of car use (Verplanken
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et al., 1998). Therefore, it was hypothesized in the study that past behavior would
have a direct effect on customers’ behavioral intention to engage in dissatisfaction
responses. That is, the frequency of past behavior significantly predicts behavioral
intention. The following hypothesis (H1) and sub-hypotheses (H1a, H1b, and H1c)
were developed.

H1. There are significant positive relationships between past behavior and
behavioral intentions of engaging in voice (H1a), negative word-of-mouth
communication (H1b), and exit (H1c).

2.4. Mediating effect of the TPB variables on the relationships between past behavior
and behavioral intentions

According to the learning theory (Howard, 1977), behavior is a function of prior

learning. As such, experiences gained from past complaint behaviors provide
dissatisfied customers with information on consumer rights and complaint channels,
which could help consolidate their behavioral and normative beliefs, help them
evaluate behavioral outcome, and manipulate the perceived behavioral control of
various dissatisfaction responses. Consequently, past experiences will serve as a
yardstick for an individual’s behavioral intention. Ajzen (1988) claimed that frequent
performance of a behavior leads to the formation of a habit, and that that habit can
increase a person’s perceived control of a particular behavior. Ajzen also suggested
that the effect of past behavior on behavioral intention is mediated by the variables
included in the TPB (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral
control). Supportive results were reported in the study by Albarracin et al. (2001) in
which past behavior was found to relate significantly with attitude and subjective
norm based on the Theory of Reasoned Action. Therefore, it was hypothesized in
this study that the influence of past behavior on behavioral intentions of engaging in
dissatisfaction responses are mediated by attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control. The following hypotheses (H2, H3, H4) and sub-hypotheses
(H2a, H2b, H2c; H3a, H3b, H3c; H4a, H4b, H4c) were developed:

H2. Attitude mediates the effect of past behavior on behavioral intentions of

engaging in voice (H2a), negative word-of-mouth communication (H2b), and exit
(H2c).
H3. Subjective norm mediates the effect of past behavior on behavioral intentions
of engaging in voice (H3a), negative word-of-mouth communication (H3b), and
exit (H3c).
H4. Perceived behavioral control mediates the effect of past behavior on
behavioral intentions of engaging in voice (H4a), negative word-of-mouth
communication (H4b), and exit (H4c).

In summary, the hypotheses of the study are illustrated in Fig. 1.

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480 S. Cheng et al. / Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

Perceived
Behavioral
Control

H4 Subjective
H4
Norm
H3
H3
Attitude
H2 H2

Past Behavior H1 Behavioral Intention

represents direct effect

represents mediating effect

Fig. 1. Proposed model for testing mediating effects.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants and procedures

This is an empirical study of customers’ behavioral intentions of engaging in

dissatisfaction responses in Shanghai, China. Residents of Shanghai were selected as
the study population not only because Shanghai has the highest monthly household
income of all the cities in China, but also because it had the largest urban population
(National Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of China, 2002). According to the
Zhejiang Daily News (2002, 6 October), the amount spent on dining-out is higher in
urban areas. Therefore, the probability of residents in Shanghai dining in high-end
restaurants should be higher, thereby allowing surveyors to locate a greater number
of suitable participants for their study.
According to Zhao and Li (2001), high-end restaurants in China are generally
priced at RMB150–RMB200 (US$18–$25) or more per person. Furthermore,
according to respondents in a focus group interview conducted by the authors with
10 general managers of hotels in Hangzhou, an urban city 180 km from Shanghai,
the average individual check in high-end hotel restaurants was RMB150 (US$19).
Therefore, for the purposes of this study, high-end restaurants in Shanghai were
defined as those in which average individual checks amounted to RMB150 (US$19)
or above.
A multi-stage sampling approach was used to select target subjects. A list of 312
high-end restaurants in Shanghai was obtained from the Shanghai Restaurants
Association. The names of the restaurants were arranged in alphabetical order. The
first restaurant on the list was randomly selected; then every sixth restaurant on the
list was chosen. A total of 22 were identified, and letters were sent to them inviting
them to participate in the survey. Ultimately, eight restaurants agreed to participate
in the study.
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Restaurant diners were identified in the eight restaurants by a convenience

sampling method, and invited to complete a self-administered questionnaire. First, a
screening question was asked to identify respondents who had had dissatisfactory
experiences in high-end restaurants. Only those who had had such an experience
were invited to complete the questionnaire. Second, respondents were asked to recall
a recent dissatisfactory experience that had occurred in the past 12 months and then
asked, if a similar situation were to arise again, how they would rate a series of given
statements. A total of 582 self-administered questionnaires were distributed to
restaurant diners, of which 426 were returned, representing a response rate of 73%.
Since the target respondents were Chinese, the questionnaire was translated from
English to Chinese using a blind translation–back translation method as described
by Brislin (1976). A pilot study was conducted with a group of 35 master’s students
in hotel and tourism management at Zheijiang University in Hangzhou, China.
Participants were asked to comment on the length, format of the scales,
appropriateness of the Chinese terminology, and any ambiguous wording in the
preliminary questionnaire, after which the questionnaire was revised accordingly.
Before the questionnaire was finalized, five restaurant managers in 4- and 5-star
hotels in Shanghai, and two academic professionals in the hospitality industry were
invited to further review the questionnaire. Further revisions were made based on
their suggestions.

3.2. Measurement of constructs

In this study, three customer dissatisfaction responses were investigated; i.e. voice,
negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit. As indicated by Ajzen (2002), all
predictors in the Theory of Planned Behavior can be assessed directly, by asking
respondents to judge each predictor on a set of scales. A questionnaire was
developed with the purpose of obtaining information on (1) individuals’ positive or
negative evaluation of three dissatisfaction responses (attitude), (2) groups or
individuals whose views might influence dissatisfaction responses (subjective norm),
and (3) factors that might facilitate or inhibit dissatisfaction responses (perceived
behavioral control). Additionally, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) suggested the use of a
semantic differential scale to measure attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control in order to situate respondents on a bipolar evaluative dimension.
However, as part of the pilot study, it was found that participants were not familiar
with the bipolar evaluative format, resulting in confusion and difficulty in answering
the questions. Thus, all measuring scales were changed to seven-point Likert scales
ranging from +3, being the most positive, to –3, being the least positive, and the
questions were phrased in the manner suggested by Ajzen (2002).
Attitude in each dissatisfaction response was measured by evaluating the act on a
set of adjective scales. Ajzen (2002) recommended that the adjective scales not only
be instrumental in nature, but also reflect more experiential qualities such as
worthless, valuable, harmful, and desirable. Hence, attitude (ATT) was assessed
using five-adjective scales; e.g., a question measuring voice behavior was, ‘‘Voicing a
very dissatisfactory experience to the restaurant manager is (1) Embarrassing, (2)
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482 S. Cheng et al. / Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

Useful, (3) Worthless, (4) Undesirable, and (5) A common behavior’’. Four
statements were used to measure subjective norm (SN) for each of the three
dissatisfaction responses. For example, the representative items of voice behavior
were phrased as (1) ‘‘The people in my life whose opinions I value would approve my
voicing out the dissatisfaction to a restaurant manager’’; (2) ‘‘Most people who are
important to me think I should voice out the dissatisfaction to a restaurant
manager’’; (3) ‘‘Most people who are important to me expect me to voice out the
dissatisfaction to a restaurant manager’’, and (4) ‘‘Most people who are important to
me will voice out the dissatisfaction to a restaurant manager’’. Five statements were
used to measure the perceived behavioral control (PBC) on each dissatisfaction
response. Examples of the statements for measuring voice behavior were (1) ‘‘For
me, voicing the dissatisfactory experience to a restaurant manager is impossible’’; (2)
‘‘For me, voicing the dissatisfactory experience to a restaurant manager is easy’’; (3)
‘‘It is mostly up to me whether or not to voice my dissatisfaction to a restaurant
manager’’; and (4) ‘‘How much control do you believe you have over the action
of voicing dissatisfaction to a restaurant manager?’’ Three statements were used
to measure the behavioral intention (BI) of engaging in each dissatisfaction
response. Examples of the statements measuring voice behavior were, ‘‘All things
being considered, I intend to voice my dissatisfactory experience to a restau-
rant manager’’; ‘‘I would try to voice my dissatisfactory experience to a restaurant
manager’’; and ‘‘I plan to voice my dissatisfactory experience to a restaurant
manager’’.
Past behavior (PB), the additional variable integrated into the TPB, was measured
by a single item for each dissatisfaction response. Respondents were asked to state
the number of times that they had voiced a dissatisfactory experience to a restaurant
manager, shared the experience with family and friends, and refused to patronize the
dissatisfactory restaurant within the 12-month period prior to the survey. A period
of 12 months was specified so as to provide a common timeframe. This method has
been widely employed by many previous researchers, e.g. Conner and Abraham
(2001).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Correlations and reliability of constructs

Table 1 presents the zero-order correlations and reliability of the constructs.

The results show that all antecedents (attitude, subjective norm, perceived beha-
vioral control and past behavior) are positively related to the behavioral inten-
tion. The resulting Cronbach’s reliability coefficients range from .647 (perceived
behavioral control) for exit to .865 (subjective norm) for negative word-of-mouth.
All of the others, with the exception of attitude toward voice and perceived
behavioral control of all actions, were well above the generally agreed upon lower
limit of .70 (Hair et al., 2002). Thus, the internal consistency of each construct is
fairly high.
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Table 1
Correlations and reliability of constructs

Contructs 1 2 3 4 5

Voice
1. Attitude [.680]
2. Subjective norm .410** [.806]
3. Perceived behavioral control .534** .635** [.691]
4. Intention .473** .573** .670** [.815]
5. Past behavior .193** .250** .197** .199** —

Negative WOM
1. Attitude [.717]
2. Subjective norm .719** [.865]
3. Perceived behavioral control .614** .625** [.658]
4. Intention .630** .729** .627** [.805]
5. Past behavior .128* .160** .058 .206** —
Exit
1. Attitude [.710]
2. Subjective norm .585** [.846]
3. Perceived behavioral control .599** .577** [.647]
4. Intention .656** .744** .646** [.794]
5. Past behavior .113* .107* .100* .114* —
*
po.05, ** po.01.
Reliability coefficients are shown in parentheses.

4.2. The predictive power of the original and extended TPB models

To examine the contribution of past behavior in the prediction of behavioral

intention, three multiple regression analyses were conducted. Past behavior was
entered into each equation after attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral
control. Table 2 shows the influence of past behavior on behavioral intentions of
voice, negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit. Results of step 3 in Table 2
reveal that the three TPB variables, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control, were valid predictors of customers’ intention of voice (adjusted
R2 ¼ :491; po:001), negative word-of-mouth communication (adjusted R2 ¼ :599;
po:001), and exit (adjusted R2 ¼ :652; po:001). The adjusted R2 indicated that the
basic model of TPB could explain 49.1%, 59.9%, and 65.2% of the variance on
voice, negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit intention, respectively.
According to Cohen (1988), a rule of thumb for interpreting practical importance in
behavioral sciences is that multiple correlation coefficients (r2) of .01, .09, and .25 are
considered a small, medium, and large effect, respectively. Results of the multiple
regressions indicate that the original TPB model in which past behavior was not
included is able to explain relatively well the dissatisfaction response intentions of
Chinese customers in the context of high-end restaurants.
When the original TPB was extended by including past behavior in the regression
as shown in step 4 of Table 2, past behavior alone significantly accounted for 12.1%
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484 S. Cheng et al. / Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

Table 2
Multiple regression analyses predicting intentions

Standardized regression coefficients

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Voice Intention
Attitude .473*** .286*** .138* .121*
Subjective norm .455*** .230*** .222***
Perceived behavioral control .450*** .468***
Past behavior .121*
Adjusted R2 .220*** .390*** .491*** .503***
Adjusted R2 change .170*** .101*** .012*
Negative WOM Intention Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Attitude .633*** .289*** .214*** .200***
Subjective norm .547*** .466*** .453***
Perceived behavioral control .206*** .218***
Past behavior .118**
Adjusted R2 .398*** .578*** .599*** .611***
Adjusted R2 change .180*** .021*** .012**
Exit Intention Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Attitude .656*** .335*** .244*** .239***
Subjective norm .548*** .469*** .471***
Perceived behavioral control .229*** .220***
Past behavior .078
Adjusted R2 .427*** .624*** .652*** .657***
Adjusted R2 change .197*** .028*** .005

N ¼ 426.
*
po.05, **po.01, ***
po.001.

of the variance on voice intention (B ¼ :121; po:01) and 11.8% on negative word-of-
mouth communication intention (B ¼ :118; p4:05); but past behavior did not have
any significant effect on exit intention (B ¼ :078; po:1). Such results reveal that past
behavior does exert significant influence on behavioral intentions of voice and
negative word-of-mouth communication, but not on exit. Thus, the sub-hypotheses
H1a and H1b were supported while H1c was not. That is, hypothesis H1 was
partially supported.
When past behavior was measured together with the TPB variables (i.e., attitude,
subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control), the amount of variance in the
behavioral intentions was not increased considerably. As shown in Table 2, the
inclusion of past behavior produced only minor increases of the adjusted R2 for
the behavioral intentions of voice (R2 ¼ :012; po:05) and negative word-of-mouth
communication (R2 ¼ :012; po:01); for exit intention, past behavior did not produce
any significant increase in the adjusted R2 (R2 ¼ :005; p4:05). Furthermore, the
extended TPB model explained a total of 50.3% and 61.1% of the variance in the
respective behavioral intentions of voice and negative word-of-mouth communica-
tion. These findings indicate that past behavior does not greatly enhance the
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predictive power of the extended TPB model in the context of high-end restaurants.
The results are consistent with Ajzen’s (2001) notion that the inclusion of other
variables in the TPB does not greatly improve the prediction of behavioral intention.

4.3. Mediating effect of TPB variables

The mediating effect was assessed by three regression analyses using the analytical
method specified by Baron and Kenny (1986). Three mediation analyses were
conducted for each of the dissatisfaction response intentions. That is, the mediating
effect of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control on the
relationship between past behavior and different dissatisfaction response intentions
was investigated. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), the mediating effect exists
if three conditions are met. Fig. 2 illustrates the three conditions for a mediating
effect. Firstly, the independent variable of past behavior must significantly influence
the respective hypothesized mediators (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control). Tables 3–5 show that this condition is satisfied as depicted in
Eq. (1), with past behavior significantly affecting at least one of the TPB variables
(i.e., attitude, subjective norm, or perceived behavioral control). For instance, past
behavior significantly affected attitude in the prediction of negative word-of-mouth
communication intention (F ¼ 1:792; po:05; R2 ¼ :105). Meanwhile, past beha-
vior’s effect on subjective norm (F ¼ 2:225; po:05; R2 ¼ :118) and perceived
behavioral control (F ¼ 2:932; po:001; R2 ¼ :150) also produced significant results
in the prediction of voice intention.
Secondly, the independent variable of past behavior must significantly influence
the dependent variables (i.e., the behavioral intention of voice, negative word-of-
mouth communication, and exit, respectively, in this study). This requirement was
met with the significant effect of past behavior on the behavioral intentions of the
three dissatisfaction responses as depicted in Eq. (2) of Tables 3–5. For example,

Perceived
Behavioral
Control

Equation 1 Subjective Equation 3

Norm

Attitude

Equation 2
Past Behavior Behavioral Intention

Equation 3
(Using TPB Variables as Covariate)
represents direct effect
represents mediating effect

Fig. 2. Example of statistical analysis of mediating effect.

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Table 3
Univariate results for voice intention with attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control as
mediator

Voice Intention df F P R2 b Results

Attitude as covariate
Eq. (1) PB-ATT 1 1.625 .087 .089 .088 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 2.183 .014 .116* .199 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) ATT-INT 1 45.255 .000 .185*** .473 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-ATT-INT 2 1.291 .226 .072 .112 No Mediation

Subjective norm as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-SN 1 2.225 .012 .118* .250 Achieved
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 2.183 .014 .116* .199 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) SN-INT 1 82.551 .000 .293*** .573 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-SN-INT 2 1.253 .250 .070 .060 Mediation

Perceived behavioral control as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-PBC 1 2.932 .001 .150*** .197 Achieved
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 2.183 .014 .116* .199 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) PBC-INT 1 156.202 .000 .440*** .670 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-PBC-INT 2 1.870 .040 .101* .155 Partial Mediation

N ¼ 426 *po.05 **po.01. ***po.001.

ATT ¼ Attitude, SN ¼ Subjective norm, PBC ¼ Perceived behavioral control, PB ¼ Past behavior, and
INT ¼ Intention.

Table 4
Univariate results for negative word-of-mouth intention with attitude, subjective norm, and perceived
behavioral control as mediator

Negative Word-of-Mouth Intention df F P R2 b

Attitude as covariate
Eq. (1) PB-ATT 1 1.792 .046 .105* .124 Achieved
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 1.906 .031 .111* .206 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) ATT-INT 1 121.094 .000 .381*** .630 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-ATT-INT 2 1.335 .195 .081 .071 Mediation

Subjective norm as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-SN 1 1.008 .445 .062 .061 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 1.906 .031 .111* .206 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) SN-INT 1 210.014 .000 .516*** .729 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-SN-INT 2 1.341 .192 .081 .119 No Mediation

Perceived behavioral control as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-PBC 1 .474 .937 .030 .038 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 1.906 .031 .111* .206 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) PBC-INT 1 144.409 .000 .423*** .627 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-PBC-INT 2 2.720 .001 .152*** .182 No Mediation

N ¼ 426 *po.05 **po.01. ***po.001.

ATT ¼ Attitude, SN ¼ Subjective norm, PBC ¼ Perceived behavioral control, PB ¼ Past behavior, and
INT ¼ Intention.
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Table 5
Univariate results for exit intention with attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control as
mediator

Exit Intention df F P R2 b

Attitude as covariate
Eq. (1) PB-ATT 1 1.333 .259 .025 .124 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 3.582 .008 .064** .179 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) ATT-INT 1 147.730 .000 .416 .656 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-ATT-INT 2 2.274 .062 .042 .099 No Mediation

Subject norm as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-SN 1 1.097 .359 .021 .084 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 3.582 .008 .064** .179 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) SN-INT 1 251.666 .000 .549*** .744 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-SN-INT 2 2.956 .021 .054* .117 No Mediation

Perceived behavioral control as covariate

Eq. (1) PB-PBC 1 2.274 .063 .042 .142 Failed
Eq. (2) PB-INT 1 3.582 .008 .064** .179 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 1) PBC-INT 1 136.847 .000 .398*** .646 Achieved
Eq. (3) (Step 2) PB-PBC-INT 2 1.775 .135 .033 .089 No Mediation

N ¼ 426 *po.05 **po.01. ***po.001.

ATT ¼ Attitude, SN ¼ Subjective norm, PBC ¼ Perceived behavioral control, PB ¼ Past behavior, and
INT ¼ Intention.

Table 3 shows that past behavior was significantly related to the intentions of voice
(F ¼ 2:183; po:05; R2 ¼ :116), negative word-of-mouth communication (F ¼ 1:906;
po:05; R2 ¼ :111), and exit (F ¼ 3:582; po:01; R2 ¼ :064).
Thirdly, when the analysis incorporates the mediating variable (i.e., attitude,
subjective norm, or perceived behavioral control) as a covariate, the effect of the
independent variable on the respective dependent variable should either be reduced
to a non-significant level (for perfect mediation) or decrease in size (for partial
mediation) when the effect of the mediating variable is significant. That is, the
variance explained previously by the independent variable should now be
explainable by the mediating variable as well, implying that the independent
variable exerts influence on the dependent variable indirectly through the mediating
variable (Baron and Kenny, 1986). As shown in Eq. (3) in Table 3, e.g., when
subjective norm was used as a covariate, the effect of past behavior on voice
intention was no longer significant (F ¼ 1:253; p ¼ :250), while the effect of
subjective norm on intention is significant (t ¼ 9:567; po:001); thus subjective norm
served as a perfect mediating variable in the relationship between past behavior and
voice intention. In Table 4, when the hypothesized mediating variable of attitude was
used as a covariate, the influence of past behavior on the intention of negative word-
of-mouth communication was also no longer significant (F ¼ 1:335; p ¼ :195), while
the effect of attitude on intention is significant (t ¼ 11:602; po:001). Thus, attitude
toward negative word-of-mouth communication provides a perfect mediating effect
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488 S. Cheng et al. / Hospitality Management 24 (2005) 475–492

on the relationship between past behavior and negative word-of-mouth commu-

nication intention. On the contrary, the results in Eq. (3) of Table 3 show that when
perceived behavioral control was used as a covariate, the effect of past behavior on
voice intention was not reduced to a non-significant level (F ¼ 1:870; po:05;
R2 ¼ :101). However, Fig. 3 indicates that the significance of the effect was reduced
when compared to that of past behavior on voice intention without using perceived
behavioral control as a covariate in Eq. (2) (F ¼ 2:183; p ¼ :014; R2 ¼ :116), while
the effect of perceived behavioral control on intention is significant (t ¼ 12:610;
po:001). Thus, partial mediation was achieved. Such findings reveal that when
perceived behavioral control is used as a covariate, the effect of past behavior on
voice intention is only partially mediated by perceived behavioral control.
The findings indicate that the TPB variables of attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioral control all serve as mediating variables in various relationships
between past behavior and customer dissatisfaction response intentions of voice,
negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit. The mediation analyses show
that, among the three TPB variables, only attitude was able to meet all the
conditions mentioned earlier in the context of negative word-of-mouth communica-
tion. Meanwhile, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control satisfied the three
conditions in the context of voice behavior. Such results show that attitude mediates
the effect of past behavior on negative word-of-mouth communication intention,
while subjective norm and perceived behavioral control mediate the influence of past
behavior on voice intention. Hence, hypotheses H2b, H3a, and H4a are supported.
In fact, the effect of past behavior on different behavioral intentions of engaging in
dissatisfaction responses in high-end restaurants was strongly mediated by one of the
TPB variables. Similar results were found in the study by Quine and Rubin (1997) in
which perceived behavioral control was shown to have a mediating impact on the
relationship between past behavior and the intention of using hormone replacement

Perceived
Behavioral
Control
Equation 1
explained 15% Equation 3
P<.001 explained 44%
P<.001

Equation 2
explained 11.6%
P<.05
Past Behavior Behavioral Intention
(Voice)
Equation 3
(using perceived behavioral control as a covariate)
explained 10.1%
P<.01
represents direct effect
represents mediating effect

Fig. 3. Diagram of partial mediating effect of perceived behavioral control on the relationships between
past behavior and voice intention.
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therapy. Conner and Abraham (2001) also reported that most of the effect of past
behavior on intention was mediated rather than direct.

5. Conclusion and implications

The results of the study demonstrate that the TPB is applicable to the
measurement of behavioral intentions in the context of Chinese customer
dissatisfaction responses in high-end restaurants. The three TPB variables are
significant predictors of, and positively related to, behavioral intentions across the
three dissatisfaction response intentions of voice, negative word-of-mouth commu-
nication, and exit. This study provides empirical support for the adequateness of
Ajzen’s TPB model in measuring Chinese customers’ dissatisfaction response
intentions.
The findings in this study demonstrate that past behavior alone exerts significant
influence on voice and negative word-of-mouth communication intentions. Together
with attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, past behavior can
also enhance the predictive utility of the TPB for the intentions of engaging in the
three dissatisfaction responses, although the increase in the significance of the effect
might be small. Therefore, the addition of past behavior to the TPB model improves
the prediction of the three dissatisfaction response intentions. On the contrary,
however, TPB variables alone explain large portions of the three dissatisfaction
response intentions. Such a finding is consistent with Ajzen’s (2001) notion that the
improvement in the prediction of intention is relatively minor when variables other
than TPB variables are included.
The mediating analyses demonstrate that the influence of past behavior on the
behavioral intentions of engaging in the three dissatisfaction responses was mediated
by the TPB variables. In the context of negative word-of-mouth communication
intention, the effect of past behavior on the intention was mediated by attitude; in
the context of voice behavior, both subjective norm and perceived behavioral control
mediated the relationship between past behavior and intention. The results of the
study provide empirical support for Ajzen’s contention (2001) that all the influences
of variables other than TPB variables on behavioral intention are mediated by the
TPB variables.
Based on findings of the study, some implications can be derived. Although past
behavior does not have a direct impact on the intentions of engaging in
dissatisfaction responses when a covariate is added, the experience and outcomes
from past dissatisfaction responses do exert significant and direct influences on
customers’ attitude, subjective norm, or perceived behavioral control. Past
experience of seeking redress in restaurants helps customers obtain a sense of
management responsiveness to their problems and increases the likelihood of a
successful complaint. Therefore, if restaurant managers can respond quickly and
positively to complaints, such positive complaint experiences may lead to a positive
attitude toward voice action and, ultimately, encourage future intentions of voicing
concerns. On the contrary, if managers are reluctant to handle or if they poorly
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redress customer complaints, the negative complaint experience may lead to a

negative attitude toward voice action and reduce future intentions of voicing
dissatisfaction. Without knowing what customers’ concerns are, restaurant manage-
ment is unable to take action to resolve customer dissatisfaction or improve its
products or services.
Opinions from an individual’s reference group members and an individual’s
perception of his/her control of dissatisfaction responses also exert significant
influence on the intention of voicing dissatisfaction. In order to encourage customers
to convey their dissatisfaction to management directly, instead of complaining to
their reference group members (e.g., family, colleagues, or co-workers) or switching
to other restaurants, managers should endeavor to sustain customer loyalty by
building close relationships with their customers. If a restaurant is able to maintain a
close and good relationship with customers’ reference group members, the referents
will be more willing to share their reference members’ feelings with, and more likely
to voice out their referents’ dissatisfaction to, restaurant managers on their behalf.
Additionally, the referents can exert positive influence on the complaining decision
of dissatisfied customers.
Furthermore, effective and efficient complaint handling is important. To achieve
this, simple and systematic complaint handling procedures are necessary to help
shorten complaint handling time. Front-line restaurant employees should be
empowered to resolve customer dissatisfactions or customer complaints right after
they occur. A good complaint handling process should be combined with regular
training for restaurant employees on how to handle difficult customers and
communicate with dissatisfied customers.
It must be noted that two methodological limitations of the study may have biased
the conclusions drawn from the findings. Firstly, the study focused on the
measurement of intention instead of actual behavior. Intentions may not be a true
reflection of actual behavior in the future, although a large body of research
demonstrates that intentions represent the most powerful single predictor of
behaviors (Conner and Abraham, 2001). Since spreading negative word-of-mouth is
a subliminal behavior that is engaging in an act without even being aware of such
act, asking customers’ intention of spreading negative word of mouth may be
particularly problematic. Secondly, this study relied on self-reported data for the
measurement of past behavior and behavioral intentions that required respondents
to recall a past scenario within the 12 months before the questionnaire was
completed. Inability to recall a past event may have influenced the validity of the
results.
In order to minimize the effect of response bias and the impact of inability to
recall, we would recommend that, in future studies, the timeframe for customers’
recalled past dissatisfaction responses be shortened. For instance, future research
could ask customers to recall their past behaviors within the last 3 months. This may
help minimize the effect of recall bias. In the context of negative word-of-mouth
communication, owing to the subliminal nature of word-of-mouth communica-
tion, measurement of the intention should be avoided. For more reliable results,
future research could measure actual negative word-of-mouth communications.
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Furthermore, in order to fully understand the dissatisfaction response intentions of

Chinese customers in China and construct a reliable behavioral pattern for Chinese
customers, future studies should be carried out in different provinces and cities in
China, such as Beijing, Guangdong, Tianjin, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu. As this study
was confined to high-end restaurants in Shanghai, it is recommended that similar
studies be conducted in other restaurant settings, such as quick service, casual
dining, and western style restaurants, to determine whether a similar pattern of
results emerges for restaurant diners in general.

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