ACTIVITY 1:

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF LIFE

Guide Questions:
1. (3 points) What is life?
Life is a condition that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter,
including the potential for development, reproduction, functional activity, and
continuous change that precedes death. It's the phase between birth and death or the
experience or condition of being alive.

References:

 https://www.google.com/amp/s/dictionary.cambridge.org/amp/english/life
 https://www.lexico.com/definition/life

2. (4 points) Give at least four (4) possible explanations on the origins of life:
a. Lightning may have generated the spark needed to begin life. Electric sparks in the
early atmosphere and the consequent production of amino acids, when mixed in long
polymer chains, produced the basic components of life.

b. Life may have started with underwater hydrothermal vents spewing key hydrogen-
rich molecules. Their rocky nooks may have concentrated these molecules together
and produced mineral catalysts for crucial reactions.

c. Life formed from the carbon and hydrocarbons of comets and meteorites when they
burned in the atmosphere.

d. Life may have arisen in inter-tidal pools that have repeatedly been filled and dried
under the sun—a process for which the geological record provides evidence.

References:

 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/origin-of-
life
 https://www.livescience.com/amp/13363-7-theories-origin-life.html

3. (5 points) Describe the diagram at the left.

The diagram on the left depicts the tree of life, a visual symbol used by scientists
to organize all species on the earth. The tree of life is used to describe the relationship
between the various species on Earth. From microorganisms to plants to fungi and
animals, life has developed over time along countless paths to provide us with a
spectacular array of different species today. Some species are closely related and, in
other situations, we need to travel back billions of years to link other species.

A scientist, Carl Woese, invested in the ribosomal RNA gene (rRNA) and started
looking at how similar this gene was between different species. The more similar, the
more closely related. He put forward a hypothesis that placed species in three really
broad categories, called domains, based on the similarity and dissimilarity of the rRNA
gene. This approach collapsed the old groups, plants, fungi, and animals into one
domain and introduced two domains that reflected some of the smallest types of life
on the earth. All living species on the earth can be placed in one of three domains: the
Bacteria, the Archaea, and the Eukarya.

The first two domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are completely microscopic
single-celled organisms. The third domain, Eukaryota, covers many microscopic species
but also includes well-known organisms such as animals, plants, and fungi. Bacteria and
archaea are called prokaryotes because their cells do not have a nucleus. The nucleus
is a membrane that covers a cell's genetic material. The genetic material in bacterial
cells and archaea is not enclosed in the membrane, but is tightly coiled in the center of
the cell. The species in the Eukaryota domain have nucleus cells. The presence of the
nucleus is the distinguishing feature that identifies these species as eukaryotes.

References:

 https://study.com/academy/lesson/tree-of-life-domains-bacteria-archaea-
eukarya.htm
 https://www.google.com/amp/s/basicbiology.net/biology-101/tree-of-life

4. What experiments were conducted to study the origins of life?

Life may have existed spontaneously involving experiments to produce plausible

precursors to living systems in the laboratory. Any of the studies performed to study the
origin of life are the following:

 The experimental studies carried out by Stanley Miller (1930-2007) and

Harold Urey (1893-1981) made an educated, although now apparently
incorrect, guess as to the composition of Earth's early atmosphere. They assumed
the presence of oceans and lightning. They set up an apparatus to mimic these
conditions and then passed electrical sparks through their experimental
atmosphere. After days they found that a complex mix of compounds had
formed; included in this mix were many of the amino acids found in modern
organisms, as well as lots of other organic molecules. During the period of the
heavy bombardment of Earth, between ~4.1 through ~3.9 billion years ago,
meteorite impacts could have supplied substantial amounts of organic
molecules. It, therefore, appears likely that early Earth was rich in organic
molecules (which are, remember, carbon-containing rather than life-derived
molecules), the building blocks of life.
 Hazen, a mineralogist, is investigating how the first organic chemicals—the
kind found in living things—formed and then found each other almost four billion
years ago. This research began in 1996, about two decades after scientists
discovered hydrothermal vents—cracks in the deep ocean floor where water is
heated to hundreds of degrees Fahrenheit by molten rock. The vents fuel strange
underwater ecosystems inhabited by giant worms, blind shrimp, and sulfur-eating
bacteria. Hazen and his colleagues assumed that the dynamic, high-pressure
venting environment—with rich mineral deposits and cracks spewing hot water
into the cold—could be where life began.
 The first molecules of life may have been found on clay, according to the
theory of organic chemist Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith at the University of
Glasgow, Scotland. These surfaces may have not only concentrated these
organic compounds together but also helped to organize them into patterns
much like our genes do now. The main function of DNA is to store knowledge on
how other molecules should be organized. Genetic sequences in DNA are simply
 guidelines as to how amino acids should be organized in proteins. Cairns-Smith
suggests that mineral crystals in clay may have arranged organic molecules in
ordered patterns. After a while, organic molecules took over this job and
organized themselves.

References:

 https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Cell_and_Molecular_Biology/Book%3A_Biof
undamentals_(Klymkowsky_and_Cooper)/02%3A_Life’s_diversity_and_origins/2.07
%3A_Experimental_studies_on_the_origins_of_life
 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-origins-of-life-60437133/

ACTIVITY 2:
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Guide Questions:
1. (35 points) Give the meaning and describe the characteristics of life:

Characteristics Life Processes/Meaning Examples/Conditions/Situations

1. Cellular Living things are made up
Organization of cells. The cellular
organization is the factors
that make up the cell
and how they are
organized within the cell.
Each component, called
an organelle, performs a
particular function that is
essential to the cell.
2. Reproduction The important point to
remember is that living
organisms replicate in
any situation.
Reproduction (or
procreation or breeding)
is the biological process
by which new individual
organisms – "offspring" –
are produced from their
"parents". Reproduction
is a central characteristic
of all known life; as a
result of reproduction,
every organism exists.
Cells are the most essential unit
in life. It doesn't matter if the
cells are plants, animals, fungi,
or bacteria. If something is
going to be alive, it has to be
made of cells. A tissue is a
group of related cells that
have a common role within the
organism. Organ tissues work
together to perform a specific
task. Human organs include
the brain, stomach, kidneys,
and liver. In conclusion, the cell
is the basic unit of structure
and function of all living things.
If something is alive, it must be
capable of reproduction.
Multicellular life forms, such as
humans, reproduce sexually,
while unicellular life forms,
such as bacteria, reproduce
asexually. In unicellular
organisms, the ability of a cell
to replicate itself means the
reproduction of a new
individual; in multicellular
organisms, however, it means
growth and regeneration.
Multicellular organisms often
replicate in the strict sense of
the term—that is, they create
copies of themselves in the
form of offspring—but do so in
several ways, often involving
complex organs and
elaborate hormonal
 mechanisms.
3. Metabolism Metabolism is simply a These reactions vary in form
series of chemical and function but promote
reactions that occur processes such as protein
within the body (or cell). synthesis, chemical digestion,
Metabolism is a term cell division, or energy
used to describe all transformation.
chemical reactions
involved in the
maintenance of the
living state of the cells
and the organism.
4. Homeostasis Homeostasis is the term Our bodies maintain a stable
used to describe the body temperature and the
maintenance of a stable amount of blood sugar is
internal environment. steady. If homeostasis is
disrupted, and we spike a
fever, it's an obvious sign that
something is threatening life.
It's the same thing for blood
sugar. When it gets too high or
too low, homeostasis is
disrupted, and, unfortunately,
it can be dangerous.
Maintaining homeostasis is
therefore a vital aspect of life.
5. Heredity Heredity means that our If either of your parents has
genetic information can dark eyes, and you have dark
be distributed from one eyes, it's because of heredity.
generation to the next.
6. Response to stimuli Living things are For example, trees respond to
responsive to a stimulus. fewer hours of external sunlight
It's a physical or stimulation by dropping leaves
chemical change in the (hibernation). The body
environment that creates temperature of a cat
a purposeful response. decreases as the air cools, so it
The stimulation can be heads out for warmth. The
inside or outside the body of a person responds to
body. Responses can be a troubling dream with faster
the product of instinct Stimuli breathing and heart
(automatic reactions rate, usually awakening you. A
were born with). dog is thirsty, so he's about to
have a drink of water.
7. Growth Growth means that living Every living thing shows
organisms increase in size growth. For example, the boy's
and the number of cells legs grow longer as osteocytes
grows and divides to divide to produce new bone
create more cells. cells, enlarging the bones of
the femur.
8. Adaptation through Adaptation is an A behavior that allows animals
evolution inherited trait that to be protected from
enhances the capacity predators. People often
of the organism to change clothing, such as
survive. wearing sweaters to adjust to
the environment every
 change of season.

9. Ability to interact Individual organisms live In plant communities, each

together in an plant can interact in a
ecosystem and rely on positive, negative or neutral
each other. One type of manner. Plants also alter the
interaction defines the availability of resources and
various ways in which the physical habitat around
organisms receive their them, either directly or
food and energy. Some indirectly. Plant neighbors can
species may make their buffer each other out of
own food, and other stressful conditions.
organisms have to
consume their own food
by consuming other
organisms.
10. Development Development is the Biology development involves
mechanism by which the the production of gametes,
body becomes a mature fertilization, embryo
adult. A single cell development, the
divides to form a cluster, development of the adult
and these cells body, senescence and death.
differentiate (take on
unique tasks) into
specialized
tissues/organs. If the
number of cells
increases, the complexity
of the body increases.
References:

 https://study.com/academy/lesson/8-characteristics-of-life-in-biology.html
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wi
ki/Reproduction&ved=2ahUKEwijkq3qtKfuAhWKA4gKHX83AuIQFjAHegQIBhAE&usg=
AOvVaw0H6QpVXZ2KyxHX7Fh4dmrZ
 https://www.britannica.com/science/reproduction-biology
 https://www.news-medical.net/amp/life-sciences/What-is-
Metabolism.aspx&ved=2ahUKEwj3lJ2LtqfuAhUYc3AKHd6wD-
0QFjAOegQICxAF&usg=AOvVaw3WZlwotzxD3iHIH-QS0r4M

V. Supply the correct term/answer to the following questions:

1. The scientific term for a living thing is a(n) organism.

2. All living things are organized.

3. What is the simplest level at which life may exist? Cell

4. Are all cells alike? No

5. All cells perform various jobs or functions.

 Activity 3:
THE CELL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Guide Questions:
1. Identify and label the different parts of the cell by making a simple diagram. Use a separate
sheet of paper.
2. Describe and give the function of the different parts of the cell.
Eukaryotic Structures in Plant and Animal Cells
NAME DESCRIPTION
1. Cell Wall (Plant cells The cell wall is a non-living,
only) rigid structure outside the
plasma membrane in plant
cells and fungi.
2. Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane is a
semi-permeable membrane
that separates the inside of a
cell from the outside. In
eukaryotic cells, the plasma
membrane consists of
proteins, carbohydrates, and
two layers of phospholipids
(i.e. lipid with a phosphate
group).
3. Nucleus The nucleus is the main
organelle of a cell. It is a
double membrane structure
with all the genetic
information. Therefore, it is
also called the ‘brain’ of a
cell. The nucleus is found in all
eukaryotic cells except
human RBCs and sieve cells
of plants.
4. Nucleolus The nucleolus is a region
found within the cell nucleus
that is concerned with
producing and assembling
the cell's ribosomes.
5. Endoplasmic reticulum It is a network of small, tubular
(ER) structures. ER can be of two
types: Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER) and Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).
FUNCTION
Provides shape to the cell.
Helps in cell-cell interaction.
Protects the cell from injury,
undesirable molecules, and
pathogens.
The plasma membrane is
selectively permeable i.e. it
allows only selected
substances to pass through. It
protects the cells from shock
and injuries. The fluid nature
of the membrane allows the
interaction of molecules
within the membrane. It is
also important for secretion,
cell growth, and division, etc.
It allows the transport of
molecules across the
membrane.
It stores genetic information
(in the form of DNA)
necessary for development
and reproduction. It contains
all information necessary for
protein synthesis and cellular
functions.
The nucleolus is considered as
the brain of the nucleus,
covering nearly 25% volume
of the nucleus. Primarily, it
takes part in the production
of subunits that unites to form
ribosomes. Hence, nucleolus
plays an important role in the
synthesis of proteins and the
production of ribosomes in
eukaryotic cells.
It divides the space inside of
Eukaryotic cells into two parts
– luminal (inside ER) and
extra-luminal (cytoplasm).
6. Rough ER Rough due to the presence
of ribosomes Site of protein
synthesis.
7. Smooth ER The main site of lipid synthesis
and Smooth due to lack of
ribosomes.
8. Golgi Apparatus It is named after the scientist
who discovered it, Camillo
Golgi. Golgi is made of many
flat, disc-shaped structures
called cisternae. It is present
in all eukaryotic cells except
human red blood cells and
sieve cells of plants.
9. Vesicle Vesicles are tiny sacs that
transport material within or
outside the cell. There are
several types of vesicles,
including transport vesicles,
secretory vesicles, and
lysosomes.
10. Lysosome They are membrane-bound
vesicles formed in the Golgi
apparatus. Lysosomes are
also called ‘suicidal bags’
since they are rich in
hydrolytic enzymes such as
lipases, proteases,
carbohydrates, etc. These
enzymes are optimally active
at acidic pH (less than 7).
11. Peroxisome Peroxisome is a membrane-
bound organelle occurring in
the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. It is a small organelle
present in the cytoplasm of
many cells, which contains
the reducing enzyme
catalase and usually some
oxidases.
12. Central Vacuole( Plant The central vacuole is a large
cells only) vacuole found inside plant
cells. A vacuole is a sphere
filled with fluid and molecules
inside a cell. The central
vacuole stores water and
maintains turgor pressure in a
plant cell.
13. Mitochondrion They are membrane-bound
organelles, also known as
‘powerhouses of the cell’. It
has two membranes – outer
and inner. The outer
membrane forms a
continuous boundary around
the mitochondria. The inner
membrane is semi-permeable
RER helps in folding proteins
and transports them to the
Golgi apparatus in vesicles.
SER is involved in lipid
synthesis and RER is involved
in protein synthesis.
An important site for
packaging material within
the cell. Proteins are modified
in the Golgi. An important site
for the formation of
glycolipids (i.e. lipids with
carbohydrates) and
glycoproteins (i.e. proteins
with carbohydrates).
Vesicles are small cellular
containers that perform a
variety of functions. They can
be used to move molecules,
secrete substances, digest
materials, or regulate the
pressure in the cell.
The main function of
lysosomes is to digest lipids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and
nucleic acids.
Peroxisomes play a key role in
the oxidation of specific
biomolecules. They also
contribute to the biosynthesis
of membrane lipids known as
plasmalogens.
Filling this space is an
organelle called a central
vacuole which is full of water.
Bounded by a single
membrane, this organelle
functions as a combination of
the reservoir, waste dump,
storage region, and even as
a means of keeping the cell
in shape.
They produce energy (ATP)
and therefore are called the
‘powerhouse of the cell’.
Helps in regulating cell
metabolism. Mitochondria
possess their own DNA, RNA,
and components required for
protein synthesis.

14. Chloroplast (Plant cells
only)
15. Cytoskeleton
16. Cilia and flagella
17. Centrioles ( Animal cells
only)
and divided into folds called
‘cristae’. The membranes
divide the lumen of the
mitochondria into an inner
and outer compartment. The
inner compartment is called
the matrix and the outer
compartment forms the
intermembrane space.
Chloroplasts contain They contain chlorophyll and
compartments called stroma are involved in
and grana. Grana contains photosynthesis, where light
structures called thylakoids energy is converted to
that contain chlorophyll. The chemical energy.
stroma contains enzymes
needed for carbohydrate
and protein synthesis.
It is the filamentous network It provides mechanical
present in the cytoplasm of a support, maintains the shape
cell. of the cell, and helps in
motility.
Cilia: Short, hair-like structures, They are both responsible for
There are many cilia per cell, the movement of a cell.
Cover the entire surface of a
cell, Rowing movement
Flagella: Long structures,
There are fewer flagella per
cell, Are present at one end
of a cell, Up and down
movement
It is a cylindrical organelle Centrioles play a role in
near the nucleus in animal organizing microtubules that
cells, occurring in pairs and serve as the cell's skeletal
involved in the development system. They help determine
of spindle fibers in cell the locations of the nucleus
division. It is composed mainly and other organelles within
of a protein called tubulin. the cell.
Centrioles are found in most
eukaryotic cells. A bound pair
of centrioles, surrounded by a
highly ordered mass of dense
material, called the
pericentriolar material, make
up a structure called a
centrosome.

REFERENCES:

 https://www.genome.gov/genetics-
glossary/Centriole&ved=2ahUKEwiA8sPnx6fuAhWNdXAKHWqyAkcQFjAHegQIAhAE&usg=AOvVaw11Kq
H2Z0PW7naethsKJ4oN
 https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/cell-the-unit-of-life/eukaryotic-cell/
 https://byjus.com/biology/nucleolus/
 https://www.britannica.com/science/peroxisome
www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/CellBio/Depts/CB_vacuole.html&ved=2ahUKEwi23YX5xqfuAhVMeXAKH
VIMAVkQFjAFegQIAhAE&usg=AOvVaw25TTeY7SxgGhnPBiSZHZbn