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Subordination Plural &

Capitals/
Prefixes Suffixes and Commas Determiners Possessive
Full Stops Coordination ‘–s’

Question/ Present
Fronted Modal
Verbs Adjectives Exclamation and Past Conjunctions
Marks Adverbials Verbs
Tense

Commands
Nouns & Verb Cohesive Formal and
Adverbs & Prepositions
Pronouns Inflections Devices Informal
Statements

Continuous Perfect Passive & Colons &


Verb
Apostrophes Form of Form of Parenthesis Active Semi
Prefixes
Verbs Verbs Voice Colons

Synonyms
Inverted Relative Noun Subjunctive
& Elision Hyphens
Commas Clauses Phrases Form
Antonyms
Prefixes
• Prefixes are a letter or group of letters that go Examples:
at the beginning of a word il: illegal, illogical
im: impossible
• They are added to a root word: (e.g. ‘heat’ =
in: inactive
root)
ir: irregular, irrelevant
pre + heat dis: dislike, disagree
un: unnecessary
• Prefixes can give a word an opposite meaning
re: readjust, rebuild
un + happy = unhappy trans: transport
• Root words do not change their spelling to pre: prepaid, preview
allow for a prefix, so don’t add or remove letters auto: autograph/matic
when you add a prefix.

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Suffixes
• Suffixes are a letter or group of letters that go at Examples: (modification)
the end of a word. happy + ness = happiness
• Like prefixes, they always attach to a root word. care + er = carer
active + ity = activity
• Suffixes form nouns- ment, ness, er, ity rely + able = reliable
• Suffixes form adjectives- less, ful, able, ible reverse + ible = reversible

• Suffixes form adverbs and verbs- ly, ise, ify, ily want (present) + ed =
• Suffixes change the tense of a verb- ed, ing wanted (past)
run (present) + ing =
• Often, if the root word ends in ‘e’ or ‘y’ you drop running
this off. If a root word ends in a consonant, you
need to double it.
Amazing range of resources…
https://en.islcollective.com/resources/search_result?Tags=suffixes

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Capital Letters and Full Stops
• This might seem really obvious but there are a Examples:
lot of mistakes made on a daily basis, by adults He wanted to catch fish.
as well as children when it comes to basic The lake was very big.
sentence punctuation.
Darren and Mr Hunter
• A capital letter is needed: at the beginning of a
were good at football.
sentence, for the name of a place, person or
They wanted to play for
thing (a proper noun), the word ‘I.’
Barcelona in Spain.
• Full stops are required to finish a sentence. They
allow the reader time to stop, breathe and Cello lessons begin on
think. Avoid using commas where full stops the 1st Tuesday in March.
should go.

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Verbs
• Verbs are doing or action words Extra:
• They tell you what a person or thing is doing or Verb tenses tell you
being. It’s not always obvious, for example: when something
happens, for example…
I am an artist. I talked. (PAST)
• Whoever is doing the verb is the subject. I talk. (PRESENT)
I will talk. (FUTURE)
The girl talks loudly. Not all ‘past’ add ‘–ed’
• Verbs change depending on who is doing them. go > went; eat > ate; take
> took; do > did; have >
I look confused. > It looks confused. had; see > saw; etc.
She sells seashells. > They sell seashells.
He tries the sandwiches. > We try the sandwiches.

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Adjectives
• Adjectives describe a noun. You can use more than
one. Adjectives can be placed before the noun or Examples:
even at the end of a sentence. The handsome prince
looked for the beautiful
The worm is green. I found a green worm. princess.
• Adjectives can be used to create a noun phrase: The frog was green and
that is a phrase with a noun and any words that slimy.
describe it. My house is more
Alex hid from the ugly, strange creature. expensive than yours.
Vanilla is the least
• Adjectives can also be comparatives/superlatives:
popular flavour ice-
Comparative: the bike is newer, bigger, better, lighter cream.
Superlative: the alien is the ugliest, laziest, worst
• Compound Adjectives: ill-fated, two-seater, free-
range (these adjectives contain a hyphen)

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Question & Exclamation Marks
Question Marks ??? Exclamation Rules:
 Use for strong
• Show where the end of a question is
commands, for
• Most questions begin with a question word someone shouting
http://www.worksheetplace.com/

such as ‘where’ or ‘why’ but not all have to. and for anger and
Do you know where the staffroom is? surprise
 Do not use in formal
Some sentences tell you about a question but writing. Never use
don’t actually ask one. with a full stop, and
Aaron asked me where the staffroom is. never use more than
one at a time.
Exclamation Marks !!!
• The exclamation replaces a full stop and shows
a really strong feeling. Stop it! It was fun!

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Nouns & Pronouns
Nouns Pronouns Examples of pronouns:
Show belonging: mine,
Nouns are naming words Pronouns replace a
yours, his, hers, ours,
Common nouns = things noun. theirs
table, mud, mountain I, you, he, she, it, we, ‘They’re mine.’
Proper nouns = names they (Possessive pronoun)
February, Brazil, Robert me, you, him, her, it, ‘Omar found his scooter.’
Collective nouns = groups us, them Refer back: which, were,
flock, herd, crowd, herd They built a go-kart. when, who, what
Concrete nouns = touch I hit the zombie. ‘I didn’t like the runner
apple, computer, chair The cream is for her. who won the race.’
Abstract nouns = ideas The zombie chased
love, fear, friendship me.

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Apostrophes
• Apostrophes have two uses: Contraction: I am > I’m,
Contraction and Omission – a new word by joining we are > we’re; do not >
two together; you replace missing letters with an don’t; who is > who’s; I
apostrophe have > I’ve
Belonging (s.): Ava’s
I do not know where we are going today. desk; Kezia’s water bottle
I don’t know where we’re going today. Belonging (pl.): girls’
netball match; ladies’
Contraction is also known as ‘contracted form.’ dresses
Belonging – to show possession, we add ‘s’ It’s = it is / it has
Its = we found its house
If something belongs to one person: Doug’s book
If something belongs to a group: patients’ medicine
(These are known as plural possessive nouns)

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Commas
Commas go between items in a list Examples:
Chris bought a cat, a dog, a rabbit, and a frog. In a list, the commas go
where you might have
Commas join two points (before adding a used ‘and’ before.
connective)
I like football. I’m not very good at it.  Remember that a
I like football, but I’m not very good at it. sentence still has to make
sense if we take away the
extra information:
Commas separate clauses (after subordinate clause) Tammy’s homework got
Even though it was hot, we played outside. top marks.

Commas help to add extra information


Tammy’s homework, which is neat, got top marks.

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Adverbs
• Adverbs describe verbs and adjectives. Different Types of Adverb
• Adverbs tell you how or when an action was -ly adverbs after a verb:
done. Adverbs tend to end with –ly. stood quietly, waited
patiently
The stars shone brightly. To describe an adjective:
Yanis ran as quickly as he could. very, quite, extremely,
really, nearly
‘as quickly as he could’ = adverbial phrase Before a verb:
Amber’s shirt was really clean. secretly followed him
Not all words ending in
• Adverbs can go before or after a verb. -ly are adverbs!
The fish swam along happily.
Adverbs can also show how likely something is to
happen: Perhaps the game will finish goalless.

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Present and Past Tense
• Verb tenses tell you when something happens.
• In past tense, we often add –ed (NOT always)
Remember:
walk > walked; shout > shouted; shop > shopped The verb needs to agree
• In future tense, you can add ‘will’ before the with the subject.
verb The dog eat my
homework > the dog ate
I talked. I talk. I will talk. You is doing the washing
(Past) (Present) (Future) up tonight > you are
• You can also the use the verb ‘to be’
We are flying to Mars. (Present Progressive)
We were flying to Mars. (Past Progressive)

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Coordination/Subordination
Coordination Subordination Examples:
The dog ate Marvin’s
Coordination gives equal Subordination gives less
favourite tie and the cat
attention to two items. attention to one idea so
rubbed white hair on
Both parts of the sentence that the other has
Marvin’s black suit.
could stand alone. Main emphasis.
Marvin was late to the
Clause + Main Clause
Use subordinate interview because he
Use coordinating conjunctions, such as tried to clean his suit.
conjunctions: for, and, nor, because, even though, and Even though Marvin was
but, or, yet, and so. when. incredibly nervous, he
(FANBOYS) still got the job.
Subordinate conjunctions
can be used at the
beginning of a sentence.

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Commands and Statements
• Commands give instructions or orders. They tell
you what to do e.g. ‘don’t run!’ or ‘please go!’ Last Thoughts…
Use an exclamation mark
• Commands always have a verb that gives an order at the end of a command
such as ‘look behind you,’ ‘turn around’ or ‘put the
cake in the oven.’ if it is strong or urgent.

• Sometimes a question can be turned into a Statements can be


command: ‘Can you make the dinner?’  ‘Make rearranged to make
the dinner!’
questions: ‘The children
• Statements usually give information and tell you are hungry.’  ‘Are the
something. children hungry?’
• Often, the subject comes first, followed by the verb
and the object e.g. ‘Chris likes Jaffa Cakes.’
• Statements can be made more complicated by
describing the subject and the verb.

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Continuous Form of Verbs
Past Present Future Examples:
Continuous Continuous Continuous He is baking a cake.
I was am will They were baking a cake.
You were are will You will be baking a cake.
We were are will The continuous form of
They were are will the verb shows that
He was is will something is happening
She was is will over a period of time.
It was Is will Note: Present Continuous
is also known as Present
• The continuous form is also known as Present Participle!
Progressive. It means that it is happening now.
• Past progressive means that the action was
happening in the past. Future means that it will.

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Determiners
These are very specific:
• Determiners are small words that go before nouns. the- The girl over there doesn’t
look very well.
• Articles can be definite (specific): the; or indefinite some- I bought some cheese
(general): a, an from the store.
These are very general:
a- A girl came knocking on the
front door.
an- An elephant ate the
bananas.
this- I’d like to buy this car
please.
those- Those shoes are perfect
for the weekend.

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Conjunctions
• Conjunctions join words or phrases together. Examples:
They also join clauses in a sentence e.g. Coordinating: for, and,
‘It looked slimy, so I didn’t touch it.’ nor, but, or, yet, so
(FANBOYS)
(Compound: Main Clause + Main Clause) Subordinating: although,
‘I stared silently, because it was singing.’ until, if, while, because,
since, before, after
(Complex: Main Clause + Subordinate Clause) Correlative: both/and,
‘Every day, the lion grew hungrier and hungrier.’ either/or, neither/nor,
whether/or, not only/but
(Adverbial Phrase: Adverb Conj. + Main Clause) also
• There are a number of types of conjunction:
Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions

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Prepositions
Prepositions tell you where Prepositions tell you when Examples: in, on, at, to,
into, of, from, for, by,
Under, over, at, on, in, through, While, during, until, since, in,
into before, after before, after, until, than,
I stuffed the sweets into my I fell asleep during the football over, under, above,
pocket. match. below, between, among,
He jumped over the moon. The soldiers marched until night
fall.
up, down, inside,
outside, behind, in front,
Prepositions are often followed by Prepositions can follow
a noun prepositions since, until, during,
The cat hid under the table. Prepositions can show how a
against, about, around,
The word ‘under’ is followed by pronoun is related to something round, like, unlike,
the ‘table’ else. except, with, without etc
The knight rode on the white The house is behind you.
horse. The word ‘behind’ is followed by
The word ‘on’ is followed by a the pronoun ‘you.’
noun phrase. Nikki left after them.

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Perfect Form of Verbs
Past Present Future
Perfect Perfect Perfect Examples:
I have completed the
I had have will have question that was set.
You had have will have He has yet to complete
We had have will have his homework.
They had have will have We had made a booking
He had has will have with the restaurant
She had has will have before we went.
It had has will have She will have finished
her work by break time.
• The Present Perfect form is used to describe:
past events, recent past events and unfinished
states.

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Synonyms & Antonyms
Synonyms: mean the same thing. You need to
have a wide enough vocabulary to be able to Examples:
recognise or think of alternatives to every day or Modify this sentence
common words. Reading widely can help you. using one of the
• Ensure you check that the synonym you use still antonyms:
makes sense in the sentence.
‘They thought Merlin was
• In the example, ‘The film was really sad,’
synonyms for sad might include tragic or upset. an ordinary man.’
Which of these would be the best choice?
unique, peculiar,
Antonyms: means the opposite. Once again, make exceptional, unusual
sure that the antonyms you choose still make
sense in the context that they are being used.
• Suffixes can help to make antonyms too:
tune  tuneful and tuneless

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Inverted Commas
• Inverted commas are also known as speech or Remember:
quotation marks. They are used for direct With direct speech, it is
speech. important to place a
• Direct speech is when the author/writer records comma before the
exactly what is said in the moment by the inverted commas.
character. Place any punctuation
inside the last set of
Mr Hunter said, “Pencils down, that is the end of
the test.” inverted commas.
Alan explained, “You’ll
• Reported speech is when the author/writer need to learn all of this
records what was said previously but it does not for the test.”
have any inverted commas.
Mr Hunter told the children to put their pencils
down at the end of the test.

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Plural/Possessive ‘-s’
• For most plurals, we just add ‘s’ for example cat Examples:
becomes cats and dog becomes dogs, but… (Do you notice the
What happens with plurals that are possessive? difference? What is the
• It is possible to have singular possessive meaning in each of
(belonging to one person or thing) and plural these?)
possessive (belonging to more than one person The animals were grazing
or thing) nouns: in the field.
Singular possessive: the girl’s coat The animals’ homes were
destroyed.
In this example, the coat belongs to one girl. The animal’s lost its
Plural possessive: the girls’ coats home.
In this example, the coats belong to more than
one girl. Did you also notice where the apostrophe
went?

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Fronted Adverbials
• We used to call them ‘sentence openers’ or even Examples:
subordinate clauses that come at the beginning. Whilst he was sleeping,
• A fronted adverbial is an adverbial phrase placed Darren’s house was
at the beginning of a sentence- it does not have to burgled.
make sense on its own, therefore is not the main Having won the race,
clause, it is a dependent clause. Zeffie collected her
medal.
In the sentence…
As soon as he got home,
Mario ate his pasta as quickly as he could. Rhys got changed and
played on his Xbox.
…the adverbial phrase can be moved to the front:
As quickly as he could, Mario ate his pasta.
Notice how a comma follows the fronted adverbial.

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Verb Inflections
• Also known as Inflectional Endings: a group of Examples:
letters added to the end of a word to change s: horse  horses
their meaning. –s, -es, -ing, -ed es: watch  watches
• The verb can change according to the spelling as ies: hurry  hurries
well, such as ‘take’ becomes ‘taking’ by removing d: rate  rated
‘e’ first before adding ‘ing.’ ed: heed  heeded
ied: worry  worried
walk - walked – walking ing: know  knowing
mix – mixes – mixed – mixing ing: slam  slamming
ly: steep  steeply
• Sometimes the consonant at the end of a word is ily: happy  happily
doubled to allow for the inflectional ending:
hop – hopping - hopped

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Modal Verbs
• Modal verbs show how likely
something is to happen. Examples:
• This Shades Metre shows you how Can- I can speak English.
likely something is to happen on a Could- She could go out.
scale of importance: ‘dare’ being the May- It may rain today.
most urgent or important and ‘shall’ Might- It might snow.
being the least important. Must- You must sit down.
• Should is a strong suggestion that Should- They should ask.
you should do something, but still Will- He will ask her.
leaves an element of choice. Would- He would like to.
• Must is a very strong suggestion and
you are likely to listen.
• Shall is weak- you might not bother.

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Cohesive Devices
• Cohesive devices are useful conjunctions, Examples: cohesive
transitional phrases, synonyms and pronouns devices act like
that express ideas in a cohesive manner. conjunctions and can be
• They are used to join sentences together to placed at the beginning
make ideas more understandable to the reader. or middle of a sentence.
Remember: pronouns are
• Cohesive devices or cohesion use linking words useful cohesive devices
or phrases for a vast range of reasons: as they prevent us from
• To list (first, second, next, to begin), for repeating someone’s
reinforcement (also, furthermore, in addition), name. The ellipsis … is
similarity (equally, likewise), transition to a new also a cohesive device.
point (as for…, now, turning to), summary (in
conclusion, therefore), to give an example (for
instance, in this case), and so on…

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Verb Prefixes
• Verb prefixes are simply that… verbs with a
prefix at the beginning of them. The prefixes
often change the meaning of the verb, for Examples:
example: Prefixes have meanings-
un-/dis-: opposite of
patient  impatient re-: again
like  dislike in-/im-/ir-/il-/non: not
en-: cause to
lock  unlock under-: too little
appear  disappear in-/im-: (in or into)
write  rewrite
• Remember that we are looking for prefixes for
verbs (doing words) rather than just any word
e.g. legal  illegal (these are adjectives)

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Parenthesis
• Parenthesis is just a big word for something else
that you’ve been doing all along: brackets! Examples:
Zoe couldn’t find her
• Brackets or parenthesis are used to separate friends (they were in the
extra information. Sometimes you can use bathroom).
commas to do this as well- as you would when Charlie (a schoolboy)
you place a subordinate clauses in a sentence. often decided to cycle to
• Remember that when you remove the brackets school.
and the information between them, the rest of Abigail enjoyed running
the sentence still makes sense. for her school (she won a
lot of medals).
• The information in the brackets doesn’t have to
be a complete sentence. E.g. The farmer (who
lived in Devon) frantically searched his fields for
his sheep.

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Relative Clauses
• A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause. Examples:
It gives extra information to the main clause. I normally eat the
• Remember that the main clause is a strong, sandwich which has the
independent clause that makes sense on its most filling in.
own. Beatrice was an annoying
cat that scratched at the
• The relative clause doesn’t have to make sense furniture all of the time.
on its own (it is a dependent clause.) We became good friends
• Relative clauses have their own relative with Arnold whose
pronouns as well: who, which, whose, that lottery numbers had
recently come up!

Bob was a truck driver who travelled many miles.


Main clause + relative pronoun + relative clause

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Noun Phrases
• A noun phrase is a group of words which
includes a noun and any words that describe it. Examples:
It sounds a lot more complicated than it really is. You can add adjectives,
Let’s have a look at some examples: prepositions or other
nouns to expand a noun
Hannah ran away from the hideous, frightening phrase.
monster.
• The noun phrase contains the monster and the Hannah ran away from
words that describe it: hideous and frightening. the hideous, frightening
monster with green
Roaring loudly, the lion frightened the small, eyes.
scared children.
• The noun phrase contains the children and the
words that describe it: small and scared.

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Subjunctive Form
• Subjunctive form might be used in a formal text. Examples:
When a sentence is talking about something It is important that we
important or urgent, it would use the are quiet.  It is
subjunctive form. essential that we be
quiet.
She must make sure she buys a cat.  Video: Listen to the songs
It is essential that she buy a cat. in the video:
If I was…
• The subjunctive form might also be used if you
If I were…
are talking about a situation that isn’t real:
Which are subjunctive
If I was a good waiter, I’d never drop anything.  and which are not?
If I were a good waiter, I would never drop
anything.

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Formal and Informal
• In different text types or genres you may be able You’ll know ‘im when you
to spot the difference between formal and see ‘im!
informal language being used by the author.
I’m sure you aint got
• Formal writing uses more complicated words (as nothing to worry about.
well as the Subjunctive Form which we learnt I’m not bothered, are
about in the previous unit) you?
• Informal writing sometimes uses question tags I’d rather be watching the
as well as contractions such as ‘didn’t and won’t’ races instead of the
football.
She’ll be asking you to
Formal: I asked for the salad  I requested the tea later on today.
salad.
Informal: You’re coming later, aren’t you?
Contractions Question Tags

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Passive and Active Voice
• It is important that you know the difference Examples:
between the two of these. In Passive, you don’t
• Active Voice tells you that the subject of the always need to say who
sentence (the WHO) is doing an action to an does the action.
object. The cake mixture was
poured. (Here, the object
Alexis jumped over the hurdle. is BEFORE the verb.)
Subject + verb + preposition + object Jim poured the cake
mixture. (In Active, you
• In this sentence it is clear that Alexis is doing need a subject. The
something. The subject is Active. object is AFTER the verb.)
• Passive Voice tells you that something (the
WHAT) is being done to the subject.
The hurdle was jumped over by Alexis.

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Colons and Semi Colons
Colons Semi-Colons The mouse was playing:
Can introduce a list Break up lists (of longer the cat was asleep.
To make a cake, you will phrases or clauses) Here it seems as though
need: 2 eggs, etc. When I go camping we will the mouse was playing
Only use a colon if it follows be building a campfire; because the cat was
a main clause. putting up our tents in the asleep.
Go before bullet points dark; cooking yummy The mouse was playing;
Today’s meeting agenda: marshmallows, and fishing the cat was asleep.
• Volunteers for the fair by the lake. Here we just have two
• Stall holders etc. Break up clauses statements of equal
Introduce explanations: Sally was ready for bed;
importance.
Main Idea + More Detail Aaron wanted to keep
I’d like to buy an ice-cream: playing. (Both sides are
probably strawberry flavour. equally important)

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Elision
• Elision is the omission of a sound or syllable
when speaking. Examples:
• Elision is the shortening of words. The letters
that are often the first to go are the vowels. different  diff’rent
Have a look at the examples below to see what tonight  t’night
has happened to these. I didn’t bother waiting
for him 
lovely  lov’ly I din’t bother waitin’ for
‘im.
kind of  kinda
sort of  sorta
interest  int’rest
library  lib’ry

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Hyphens (& Dashes)
• A hyphen… slightly different to the dash.
Examples:
• Dashes working in a similar way to brackets in Mary – an acrobat by
that they are there to add extra information. night – set off to the
• A pair of dashes are much like the brackets. The supermarket for some
extra information goes between them. fruit.
The girls – Jess and Charlotte – played outside.
Mary nearly slipped as
• A single dash can mark a pause in a sentence. It she looked down – there
usually separates two main clauses. was a loud gasp from the
Sofia was plunged into the water – Danielle clung audience below!
on to the rocks above with all her might!
• A hyphen can be used to join two words
together such as: over-excited; middle-aged

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Prefixes Click to go back…

• Try these SPaG Test questions out independently…

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Suffixes Click to go back…

• Try these SPaG Test questions out independently…

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Capital Letters and Full Stops Click to go back…

• Try these SPaG Test questions out independently…

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Verbs Click to go back…

• Try these SPaG Test questions out independently…

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Adjectives Click to go back…

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Question & Exclamation Marks Click to go back…

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Nouns & Pronouns Click to go back…

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Apostrophes Click to go back…

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Commas Click to go back…

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Adverbs Click to go back…

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Present & Past Tense Click to go back…

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Subordination/Coordination Click to go back…

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Commands & Statements Click to go back…

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Continuous Form of Verbs Click to go back…

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Determiners Click to go back…

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Conjunctions Click to go back…

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Prepositions Click to go back…

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Perfect Form of Verbs Click to go back…

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Synonyms & Antonyms Click to go back…

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Inverted Commas Click to go back…

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Plural/Possessive ‘-s’ Click to go back…

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Fronted Adverbials Click to go back…

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Verb Inflections Click to go back…

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Modal Verbs Click to go back…

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Cohesive Devices Click to go back…

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Verb Prefixes Click to go back…

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Parenthesis Click to go back…

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Relative Clauses Click to go back…

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Noun Phrases Click to go back…

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Subjunctive Form Click to go back…

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Formal and Informal Click to go back…

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Passive and Active Voice Click to go back…

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Colons and Semi Colons Click to go back…

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Elision Click to go back…

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Sorry… at present there are no specific Elision- based


questions in existing SPaG Papers.
This page will be updated as soon as questions can
be sourced.

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Hyphens Click to go back…

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Great Resource Websites
• https://en.islcollective.com
• http://englishlinx.com/
• http://www.worksheetplace.com/
• http://flocabulary.com/

• Grammaropolis on YouTube
• Anchor Education on YouTube

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