TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

938 AURORA BLVD., CUBAO QUEZON CITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CE 502
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

CHAPTER 1-3 FOR 6-STOREY SCHOOL BUILDING

CE51S3-A20

SUBMITTED BY:

VILLANUEVA, JEREMIAH O.

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. RHONNIE C. ESTORES

 CHAPTER 1: PROJECT BACKGROUND

1.1 THE PROJECT

This project tends to develop a structural design of a six storey school building that will be located in
Barangay Bagong Nayon, Antipolo City, Rizal. This location is bounded by several villages and subdivisions.
The school building will offer services and to provide the needs of the people especially to the students.

The Philippine Science High School System is a research-oriented and specialized public high
school system in the Philippines that operates as an attached agency of the Philippine Department of Science
and Technology. The PSHS System offers scholarships to Filipino students who are gifted in the sciences
and mathematics. Admission to the PSHS is by competitive examination, and only Filipino citizens are eligible
to attend. Graduates of the PSHS are bound by law to major in the pure and applied sciences, mathematics,
or engineering on entering college. The system is known to have a very challenging curriculum which
produces the best professionals in the country.

In terms of size, Antipolo City is the second largest in Rizal Province next only to Rodriguez, formerly
Montalban. Its total land area of 38,504.44 hectares represents 29.9% of the entire land area of the Rizal
Province. Since Antipolo is a large city, building a 6-storey Secondary School is necessary. Bagong Nayon
is a Barangay in the city of Antipolo and according to 2015 Census, it has population of around 46000 which
represent 5.92% of the total population of Antipolo. The location is best to build 6-storey Secondary School
because it is located near supermarket and easy to access. The proposed 6-storey Secondary School cater
the needs of the people living in Antipolo City. This proposed project envisions to serves as an extension
school due to growing population of Antipolo City.

1.2 PROJECT LOCATION

The location of this project is at Barangay Bagong Nayon, Antipolo City, along Marilaque Highway in
front of The Church of Jesus Christ Of Latter-day Saints. The setting is accessible to road, transportation and
also for the people.
Figure 1.2.1: Satellite View of Marikina-Infanta Highway, Antipolo City - Bearing 14°37'20.9"N
121°10'26.7"E
Source: https://www.google.com/maps/@14.6225942,121.1752831,360m/data=!3m1!1e3

Figure 1.2.2: Street view of Marikina-Infanta Highway, Antipolo City

Source: https://www.google.com/maps/@14.6225942,121.1752831,360m/data=!3m1!1e3
 1.3 THE CLIENT

Mayor Andrea B. Ynares will serve as the client for this project. She wants to deliver a 6-
storey Secondary School to a set standard, on time and to budget, whilst also achieving a profit and
maintaining reputation.

1.4 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The project aims to design a 6-storey Secondary School in Brgy. Bagong Nayon, Cogeo,
Antipolo City that is functionally efficient, safe, and in fulfillment of all the requirements of the client. The
design project is intended to provide the students the knowledge and skills of making use of the concepts
and knowledge gained in the course Reinforced Concrete Design to design a structure for the proposed
project that will able to meet the demand of the Client.

1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

The general objective stated above can be broken down into three specific objectives that
would collectively achieve the overall goal of the project as follows:

 To design a 6-storey Secondary School suitable to withstand all loads subjected to it, and in
compliant to the necessary codes and design standards.
 To evaluate three (3) different technologies or trade-offs of Reinforced Concrete design based on
multiple constraints.
 To select the most effective and economical design founded on the assessment of trade-offs.

1.5 PROJECT SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

1.5.1 SCOPE

The project aims to design a 6-storey Secondary School in Brgy. Bagong Nayon, Cogeo,
Antipolo City that is functionally efficient, safe, and in fulfillment of all the requirements of the client. The
design project is intended to provide the students the knowledge and skills of making use of the concepts
and knowledge gained in the course Reinforced Concrete Design to design a structure for the proposed
project that will able to meet the demand of the Client.

1.5.2 LIMITATION

The following are the limitations of the design project:

• The cost estimates for the plumbing, mechanical and electrical plans were not included.

• The interior design of the structure was not considered.

• Only the beams, slabs, and columns were considered in the design.

• The plumbing and electrical plans were not involved in the design.

1.6 PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

The designer prepared for the design of a 6-storey Secondary School in Barangay Bagong
Nayon, Antipolo City. In the first stage of the project, the designers will identify the problems currently existing
in the society that the designers intend to make a solution. As the problem being identified, which is lack of
School around Barangay Bagong Nayon, Antipolo City resulting in Difficulties in enrollment. After having the
solution, the designers will look for the location where the said project will be constructed, then
conceptualization of the project begins conforming to the request of the client. The conceptualization of the
design of a 6-storey Secondary School includes different inputs strengthening design process, materials and
construction techniques, purpose, ground characteristics and set of standards and codes provided in the
Philippines. After the conceptualization, data were gathered using different types of method.

Then designers identify the constraints and different trade-offs to solve the evident problem
considering the constraints. There will be a provide design for each trade-off to properly explain each of its
capabilities and advantages. After presenting each trade-off with their specific aspects; results will be
compared and evaluated in order to come up with the most efficient alternative. The final design is based on
the most effective result evaluated by the designer. This output will be recommended to be able to design a
6-storey Secondary School.
 CONCEPTUALI
ZATION

DESIGN
INPUTS

DESIGN
CONTRAINTS

PROVISION OF
TRADE-OFFS

DESIGN
STANDARDS

STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN

EVALUATION
OF TRADE-
OFFS AND
SELECTION OF
FINAL DESIGN

Figure 1.6.1 Project Development Diagram

 CHAPTER 2: DESIGN INPUTS

2.1 PROJECT DEMOGRAPHY

Among the 14 city/municipalities of Rizal, Antipolo City had the largest population with
776,386, followed by Rodriguez (Montalban) with 369,222 and Cainta with 322,128. The population of
these three municipalities together comprised more than half (50.89 percent) of the entire population of
the province as shown in the table below.

Table 2.1: Total population of Municipalities of Rizal

Source: This data was obtained from Antipolo City Hall

Table 2.2: Total Population of Antipolo City

Source: This data was obtained from Antipolo City Hall
 The population of Bagong Nayon grew from 18,002 in 1990 to 45,976 in 2015, an increase of
27,974 people. The latest census figures in 2015 denote a positive growth rate of 0.34%, or an increase
of 824 people, from the previous population of 45,152 in 2010.

Figure 2.1: Population of Barangay Nayon categorized by age group

Source: https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/r04a/rizal/antipolo/bagong-nayon.htmla
 Figure 2.1.1: Population and Growth of Barangay Bagong Nayon
Source: https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/r04a/rizal/antipolo/bagong-nayon.htmla

2.2 PROJECT TOPOGRAPHY

Figure 2.2: Topographic view of Barangay Bagong Nayon

Source: https://www.philatlas.com/luzon/r04a/rizal/antipolo/bagong-nayon.htmla
 2.3 ARCHITECTURAL PLANS

The primary part of the design is the architectural plans, these will serve as the guide and basis for
the computation of the superimposed dead loads as its shows the material specification used within the
structure. It also gives the tributary area that will be distributed to the structural members.

ROOM DESCRIPTION FUNC Q A

TION UANTITY REA
(ro
oms)
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room Classr 5 4
where teacher teach to students oom 0 m²
A room provided for teachers. The faculty room separated Facult 1 3
by teachers teaching subject y Room 0 m²
A room in which students and teachers getting treatment Clinic 1 3
from nurse and doctor 0 m²
A room for computer’s activy. Lab 1 3
room 0 m²
This room is to discipline students for their wrongdoings Guida 1 4
nce Office 0 m²
A room provided for principal of school Princi 1 4
pal Office 0 m²
A room for billing and getting important files from school Regist 1 4
rar Office 0 m²
A room for security officers Securi 1 4
ty Office 0 m²
A room for teachers taking their lunch break Teach 1 3
ers Lounge 0 m²
A commercial part of the building where in students and Cante 1 6
teachers buy their food en 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Femal 1 3
female. e’s Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Male’ 1 3
male. s Restroom 0 m²
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.1 Functional Areas at Ground Floor
 ROOM DESCRIPTION FUNC Q A
TION UANTITY REA
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room Class 4 3
where teacher teach to students room 0 m²

In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room Class 6 4

where teacher teach to students room 0 m²

A room provided for teachers. The faculty room separated Facult 2 3

by teachers teaching subject y Room 0 m²
A room where books borrowed and students can study Librar 1 1
quietly y 60 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Femal 1 3
female. e’s Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Male’ 1 3
male. s Restroom 0 m²
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.2 Functional Areas at Second Floor

FUN Q A
ROOM DESCRIPTION
CTION UANTITY REA
Class
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room 3
room 4
where teacher teach to students 0 m²
Class
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room 4
room 10
where teacher teach to students 0 m²
A room provided for teachers. The faculty room separated by Facul 3
2
teachers teaching subject ty Room 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Fema 3
1
female. le’s Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Male’ 3
1
male. s Restroom 0 m²

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.3 Functional Areas at Third Floor

FUN Q A
ROOM DESCRIPTION
CTION UANTITY REA
Class
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room 3
room 4
where teacher teach to students 0 m²
Class
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A room 4
room 10
where teacher teach to students 0 m²
A room provided for teachers. The faculty room separated by Facul 3
2
teachers teaching subject ty Room 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Fema 3
1
female. le’s Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and lavatories for Male’ 3
1
male. s Restroom 0 m²
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.4 Functional Areas at Fourth Floor

ROOM DESCRIPTION FUNCTION Q A

UANTITY REA
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A Classroom 4 3
room where teacher teach to students 0 m²
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A Classroom 6 4
room where teacher teach to students 0 m²
A room provided for teachers. The faculty room Faculty Room 2 3
separated by teachers teaching subject 0 m²
A room where physical education activity happened Physical 1 1
Education Activity 60 m²
Room
A room in a public space providing toilets and Female’s 1 3
lavatories for female. Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and Male’s 1 3
lavatories for male. Restroom 0 m²
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.5 Functional Areas at Fifth Floor

ROOM DESCRIPTION FUNCTION Q A

UANTITY REA
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A Classroom 4 3
room where teacher teach to students 0 m²
In this room, students and teacher gather together. A Classroom 6 4
room where teacher teach to students 0 m²
A room provided for teachers. The faculty room Faculty Room 2 3
separated by teachers teaching subject 0 m²
A room where physical education activity happened Physical 1 1
Education Activity 60 m²
Room
A room in a public space providing toilets and Female’s 1 3
lavatories for female. Restroom 0 m²
A room in a public space providing toilets and Male’s 1 3
lavatories for male. Restroom 0 m²
Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3.6 Functional Areas at Sixth Floor
2.3.1 FLOOR PLANS

Figure 2.3.1.1 Ground Floor Plan

Figure 2.3.1.2 Second Floor Plan

Figure 2.3.1.3 Third Floor Plan

Figure 2.3.1.4 Fourth Floor Plan

Figure 2.3.1.5 Fifth Floor Plan

Figure 2.3.1.6 Sixth Floor Plan

2.3.2 ELEVATION

Figure 2.3.2.1 Front Elevation

Figure 2.3.2.2 Rear Elevation

Figure 2.3.2.3 Right Side Elevation
Figure 2.3.2.4 Left Side Elevation
 2.4 DESIGN LOADS
2.4.1 LIVE LOADS
Live loads would be one of the major factors that can affect the integrity of the structure.

Use or Occupancy Load

Faculty 2.4
Classroom 1.9
Corridors (Ground Floor) 3.8
Corridors (Above Ground Floor) 4.8
Storage Room 1.9
Comfort Room 1.9
Table 2.4.1.1 Live Load Specifications

2.4.2 DEAD LOADS

Dead loads are imposed on the structure that serves as the main component in the structural
integrity of the structure. It varies depending on the material that is used. These components will produce the
same constant weight during the lifespan of the building. It is very important that dead loads are accurately
added to the computations as it will be affecting the structure throughout its lifespan.

Materials Load (kPa)

Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.008
Suspended metal lath and gypsum 0.48
plaster
Cement Tile 0.19
Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015
Cement Finish (25mm on stone 1.53
concrete fill
CHB (100 mm) 2.11
CHB (150 mm) 2.73
Masonry grout (full) 0.11
Plaster (both faces) 0.48
Table 2.4.2.1 Minimum Design Loads for Walls, Ceilings and Floor

Materials Density (kN/m3)

Concrete 23.6
Glass 25.1
Aluminum 26.7
 Table 2.4.2.1 Minimum Densities

2.4.3 WIND LOADS

Wind acts horizontally on a structure and changes in magnitude and direction with time. Wind
pressure might lead to dynamic responses from the building. Hence in some cases it might lead to fatigue
stresses especially on the foundation. Wind load effects on a structure are affected by the following factors:

 The height above the ground; obstacles on the ground level reduce wind speed.
 Exposure of the building to its surroundings; trees and other tall buildings block the wind speed.
The wind load is mainly resisted by proper anchoring of the foundation and adding stiffening
elements. Lateral forces tend to force structures to move horizontally and this makes the foundation to
experience high stresses. Stiffening elements such as braces help to maintain columns into their original
position.

Basic Wind Speed, V 200 kph

Exposure Category C
Wind Directionality Fcator (Kd) 0.85
Importance Factor (Iw) 1.0
Topographic Factor, Kzt 1.0
Exposure Category B
Table 2.4.3.1 Wind Load Parameters

2.4.4 SEISMIC LOAD PARAMETERS

The seismic load parameters were obtained with the geographical data and were based on chapter
2, section 208 of the code.
 Figure 2.4.4.1 Nearest active fault trace
Source: http://faultfinder.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/

Parameters
Importance Factor 1
Soil Profile Type Stiff Soil, Sd
Seismic Zone ZONE 4: Z=0.4
Seismic source type A
Near Source Factor (Na) 1.2
Near Source Factor (Nv) 1.6
Seismic Coefficient (Ca) 0.44Na = 0.53
Seismic Coefficient (Cv) 0.64 Nv = 1.02
R (Special Reinforced Concrete 8.5
Moment Frame)
Structure Period (T) 0.58
Numerical Coefficient (Ct) .0731
R (Intermediate Reinforced 5.5
Concrete Moment Frame)
Structure Period (T) .39
Numerical Coefficient (Ct) .0488
R (Ordinary Reinforced Concrete 3.5
Moment Frame)
Structure Period (T) .39
Numerical Coefficient (Ct) .0488
 Table 2.4.4.1 Seismic Load Parameter

2.5 SOIL PROFILE

2.5.1 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

This report presents the result of the geotechnical investigation conduction for the above cited project
of the City Government of Marikina. The investigation work involving borehole drilling was carried out in
March 2012 by Universal Testing Laboratory and Inspection, Inc (UTLII) upon the request of proponent/client.

The purpose of the investigation is to determine the general subsurface condition at site by the test
boring with SPT sampling and core drilling and to evaluate the results and with respect to the concept and
foundation design of the proposed structure. The samples obtained from the boring were tested in the
laboratory for engineering classification and strength determination and analysis.

This report covers the methodology of the field and laboratory investigations, assessment of the
subsurface conditions, and estimation of the allowable soil bearing capacity, settlement analysis and citing
other related construction problems.

Field Investigation Program

The investigation involved the drilling of the two (2) boreholes to a depth 15m each below the present
ground level at the site with the use of a rotary drilling machine. The drilling was executed on the whole day
of 27 March 2012 following the ASDTM procedures as briefly described below. The location of the boreholes
is shown in Figure 1.0.

The hole was advanced by wash boring and standard penetration test (SPT). The Standard
Penetration Test (SPT) is performed every 1.0 meter of depth measured from the ground surface. Initially an
NW-casting was driven into the ground using the driver hammer weighing 63.5 kg. up to a depth of 0.50 m.
The section of the casting which was driven into the ground was cleaned up to the bottom wash boring. The
term “Wash Boring” refers to the process in which a hole is advanced by combination of chopping and jetting
to break the soil or rock into small fragments called cuttings and washing to remove cuttings from the hole.
TH tools used to consist of the drill rods with a chopping bit at the bottom and a water swivel and lifting the
bail at the top. This is connected to the water pump by a heavy duty hose attached to the water swivel. This
assembly is attached to the cathead by means of a rope which passes through the sheave and tied to the
lifting bail. The tool are then lowered to the level of soil in the casing, and the water under pressure is
introduced to the bottom of the hole means of the water passages in the drill rods and the chopping bit. At
the same time, the bit is raised and dropped by means of the rope attached to the lifting bail. Each time the
rods are dropped they are also partially rotated manually by means of a wrench placed around the rods. The
latter process helps to break up the material at the base of the hole. The resulting cuttings are carried to the
surface in the drilling water which flows in the annular space between the drill rods and the inside of the
casing. The process is continued until the depth for taking SPT samples is reached.

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was used to extract relatively distributed samples from the
borehole at intervals not exceeding 1:50 meters. This was done by driving a standard split-barrel sampler
with the following specifications:

: Make :Std. Sprague and Henwood Type

: Outside Diameter : 5.40 cm.
: Inside Diameter : 3.50 cm.
: Length : 61.0 cm.

This split-barrel sampler is attached to the end of a string of rods and is driven into the ground by
means of blows from a donut type or center-hole cell hammer weighing 63.50 kg. The hammer is dropped
repeatedly and freely from a height of 76.2 cm. into a special anvil until the required 45.0 cm. penetration is
attained. The sample is initially driven a distance of 15.0 cm. to seat it on undisturbed soil and the blow count
also recorded (unless the weight of the assembly sinks the sampler, so no N can be counted). The blow
count for each of the next two-cm-increment is summed up and used as the penetration number N, unless
the last increment cannot be completed either from encountering rock/ gravelly layer or the blow count
exceeds 60. Where N-blow count s exceeds to 60, the test is stopped and he penetration attained is recorded
as a denominator to the number of blows e.g. 60/10 meaning 60 blows for 10 cm. penetration. This would be
indicated as “refusal” in the borehole log. The method described above is the standard penetration tests
(SPT). N-values derived from the borings are reflected in appropriate columns in the Final Borehole Log in
Appendix A.

Correlation of SPT data with other soil parameters have been developed for estimates of stiffness
and densities of a soil and is very useful supplementary classification as shown in the tables below:

CONSISTENCY CLASSIFICATION FOR FINE-GRANED SOILS

(Terzaghi and Peck, 1969)

Classification SPT,N Undrained Shear Strength, su

(kPa)

Very soft <2 <12

Soft 2 -4 12-25
Medium Stiff 4–8 25-50
Stiff 8 – 15 50-100
Very Stiff 15 – 30 100-200
Hard >30 >200

RELATIVE DENSITY CLASSIFICATION FOR COARSE-GRAINED SOILS

(U.S. NAVY, 1982 & Lambe and Whitman, 1969)

Classification SPT,N Undrained Shear Strength, su

(kPa)

Very loose <4 0-15

Loose 4 - 10 15-35
Medium dense 10 – 30 36-65
Dense 30 – 50 65-85
Very Dense >50 85-100
 All SPT samples were placed in a properly labeled air tight plastic bag before they were transported
to the laboratory office of UTLII in Pasig City for the required testing.

a. Laboratory Testing Program

The procedures used in testing the samples for this project conform with the ASTM Standards and
from selected references such as Soil testing for Engineers by T. William Lambe etc..

All SPT samples were subjected to the following specific tests with the procedures are briefly
described below:

Soil Particle Size Analysis (ASTM D 422-63, Re-approved 1998)

This test covers the quantitative determination of the distribution of particle in soils. The distribution
of particle sized retained on the No. 200 sieve is determined by sieving. The individual particles found in
particular soil is indicative of the performance characteristics of the soil. The percentage by weight of the
material passing through its succession sieve is recorded.

The Atterberg Limits

The liquid limit and the plastic limit tests define the upper and lower moisture content points at which
a particular soil ceases to perform as a plastic. The use of this test is restricted to cohesive soils.

Liquid Limit (ASTEM D-425-66) – This is the water content of the soils expressed as percentage of
the weight of the oven-dried soil at the boundary between liquid and plastic states.

Plastic Limit (ASTM D44-59) – This is expressed as percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil at
the laboratory between the plastic and semi-solid states.

Moisture Content of Soils (ASTM D-2216-98)

This test is based on the weight of the water in the soil. It indicates imperative behavior of different
soil types at various levels of moisture. It is the ratio expressed as percentage of the weight of water in a
given mass of soil to the weight of solid particles.

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS,ASTM D2487-69)

 The system is used in foundation works for classifying a soils with symbols such as GP, GW, SM,
SC, CL, CH, ML, MH, etc.

b. Site Geology

The geologic map within Metro Manila which includes Marikina City and its immediate vicinities used
to be a submerged area at one time in the past intermittent volcanic activities resulting to the deposition of
volcanic materials on top of the previously-laid volcanic materials. Thus, alternating beds and transported
sediments became a characteristic feature of the geologic deposit.

Recent deposits at the site are the Quaternary volcanic rocks generally known in geologic literature
as the Guadalupe Formation which consists of the lower Alat Conglomerate member of the Upper Diliman
Tuff Member. This tuff includes the tuff sequence in the Angat-Novaliches region and along Pasig River in
the vicinity of Guadalupe, Makati and extending some areas of Manila and most of Quezon City, it is
composed of an almost flat-laying sequence of vitric tuffs and welded volcanic breccia with subordinate
amounts of tuffaceous, fie to medium-grained sandstone. The tuff is thin to medium-bedded, regularly
stratified, tan or light gray in color, fine-grained, lithified and consists of volcanic ash and dust.

c. Subsurface as Found

The subsurface of the site is represented by the soil profile derived along the drilled boreholes as
shown in Figure 2.0 As can be seen from the profile, the subsoil around BH-1 is underlain by overburden
composed soil of moderately/highly plastic clay (CL/CH) starting from the ground surface down all the way
to the bottom end of the borehole. N-values ranged from 21 to 62 blows/ft suggesting a consolidated to over
consolidated stratum. Over the vicinity of BH-2, silty sand (SM) covers the upper 4.5m thick layer before
clayey materials were hit down to the bottom end of the borehole. The silty sands are non-plastic with
recorded N-values of 20 - 29 blows/ft while the clays are highly plastic and have registered a blow count
ranging from 33 - 65 blows/ft. These blow counts indicated compacted sand deposits while the consolidation
and consistency of the clays are the same as those in BH-1

The groundwater level was measured at 8.0m or more inside the boreholes after completing the
drilling.

d. Discussions and General Recommendations

Assessment of the Subsoil

 Based on the boring results, the site is generally sound and stable to build on for the proposed
structure without failure. The founding clay materials as revealed by their SPT counts are not compressible,
expansive and collapsible. On the other hand, the sandy materials are not settlement prone nor susceptible
to liquefaction in the event of strong earthquakes. The use of a shallow foundation to support the structure
can be used under such soil conditions.

Allowable Soil Bearing Capacity at Foundation level

A spread or combined type of a shallow foundation can be adopted. The footings can be embedded
to a depth of 1.5m or deeper below the present ground level. For purposes of designing the footings, the
estimated allowable soil bearing capacity at varying footing level and base width are tabulated below:

Allowable Soil Bearing Capacity, kPa (Basis: BH-1)h

Depth, Base of Footing Bearing

meter Base = 1.5m B = 3.0m Layer

1.5 227 Clay

2.0 240 Clay
2.5 247 Clay
3.0 257 Clay

Allowable Soil Bearing Capacity, kPa (Basis: BH-1)

Depth, Base of Footing Bearing

meter Base = 1.5m B = 3.0m Layer

1.5 359 264 Clay

2.0 359 276 Clay
2.5 689 555 Clay
3.0 689 579 Clay

Settlement

For footings resting on clays, a long term settlement of 50mm to 100mm should be anticipated. On
the other hand, a maximum settlement of 25mm can be allowed for footings resting sand. Crucial to these
tolerable settlements is the excessive differential settlement that could affect the engineering integrity of the
structure. Provision for footing tie beams therefore be incorporated as an integral part of the foundation
system to minimize such excessive settlement to a manageable limit.

Foundation Excavation

The excavation for the foundation can proceed with relative ease as no dewatering work is necessary
due to deep groundwater level in the area, however, extensive protection of the walls around the vicinity of
BH-2 would be required as the sand materials to be excavated are highly erosive and could not vertically
stand if the pits are left unprotected during the course of the excavation. Over BH-1, the wall protection may
no longer necessary. The clays to be excavated are not collapsible such that the walls could vertically stand
even if the pits are left unsupported.

Site Coefficient S and Seismic Zone Factor Z

The site coefficient S and seismic zone factor Z required determining the design base shear V for
structural design is defined in terms of the soil profile as specified in the National Building Code of the
Philippines. Based on the soil profiles as determined from borings, the Structural Engineer for the project
could classify the site the corresponding S factor for given type of soil by referring to the Building Code.

The seismic map of the Philippines divides the country into two zones, namely Zone 2 and 4. For the
site under study, the maximum zone factor Z is also found in the said Building Code.

General Remarks

This geotechnical evaluation was carried out by the Undersigned based on the soil borings and
laboratory tests shown in the Appendices as prepared by UTLII. Variations in subsurface conditions existing
between the borings may not become evident until the course of soil improvement and subsequent
construction.
Borehole Location Map

Final Borehole Log and Summary Test

 2.6 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

ANALYTICAL STUDY OF COMMON RIGID CONNECTIONS UNDER THE EFFECT OF HEAT

In Analytical Study of Common Rigid Connections under the Effect of Heat by Rohola Rahnavard ,
Navid Siahpolo, Mohammad Naghavi, and Akbar Hassanipour (2014). The modeling of reinforced concrete
connections by using numerical methods can well display their behavior when affected by the heat. Using
static analysis of couple temperature, displacement results in a very good approximation. The connection
region and panel zone can reduce the shift in the middle beam up to 20% when they are completely isolated
against the heat. The displacement of a reinforced concrete structure is because of the main reinforced
concrete members exposed to fire. The connection with the end plate has better performance than other
common reinforced concrete connections. Torsion can occur in all connections while in this connection only
vertical displacement occurs. Reinforced concrete structures are extremely heat-sensitive and in some
connections when heat decreases to half the shift in the middle of the beam decreases up to four times. The
stiffness of reinforced concrete connections is very sensitive to the heat changes so that an increase in the
heat of stiffness can drastically reduce connection. End plate connection against the heat has an efficient
performance and loss of stiffness in it is less than other connections. Lateral buckling can occur in some
reinforced concrete connections against the high temperatures. However, the results of this study showed
that end plate connection only rotated and had no lateral buckling.

A STUDY OF THE VARIOUS STRUCTURAL FRAMING SYSTEMS SUBJECTED TO SEISMIC

LOADS

According to the study of Abhyuday Titiksh (2015), in seismic behavior of the structure having various
structural configurations like OMRCF (Ordinary Moment Resisting Concrete Frames), SMRCF (Special
Moment Resisting Frames) and BSF (Braced Reinforced concrete Frames). A comparative study of all the
types of frames will shed light on the best suited frame to be adopted for seismic loads in Indian scenario.
For this purpose, a G+4 building was designed for OMRCF, SMRCF and BSF framing configurations in
Seismic Zone V according to Indian codes. Tests were carried out to evaluate their structural efficiencies in
terms of storey drifts, Base shear, amount of reinforcement etc. Moment frames have been widely used for
seismic resisting systems due to their superior deformation and energy dissipation capacities. A moment
frame consists of beams and columns, which are rigidly connected. The components of a moment frame
should resist both gravity and lateral load. Lateral forces are distributed according to the flexural rigidity of
each component.

UNRELENTING EFFECTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS: EARTHQUAKES, STORM SURGES,

TYPHOONS ON DIFFERENT STRUCTURES

According to O. Ace (2018), recent history has seen the unrelenting effects of natural disasters—
earthquakes, storm surges, typhoons—on different structures. Among these structures are schools,
government office buildings, and homes. Many have been reinforced, renovated, or rebuilt following these
disasters. Most structures, particularly in the Philippines, are designed using the National Structural Code of
the Philippines (NSCP), with which a set of minimum requirements (e.g., strength, stiffness, connections,
etc.) based on the structural loads expected throughout the building’s lifetime. However, with the increasing
frequency of natural disasters—particularly typhoons—which are unusually large loads these structures will
have to carry; one may not have a clear expectation of the performance of these code-designed buildings.
These structures may underperform or be overdesigned. Building back better, more resilient structures
requires one to gain insight on what specifically causes them to fail, how likely these specific causes are to
happen, and ultimately what the consequences of these failures are. Once this information is available, the
weaknesses in these designs may then be better addressed. The objective of the paper is to be able to
quantify the performance of the different structures in order to see the relative influence of changes made in
the different design variables. Understanding the different factors that affect how a structure performs against
a hazard will allow better insight into how to design new structures that are more resilient.

BEHAVIOR OF EXTENDED END-PLATE BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS

According to Kamal Al Fakih, Siew Choo Chin, Shu Ing Doh (2018), one configuration of beam-
column connection experimentally and numerically is tested to study their behavior. Based on the validation
results, the following conclusions can be drawn. The findings are based on materials properties and the
limited types of materials used in this study. The main conclusions have based on the relationship of
pregnancy- displacement. In addition, the relationship of the moment and rotation. 3D finite element analysis
model, whereby we can observe that analysis by the ABAQUS program gives that, the bolted connections of
the extended end-plate connections can have better behavior with respect to the set of the kinds of
connections. Also, analysis by the ABAQUS program gives the results of convergence with experiments and
reliable studies. Furthermore, the results of this study are in agreement with former researchers in connection
behavior between pinned connections and fully rigid. Also, possess some rotational stiffness. Moreover, it
can have observed that finite element analysis provides advantages in terms of time and cost against a large-
scale test. Moreover, the comparative study carried out between the numerical model and the tests showed
that the numerical modelling satisfactorily represented the general behavior of rotation at the moment as well
as the deformations of the assemblies from beam to the column. Finite element analysis can represent the
complete picture of the stress, strain, and force distributions. In general, load-bearing capacity, as well as the
rotation capacity of EP connections, is dependent on the thickness of end plat, a strength of bolts, numbers,
and diameter of bolts.

STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BEAM-COLUMN JOINT UNDER SEISMIC LOADING

According to the previous study of Anju Das K and Alice Johny (2019), they found that the initial
stiffness of the joints is sensitive to the thickness of the endplate and diameter of the bolts. The stiffeners can
improve the stiffness of the connections when the thickness of the endplate does not change. Here flush end
plate was analysed having total deformation, maximum stress and maximum strain. Therefore, it is decided
that the further studies will be on flush endplate with different bolt diameter and extended endplate of different
endplate thickness & bolt diameters.

ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURE CONSISTS

PERFORMANCE OF CONNECTION JOINTS WITH TEKLA & STAAD PRO

According to "Assessment and Design of Reinforced concrete frame Structure consists Performance
of Connection Joints with Tekla and Staad Pro" by L. Vimala, T. Naresh Kumar, S.M.V. Narayana and J.
Chinna Babu. In connection with the handling of structures it is noticed that reinforced concrete is the simplest
material to model since it is isotropic. Results indicates that compared to without bracings, with bracings is
the more effective in different loads and conditions. By using horizontal and vertical bracings displacement,
moment, and shear force came to reduce. Results clearly shows huge difference of with bracings and without
bracings. Manual design iterations are often and inefficient.Before comparison of members done manual
design and follow IS Standard codes IS 800 :2007, IS 875 (Part 1), IS 875 (Part 2), IS 875 (Part 8), IS
1893:2002.It can get a long time, and engineers can in no way be assured of how extreme the design is since
the true optimal solution. Automated design optimization can assist to considerably decrease design time,
reduce costs, and enhance self-assurance in the design. In- terms of Design STAAD output will be as same
as our hand out manual calculations.

World Housing, Ravi Sinha (2015)

These buildings are characterized by a combination of reinforced concrete frames in both directions.
The buildings are multiple housing units found in the main cities of Syria. The shear walls are often part of
the elevator and service core, whereas the frames are arranged in-plane, Report # 59 Report Date 05-06-
2002 Country Syrian Arab republic Housing Type RC Moment Frame Building Housing Sub-Type RC Moment
Frame Building: Dual System - Frame with Shear Wall Author(s) Adel Awed, Hwaija Bassam, Isreb Talal.

In conjunction with the walls, to support the floor system. Stiffness and mass distribution are irregular
and the majority of buildings may experience soft-story or torsional problems. As a result, these buildings are
expected to have only moderate seismic resistance. 1. General Information Buildings of this construction type
can be found in the main cities of Syria like Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia, Homs, and Hama. This type of
housing construction is commonly found in urban areas. This construction type has been in practice for less
than 25 years. Currently, this type of construction is being built. This is the modern construction followed in
the last 30 years.

There are a lot of considerations that must be done in the process of designing reinforced concrete
structures due to availability of various types of systems such as lateral framing system, gravity system, and
foundation system. The design of trade-offs is affected by the identified constraints and governing standards
and codes. A comprehensive and effective planning and evaluation process of designing is essential in the
development of the final design in order to prevent unexpected performance of the structure under the stated
conditions.

As years go by, difference in the utilized methods and techniques also develops on time. Some
buildings which intended to occupy people experience irregularities caused by different disasters such as
floods and earthquakes. A study was conducted in order to retrofit irregularities such as weak/soft storey,
vertical and plan irregularity, and unsymmetrical layout of infill walls can which can be observed from most
of medium/low rise buildings. The result shows that Buckling Restrained Braces (BRBs) can serve as a good
and effective retrofit technique for these kinds of buildings. (Chandra, Warnitchai, Rayamajhi, & Anwar,
2010)

Also, innovative developments in construction of structures also grows as societies develops.

Materials used in construction causes adverse effects to nature. The cement found in concrete is considered
to be one of the destructive material due to its emission of carbon dioxide. (Watts, 2019) The benefits,
advantages, and performance of reinforced concrete as a sustainable building material were discovered as
time passes by. The use of reinforced concrete as a material offers a significant environmental savings at all
stages and contributes to lower environmental impact. (Sustainable in Steel, 2019)

It is also important that the structures are designed considering sustainability. It was described in a
paper that the alternative design approach which has the purpose of minimizing the damage and remain self-
center after earthquake to the structure (reinforced concrete, concrete, timber, and composite) and also
discussed opportunities for improved sustainability by means of renewable materials and damage-resistant
seismic design. The researchers illustrated that traditional design of seismic resilient systems has two
limitations, these are: (1) residual lateral rift after a major seismic event and (2) damage from softening of
lateral force resisting system. The limitations of the said design approach were addressed through the
development of seismic resistant systems which offer a recoverable energy-dissipation mechanism and free
of damage softening of lateral load response; common element in those systems is the use of post-
tensioning. (Pessiki, 2017)

Several approaches were highlighted in order to achieve more sustainable structural systems
because seismic-resistant design approach of ordinary structures prevents collapse and loss of life which
results to substantial structural and nonstructural damage. There are three approaches which permit durable
structures to respond to earthquakes in a controlled nonlinear manner (and results in cost saving), but at the
same time lesser repair, and suffer only small residual displacement. These are (1) seismically isolated
structures, (2) structures that rock on spread footings or pile foundations, and (3) fixed based structures as
a result of the un-bonded longitudinal post-tensioning. The researcher concludes that by permitting the
structure to undergo significant inelastic deformations, structural engineers can achieve designs that are
durable, dependable, and economical in terms of potential loses and initial construction cost that might occur
in a major earthquake event. (Mahin, 2008)

Aside from concentrically braced frame, eccentrically braced frames are also used for lateral framing
systems. Based on a paper written in 1984, the versatility system of eccentrically braced system can reduce
the overall material requirements and result in a frame under moderate loads and still ductile at extreme
overloads which is an essential feature in seismic design (Hjelmstad & Popov, 1984). It is also shown on the
results of a paper where seismic behavior of taller eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) installed in a 6-20
storey building in Montreal, Vancouver was found to be adequate, except in the upper levels of the building
that the inelastic link deformations and shear forces surpassed values assumed in the design. (Koboevic &
David, 2010)

Based on the NEHRP Seismic Design Technical Brief No. 8 (Sabelli, Roeder, & Hajjar, 2013),
concentrically Braced Frames resist loads through a vertical concentric truss system, the axes of the
members aligning concentrically at the joints. According to the journal, concentrically braced frames are
efficient in resisting lateral forces because they can provide high strength and stiffness. Whereas, special
concentrically braced frames are special class of concentrically braced frame that are proportioned and
detailed to maximize inelastic drift capacity.

Moreover, the special concentrically braced frame system is an economical system for low-rise
buildings in areas of high seismicity (Wen, Seker, Akbas, & Shen, 2015). Nowadays, the said system is
commonly used than Buckling-Restrained Braced Frame. Those braces act as the fuses of the system and
in order to fully achieve this, braced frames are regarded as effective at the building perimeter. This
recommendation requires proper proportioning to spread yielding (Sabelli, Roeder, & Hajjar, 2013).

The paper published in Engineering Structures (Shen, et al., 2017), an analytical study was
conducted to determine the seismic performance of special concentrically braced frames with and without
brace buckling. They found out that buckling-controlled braced frames can be a cost-effective system to
improve the seismic performance of the special concentrically braced frames. In addition, it can substantially
reduce the storey drift response, prevent braces from fracturing, and eliminate weak beam yielding.

Also, an investigation conducted entitled “Comparative Study on Different Types of Bracing Systems
in Reinforced concrete Structures” (S, Nourzadeh, & K, 2011) discovered that among the four types of
bracing systems simulated, inverted chevron concentrically braced framing system is the best solution for
optimizing the amount of reinforced concrete consumption and obtaining a lightweight structure.

According to Reinforced concreteWise (Marstellar, Mueller, Ericksen, & Hewitt, 2002), the most
optimum brace angle is 45°. Chevron braces are a common configuration for providing lateral load resistance
in reinforced concrete framed buildings. The said publication has a chart for an easier estimation of brace
sizes, gusset plate thickness, and required number of bolts or size and length welds. The handy design guide
is very useful for the designers because it provides a reasonable starting point of preliminary brace and
connection design.

The special reinforced concrete eccentrically braced framing system, another type of framing system,
can be designed in several configurations. In this type of framing system, yielding is concentrated only at the
link segment and other members of the frame are proportioned to remain elastic. Those links act as structural
fuses which will dissipate the seismic input energy through stable and controlled plastic deformation (Azad
& Tophaya, 2017).

Three essential parameters are taken into consideration in the design of an eccentrically braced
frame, namely, bracing configuration, link length, and link section properties. Also, eccentric braced frame
systems with shear yielding links are stable and exhibit more ductility than in the case of eccentric braced
frame systems with flexural yielding links (Musma, 2012).

It was concluded obtained from a study that shear links achieve greater ductility and dissipate more
energy than bending links, strain hardening in shear links can increase the ultimate shear capacity well above
the yield value, web buckling greatly deteriorates the energy dissipation capacity of active links, and to delay
and restrain web buckling, stiffeners should be provided. Also, equal spacing of shear link stiffeners was
found to be optimum because the post-buckling life decreases with increased web stiffening (Malley &
Popov, 1983).

The same goes with the result found by an article published in the Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering (Ramadan & Ghoborah, 2011). The authors concluded that the most efficient link is the short
shear link in order to effectively show the frame’s excellent elastic stiffness under moderate loads and good
ductility when subjected to severe seismic loading conditions.

It is also important to consider what type of foundation must be used for the designed structure. A
paper used Wet Soil Mixing (WSM) for the ground improvement technique of a local hospital under a raft
foundation (Can & Maghsoudloo, 2014). Laboratory tests and four in-situ pile loading tests are conducted
which resulted to an acceptable factor of safety for the bearing capacity of WSM columns. This method is
increasing applied to environmental applications and ground stabilization in geotechnical projects.

Also, a study used this ground improvement technique in the construction of the Mariposa Avenue
Bridge over Mockingbird Canyon Creek in California (Arora, Shao, & Schultz, 2012). The soil is consisted
of approximately 7.6 meters of loose-to-medium dense sands extending down to bedrock which results to
excessive settlement when left untreated prior to construction. It is the most cost-effective method for
achieving a four-week allotted time. This also resulted to achieve the sufficient strength to support the said
bridge abutment directly on a cast-in-place shallow footing.

The said construction of the bridge utilized the designed wet soil mixing of a total of 149 soil crete
columns with a diameter of 1.8 meters and length of 7.6 meters. The columns are placed 1.67 meters on
center (Arora, Shao, & Schultz, 2012). It is commonly used to increase the bearing capacity, decrease
settlement, increase global stability and mitigate liquefaction potential for planned structures (geo engineer,
2012).

Deep mixing method, which is another name of wet soil mixing, utilizes binders such as pozzolan
binders such as cement, lime, and etc… and mechanically mixing them to form columns. It is a less waste
soil procedure and reduces carbon emission aggregate production (BST Munhendisilik, 2014). Also, has low
vibration and pressure to near existing structures and infrastructures upon application and installation. It has
been found to be the most cost-effective method in a number of commercial applications with many
advantages over other containment and remediation methods (Al-Tabbaa, 2005)
 Another technique is jet grouting systems which uses the mechanism of replacement and/or
confinement to mitigate liquefaction. A drill rod, with high pressure port/ports, is advanced to maximum depth
of improvement. Then high velocity jets of air, water and grout first erodes and then mixes the soil as the drill
rod is rotated and lifted. The result is a soil-crete column through the entire target layer. Jet Grouting can be
used to make in-ground shear walls by overlapping columns, or as an underpinning technique. In order to
mitigate liquefaction overlapping shear walls can be employed through this technique in a pattern to confine
the soil or to improve entire blocks of liquefiable material within a target layer. (Burke, 2004)

Jet Grouting is performed to improve the soil such as the increase of bearing support for shallow
foundations and reduce liquefaction potential considering the high seismic activity in the current region. Jet
grouting has an outstanding feature which has the ability to treat a wide range of soils. The most important
feature of jet grouting, when compared to injection or permeation grouting, is that jetting allows the cementing
medium to be uniformly mixed with a wide range of soils. (Guatteri, Kauschinger, Doria, & Perry, 1988)

Based on the evaluation and screening rationale of Jet Grouting (CH2M HILL Plateau Remediation
Company, 2014), close-in injection spacing diameters (approximately 2m) are often required to provide
adequate coverage resulting in high cost where large areas require treatment.

One of the challenges that arise in the design of structures are the characteristics and properties of
subsurface soil on the proposed location. For shallow foundations on clean sand often requires provision for
earthquake induced settlement. According to researcher Mahyar, Anzali sand which is a representative of
most sand in Northern Iran (which experiences high seismic activity) can improve its stiffness and strength
through cement treatment technique. (Ahmadi, A., & Mahyar, 2017)

One of the types of ground improvement also includes vibro replacement which is a product of vibro
floatation process and it increases the bearing capacity, decrease in settlement, and mitigate liquefaction for
all types of buildings.

The growing use of solar power in the Philippines is undeniable, particularly since the world's biggest
solar run shopping mall came to life at Robinsons Starmills that is placed in San Fernando, Pampanga.
Introduced on May 30, 2016, the 2.88 megawatts is composed of 10,880 solar power panels covering a
whopping 1.75 hectares of roof space. With all the method slated to offset as many as 95% of daytime
demand, the center is seen to reduce co2 emissions by 2.25 million kilograms. This nearly equivalent to
growing 100,000 trees or even removing 5.5 million miles worth of CO2 emissions from automobiles. (Chua,
2016) Over 6,300 PV modules now are fitted in the top of Mactan Cebu International Airport (MCIA) Terminal
one. The sun grid tied product is anticipated to create 2,169,900 kWh of power every season which is going
to offset a significant quantity of the day load peaks for the second busiest airport in the Philippines. The
1.64MW PV system is calculated to protect 1,301,580 kg of CO2 annually. (Crisostomo, 2017) SM Prime, in
partnership with Solar Philippines, made a 1.5 megawatt (1,500 kilowatt) solar rooftop at SM City North Edsa
that will be utilized to run up a major component of the mall 's energy demands. Based on Inquirer, SM North
Edsa's auto parking developing had been fitted with 5,760 solar panels as well as sixty inverters covering
over 12,000 square meters. (Diangson, 2014) Based on the International Energy Agency, solar energy is
turning into the cheapest source of new electricity generation capacity in most places, particularly in Asia.
The Philippines ranked no.1 among developing countries in Asia in terminology of the usage of solar
photovoltaic systems for power generation, based on a Dutch consultancy firm. (Domingo, 2018) Senate
President Pro Tempore Ralph Recto is batting for the assembly of solar power panels in state owned
structures to minimize government 's P24 billion yearly energy bill. In a statement, Recto on Wednesday
observed that federal structures "consume a minimum of P24 billion worth of power a year," adding the
quantity is "growing by P1 billion annually." The senator also included that solar power panels are great
economics that a 5% drop in electricity bill can lead to P1.2 billion cost savings annually. (Fernandez, 2019)
The biggest self-use sun rooftop energy plant in the nation was released yesterday in a shopping mall in
Laguna. The 700 kilowatt Central Mall Biñan solar rooftop project is an element of the country 's efforts to
market the usage of unlimited energy and also minimize the public 's dependency on coal fired power plants.
Spreading more than 700 square meters of sunlit roof area, the solar energy plant consists of 2,514 excellent
solar power panels on reinforced concrete mounting components which could tolerate wind speeds of up to
200 kph. (Orosa, 2014) Department of Energy (DOE) Secretary Alfonso G. Cusi said the inauguration of the
first Filipino-owned solar panel facility in Batangas on Wednesday is a testament to the government’s
progress in revitalizing the local renewable energy (RE) industry for the benefit of consumers and the
economy. He said that with more energy options available, consumers are expected to gear towards finding
the right balance and ‘diskarte’ in satisfying their energy needs. He also pointed out that having more energy
choices would also support the implementation of Retail Competition and Open Access (RCOA) under the
Electric Power Industry. (Online, 2017) PNOC Renewables Corp. (PNOC RC), the inexhaustible energy arm
of state run Philippine National Oil Co. is establishing more solar rooftop systems in government related
services during the thrust of its to market the usage of unlimited energy and energy efficient projects. It's
signed a memorandum of agreement with the Philippine International Convention Center to use a 1.2
megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic facility at the PICC Complex. When finished, it is going to be PNOC-RC
's largest solar rooftop project in government buildings. (Rivera, 2017) Shopwise Cebu's PV process is
forecasted to yield 827,000 kilowatt hours of solar power each year, every one of that will probably be eaten
by the list areas beneath the two story facility. Connected in the top are 1,920 parts monocrystalline PERC
solar modules from DMEGC Solar and transformerless energy inverters from Austria based Fronius
International GmbH. Solenergy's increased program requirements, that comes with a hands-on after sales
service, exhibits a viewpoint of effective customer relationship that rivals the lifetime of the sturdy methods
they offer. (Sanchez, 2018) A large scale solar photovoltaic (PV) system sits ergonomically upon the
4,224sqm expanse of Landmark Alabang's roof; it's effective at utilizing approximately 1,025,600kWh of solar
power a season. Constructed to energize almost all 7 floors of the great supermarket department shop
complex, the effective system 's quality pieces comprise 2,640 Canadian Solar CS6K 280 PV modules and
thirty three Austrian made Fronius Symo 20.0-3-M inverters - selections which collectively guarantee the
project should keep going efficiently and safely. (Mikee, 2018) In San Fernando, Pampanga, Robinsons
Starmills nevertheless boasts being the world's biggest solar energy plant installed in commercial setting or
a mall. A total of 10,880 solar power panels have been placed on the sprawling shopping complex 's roof by
Solenergy Systems, enabling the center, launched in May 2016, to create 2.88 megawatts of electrical
energy. Based on business estimates, by bringing Starmills away from the power system, carbon dioxide
emissions are cut by 2.25 million kilograms, the same as the planting of 100,000 trees. This came barely a
year after Robinsons Land launched a solar energy panel power grid in Robinsons Place Palawan, at first to
be a 1.2 megawatt facility, the company’s very first. (Summit Team, 2018) Electrical Systems and sonic
Lighting is a strong advocate of clean energy and environment protection. In this regard consequently it's
definitely taking part in the promotion of Solar technology. Solar energy is made by collecting sunlight and
transforming into power, lighting and heat. This is accomplished through the use of solar power panels to
transform the sun to power, and utilizing solar thermal collectors to absorb solar power for heating water.
(Sonic User, 2016) There are three aspects commonly considered by the structural engineer when
constructing a building, or any structure; these are expressed in the triangle of safety – serviceability – cost.
The principle has been implemented in the Philippines to low-cost housing units, four versions of about 60
sqm. The section of the ground was investigated. Such houses ' structural structures are traditional reinforced
concrete, modular block system, beam system and adapted framework. The I beam house suffered the
lowest SSI of 0.682 among the four, while the traditional had the highest SSI of 0.986. (ARCILLA & ONG,
2013) This research focuses on evaluating the soil bearing capacity of Metro Manila, Philippines, different
cities and municipalities. Using geotechnical parameters such as relative density and angle of internal friction,
the allowable soil bearing capacities to be used for foundation development are determined through different
theories and studies. Not all low-rise construction projects choose to undertake soil exploration due to
economic constraints. Because of this, soil data is generally missing and can cause problems when
constructing shallow foundations for structures of this kind. The study could help engineers design shallow
foundations in line with this type of situation by providing them with a reference to the permissible soil bearing
capacity of any region within Metro Manila. (Dungca, Christian, Concepcion, & Lumyuen, 2017) Reinforced
concrete is a prerequisite for the basic industry in the pursuit of development and industrialization of a country.
The industry's vital role stems from its connections with various sectors, where its products serve as a vital
input for countless uses such as building projects and construction, automotive, shipyards and refurbish,
electronics, packaging, etc., and its equally important contributions to job creation, growth, and industrial
activity promotion, etc. This paper seeks to examine the factors in the regional investment climate and how
they impact the reinforced concrete industry's firm-level competitiveness as a basis for identifying and refining
industry-specific policy needs and programs that foster increased productivity and global competitiveness.
(Garcia & Vicente)

On a research conducted by Limon (2016), one crucial variable that directly impacts the quality of
learning acquisition among learners is the adequacy or lack of school facilities that aid in the reinforcement
of knowledge and skills. This only depicts that the lack of school facilities affects the learning process of the
students. Based also on the research of Commission on Higher Education (CHED), state universities struggle
when it comes to the availability of appropriate, useful, and quality school facilities on teaching and learning.

More likely on the case of BulSU-Sarmiento Campus, they decided to transfer the student after 2
years under the College of Engineering to the main campus in Malolos, Bulacan because the satellite campus
doesn’t have the state-of-the-art facilities unlike of those in the main campus. For engineering students, they
in need of modified classrooms and laboratories because of different and vast context of their degree from
other courses. Consequently, it becomes imperative that the functions school facilities fulfill in in the student
acquisition and learning of life-long knowledge and skill competencies should be taken into account by policy
makers and administrators when designing a curriculum that provides equitable and efficient education.
 CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONSTRAINTS, TRADE-OFFS AND
STANDARDS
3.1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

Constraint is defined as a constraining condition that affects and limits the systems’ performance in
a given environment. It may be economic, environmental, social, cultural, political, ethical, safety,
sustainability, etc. A constraint is a condition that a solution to a problem must satisfy. Constraint describes
the relationships between objects and processes. Constraints have to be managed. Practically, in all cases
the constraints’ limiting impact can be reduced or eliminated. Constraints help to narrow down the choice to
fit the exact specifications of the client. The following constraints are found to have significant factor on the
design:

3.1.1 QUANTITATIVE CONSTRAINTS

3.1.1.1 ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS (MATERIAL COST)

In starting any project, the cost is one of the integral factors needed to be considered. It is always
dependent on the client’s willingness to spend to construct the project. With this, the designers should
formulate design scheme to suit the budget with various designs which will be assessed to define the best
design choice that will be favorable to the clients. For this project, the constraints are measured by the
material cost.

Limitation: Construction cost is a constraint in the project because the client limits the budget to 45
million pesos only. Since the designers will use reinforced concrete as the main material, the percentage for
the proportional factors such as for raw materials, fabrication, erection, material and labor costs are all
included in the allocated budget. The designers will then choose which among the tradeoffs will be the most
economical in terms of construction cost without compromising its structure strength and the overall design
of the proposed six storey reinforced concrete school building.

3.1.1.2 SUSTAINABILITY CONSTRAINT (MAINTENANCE COST)

Sustainable construction aims to meet present day needs for housing, working environments and
infrastructure without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs in times to come.
The sustainability of the reinforced concrete school building to be built should be taken into account because
it may affect due to some unexpected occurrence. The number of years wherein the structure can fully
function must also be considered because the environment may be in danger when it comes to its critical
year.

Limitation: The primary interest of the client is optimum productivity and a quality product at a low cost. It
would be very beneficial for the client if the proposed project is economical not just in the early years but in
the long run of the project. Thus, the client prefers that the structure should be last at least fifty years with a
reasonable maintenance cost.

3.1.1.3 CONSTRUCTABILITY CONSTRAINT (LABOR COST)

Constructability constraints referred not just to the number of workers that will be hired to execute
the project, but also the duration of construction, and ease of construction. This can also affect the final cost
of the project; each trade-off will have their own number of workers represent that may directly affect the
whole duration of the project.

Limitation: The client's first priority is to finish the proposed project as soon as possible. He gave a
duration of one and a half year as the maximum constructability. With this, the labor cost allotted for the
project will be highly consider wherein the least labor cost with the shortest duration will govern.

3.1.1.4 RISK ASSESSMENT (ANNUALIZED LOSS)

Analysis of all the risk that may occur during the duration of the design life. This ensures the ongoing
safety to general users and members of the public that will access the facility once it has been constructed.
Identifying hazards during the design stage of a building or structure need to be identified and recorded.
Assessment of risks occurs after hazards have been identified during the design stage of the building or
structure. The risk assessment will be measured the cost of the loss per annum. The designer assumed that
the exposure factor for all trade-offs is 30% and annualized rate occurrence is 10%.

Limitation: A risk assessment is a thorough look at your workplace to identify those things,
situations, processes, etc. that may cause harm, particularly to people. The school building’s integrity will
then consider, the less damage for the structure throughout the year the less loss it will cost.
 3.1.2 QUALITATIVE CONSTRAINTS

3.1.2.1 AESTHETIC CONSTRAINTS

The beauty of the structure will depict upon its final output. This constraint depends on the taste of a
person therefore it is considered as a qualitative constraint. It depends on a person’s perception which design
is more presentable.

3.1.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS

There are many environmental factors that may affect the quality of service of the project to the
customers/users. One of the highly considered factors when it comes to environmental constraints is
pollution. Pollution comes in many forms like air pollution, water pollution and noise pollution. Since the
project is prone to the stated pollution problems, it is highly recommended that the designer must address
the problems right during the construction of the project by observance of cleanliness on the site and the
areas around it.

3.2 TRADE-OFFS

After considering and evaluating the constraints, the designers came up with three trade-offs for the
building. The trade-offs should suit the constraints that the designers had lay-out. After a thorough evaluation
of the trade-offs the design team need to consider what trade-offs is appropriate in the project.

3.2.1 TRADE-OFF 1: ONE WAY SLAB

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load
along one direction. The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or greater than 2, considered as
One way slab because this slab will bend in one direction i.e in the direction along its shorter span.
 3.2.2 TRADE-OFF 2: TWO WAY SLAB

Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are carried by the
supports along with both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span (l)
to shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs, the load will be carried in both the directions. So, the main
reinforcement is provided in both directions for two way slabs.

3.2.3 TRADE-OFF 3: FLAT SLAB

A two-way reinforced concrete slab that usually does not have beams and girders, and the loads are
transferred directly to the supporting concrete columns. The column tends to punch through the slab in Flat
Slabs, which can be treated by three methods:

 Using a drop panel and a column capital in Flat Slab

 Using a drop panel without a column capital in Flat Slab
 Using a column capital without drop panel in Flat Slab
3.3 DESIGNER’S RAW RANKING

The trade-offs stated in chapter 3.2 will be assessed if it can satisfy the multiple constraints provided in this
chapter. To establish the best design process for the project, the designers used the model on trade-off
strategies in Engineering Design by Otto and Antonsson (1991). The criterion is scaled from 0 to 10, with 10
being the highest.

Computation of ranking for the ability to satisfy the criterion of materials:

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 10
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Equation 3-1: Percent Difference

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝐺𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 − %𝐷𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

Equation 3-2: Subordinate Rank

In this criterion, the designers will use a Governing rank and Subordinate rank. The Governing rank is a value
that is set by the designers and depends solely on the designer's perception of the importance of each
constraint. The Subordinate rank is a value that corresponds to its percentage distance from the Governing
rank along the ranking scale.

1 Figure 3-4: Ranking Scale

(Source: Otto, K. N. and Antonsson, E. K., (1991). Trade-off strategies in engineering design)
3.4 Initial Estimate and Ranking Computation

Constraints Flat Slab One Way Slab Two Way Slab

1. Economic (Php) 21,744,223.00 25,172,559.80 20,950,917.20

2. Constructability (Days) 212 268 240

3. Structural Safety (Storey
1.3253 0.4402 0.4393
Drift)
4. Sustainability (Years) 70 80 75
5. Environmental (Carbon
0.6 kg/m3 CO2 0.72 kg/m3 CO2 0.65 kg/m3 CO2
Emission)
Initial Estimates of Structural Trade-Offs

2 3.4.1 Computation of Ranking for Economical Constraint

One Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB

21,744,223.00 − 20,950,917.20
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
21,744,223.00
Percent Difference = 0.36
Subordinate Rank = 10 - 0.36
Subordinate Rank = 9.64

3 Figure 3-5:: Economic Constraints, One Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB
One Way Slab vs. Two Way Slab

25,172,559.80 − 20,950,917.20
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙𝟏
25,172,559.80
Percent Difference = 1.68
Subordinate Rank = 10 - 1.68
 Subordinate Rank = 8.32

4 Figure 3-6: Economic Constraints, One Way Slab vs. Two Way Slab

5 3.4.2 Computation of Ranking for Constructability Constraint

FLAT SLAB vs. Two Way Slab

268 − 212
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
268
Percent Difference = 2.01
Subordinate Rank = 10 – 2.01
Subordinate Rank = 7.99

6 Figure 3-7: Constructability Constraint, FLAT SLAB vs. Two Way Slab
FLAT SLAB vs. One Way Slab

240 − 𝟐𝟏𝟐
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
240
Percent Difference = 1.17
Subordinate Rank = 10 - 1.17
Subordinate Rank = 8.83
 7 Figure 3-8: Constructability Constraint, FLAT SLAB vs. One Way Slab

8 3.4.3 Computation of Ranking for Safety Constraint

One Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB

1.3253 − 0.4393
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
1.3253
Percent Difference = 6.66
Subordinate Rank = 10 – 6.66
Subordinate Rank = 3.34

9 Figure 3-9: Risk or Safety, One Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB
One Way Slab vs. Two Way Slab

0.4402 − 0.4393
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
0.4402
Percent Difference = 0.02
Subordinate Rank = 10 – 0.02
Subordinate Rank = 9.98

10 Figure 3-10: Risk or Safety, One Way Slab vs. Two Way Slab

11 3.4.4 Computation of Ranking for Sustainability Constraint

Two Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB
80 − 70
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
80
Percent Difference = 1.25
 Subordinate Rank = 10 – 1.25
Subordinate Rank = 8.75

12 Figure 3-11: Sustainability Constraint, Two Way Slab vs. FLAT SLAB
Two Way Slab vs. One Way Slab
80 − 𝟕𝟓
% 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
80
Percent Difference = 0.63
Subordinate Rank = 10 – 0.63
Subordinate Rank = 9.37

13 Figure 3-12: Sustainability Constraint, Two Way Slab vs. One Way Slab

14 3.4.5 Computation of Ranking for Environmental Constraint

FLAT SLAB vs. Two Way Slab

0.72 − 0.6
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 10
0.72
Percent Difference = 1.67
Subordinate rank = 10 - 1.67

Subordinate Rank = 8.33

15

16 Figure 3-13: Environmental Constraint, FLAT SLAB vs. Two Way Slab

FLAT SLAB vs. One Way Slab

0.65 − 0.6
% 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 10
0.65
Percent Difference = 0.77
Subordinate rank = 10 – 0.77

Subordinate Rank = 9.23

17 Figure 3-14: Environmental Constraint, FLAT SLAB vs. One Way Slab

18 Table 3-5: Initial Ranking of Structural Trade-offs

Constraints Importance Factor
Flat Slab One Way Slab Two Way Slab

Economic 10 9.64 8.32 10.00

Constructability 8 10 7.99 8.83
Risk or Safety 8 3.34 9.98 10
Sustainability 7 8.75 10 9.37
Environmental 7 10 8.33 9.23
Overall 334.37 355.27 380.84

The table shows the final ranking for the proposed structural trade-offs. The design with the highest overall
ranking based on the scale by Otto and Antonsson (1991) is the Two Way Slab comes out on top with a
score of 380.84, followed by the One Way Slab with a rating of 355.27. Lastly, the Flat Slab earned a score
of 334.37
3.5 Trade-offs Assessment

19 Table 3-6: Initial Ranking of Structural Trade-offs

Constraints Importance Factor
Flat Slab One Way Slab Two Way Slab

Economic 10 9.64 8.32 10.00

Constructability 8 10 7.99 8.83
Risk or Safety 8 3.34 9.98 10
Sustainability 7 8.75 10 9.37
Environmental 7 10 8.33 9.23
Overall 334.37 355.27 380.84

*Reference: Otto, K. N. and Antonsson, E. K., (1991). Trade-off strategies in engineering design. Research in Engineering Design,
volume 3, number 2, pages 87-104.

Looking at the multiple design constraints presented, the tradeoffs talked about were ranked
according to its ability to satisfy the given constraint. For the designer's raw rank, the winning trade off would
function as Two Way Slab with a ranking of 380.84, followed by One Way Slab with a ranking of 355.27, and
finally the Flat Slab with a rank of 334.37. The Two Way Slab has a significantly better position that might be
because of its great advantage in cost.

3.5.1 Economic Constraint

Economically speaking, the Two Way Slab results in the least cost expense for the three trade-offs
because of it's all component which is affordable. Nevertheless, all the trade-offs have more or perhaps less,
same price with low variation in ranking.

3.5.2 Constructability Constraint

In line with the evaluation of the trade-off's constructability, the Flat Slab has the lowest construction
duration. Nevertheless, all the tradeoffs have much more or perhaps less the exact same life span with lower
variation in ranking.

3.5.3 Safety Constraint

In line with the evaluation of the trade-off's safety, the Two Way Slab has the lowest storey drift.
Nevertheless, all the tradeoffs have much more or perhaps less the exact same life span with lower variation
in ranking.

3.5.4 Sustainability Constraint

 In line with the evaluation of this trade-off's sustainability, the One Way Slab has the longest life
span. Nevertheless, all the tradeoffs have much more or perhaps less the exact same life span with lower
variation in ranking.
3.5.5 Environmental Constraint
In line with the evaluation of this trade-off, the Flat Slab has the least carbon footprint. Nevertheless,
all the tradeoffs have much more or perhaps less the exact same life span with lower variation in ranking.

3.6 Design Standards

The design standards serve as designers' references in project design. To guarantee that the design operates
correctly, these design requirements included the requirements and laws. The following are the primary
sources used by the designers for codes and standards in each tradeoff's design process.

1. National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015

2. National Building Code of the Philippines (PD 1096)

3.6.1 National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) 2015

Minimum standards are provided by this code to safeguard limb or life, public welfare and property by
regulating and managing the layout, building, quality of supplies pertaining to the structural facets of all the
structures as well as buildings within its jurisdiction. The provision of this particular code shall utilize to the
building, alteration, switching, demolition, fix, use and maintenance of any construction or maybe structure
within the jurisdiction of its, except work located mainly in a public manner, public utility towers & poles,
hydraulic flood management structures, as well as indigenous family dwellings.

3.6.2 National Building Code of the Philippines

The National Building Code of the Philippines, also referred to as Presidential Decree No. 1096 was
developed as well as adopted as a consistent design code to embody up-to-date and stylish specialized
information on building maintenance, occupancy, use, construction, and design. The Code provides for all
the buildings and structures, a formwork of bare minimum standards and conditions to regulate and control
location, site, design, and quality of materials, occupancy, use, construction, and maintenance.