materials

Article
Cross-Section Deformation and Bending Moment of
a Steel Square Tubular Section
Stanisław Kut * and Feliks Stachowicz
Department of Materials Forming and Processing, Rzeszow University of Technology, al. Powst. Warszawy 8,
35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; stafel@prz.edu.pl
* Correspondence: stan_kut@prz.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-17-743-2527




Received: 22 October 2020; Accepted: 13 November 2020; Published: 16 November 2020


Abstract: When bending thin-walled profiles, significant distortion of the cross-section occurs,
which has a significant impact on the course of the bending moment characteristics and on the value of
allowable bending curvatures. This paper presents the results of experimental and numerical modeling
of the box profile bending process, which was carried out in order to determine the dependence of the
cross-sectional shape and bending moment of bending curvature. Extensive numerical calculations
were used to model the process of shaping a square pipe from a circular tube and to model the bending
process, especially when taking into account the effects of such a deformation path. The pure bending
moment characteristics and the deformation of the cross-section were performed for a 25 × 25 × 2 mm
square tube made of S235JR structural steel. The innovative approach for determining the parameters
of cold bending square tubes pertained to considering the stress state in the preserved material
in individual areas of their cross-section. The results of numerical modeling—after considering
the history of deformation (i.e., the process of forming a square pipe from a pipe with a circular
cross-section)—gave a satisfactory agreement with the results of experimental tests, both in terms of
the degree of pipe wall deflection and the characteristics of the bending moment.

Keywords: shaping; bending; box profile; constructional S235JR steel; deformation; FEM

1. Introduction
Rectangular steel tubes are widely used as structural elements in numerous applications.
The advantages of rectangular pipes over circular tubing include the fact that they are easy-to-fit
regarding the direction, produce a high torque when twisting, and reduce the weight of structured
parts [1]. Rectangular pipes are usually produced from a welded round tube using a cold drawing
trough and a head, which is comprised of idle rolls [2,3]. However, many experimental works and
theoretical studies, including numerical calculations [4,5], are devoted to the phenomena that occur
during the formation of rectangular pipes, but many issues still need to be worked out. For example,
differences in mechanical properties result from the formation process observed around the periphery
of rectangular pipes [6], especially in their corners, which may probably affect the metal flow process
in the production of bent products.
During the elastoplastic bending process of thin-walled profiles, their cross-sections are subjected
to distortions, which strongly affect the bending moment characteristics, the value of the allowable
(minimum) bending radius and the amount of the springback e.g., [7–10]. In the case of bending
pipes with a circular cross-section, the parameters that describe the deformation degree of the
cross-section is described by an indicator called ovalization. In the case of bending pipes with
a rectangular cross-section (box profiles), it is not possible to apply a similar unique parameter
due to the complex shape of the cross-section after bending, which is significantly different from the
initial cross-section. The cross-sectional deformation that occurs during bending leads to the pipe

Materials 2020, 13, 5170; doi:10.3390/ma13225170 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

 other parameters characterizing the bending process have been the subject of many studies. Based on
the numerical modelling results of fine element method (FEM), Chen and Masuda [9] found that the
flattening ratio can be expressed by a sole function of nondimensional curvature, independent of tube
thickness in elastic bending. During plastic bending, flattening is influenced by tube thickness and
the material parameters of yield stress and strain hardening; however, these effects are very small.
Materials 2020, 13, 5170 2 of 10
The issues related to the bending process of box profiles are presented in numerous publications,
including experimental studies [8,11], theoretical considerations based on the deformation theory of
plasticity after
collapsing [12–15], numerical
exceeding modelling
its critical with
curvature the [7].
value useTheof observed
FEM [16–19], andin the
changes use of artificial
the geometry of the
intelligence identification
cross-section of rectangular[20]. tubesUsing thedetermination
and the deformation theory
of the of plasticity
impact andchanges
of these the energy method
on the valuethatof
other parameters characterizing the bending process have been the subject of many studies. Based onof
Poulsen et al. [14] built, the suck-in of the external flange of the profile was almost independent
strain
the hardening
numerical and theresults
modelling material’s yield
of fine stress.
element Observations
method and measurements
(FEM), Chen and Masuda [9] of found
the bent cross-
that the
section shape
flattening ratio ofcanthe
bebox-section
expressed by enabled us to establish
a sole function relationships curvature,
of nondimensional that determine the dependence
independent of tube
of the cross-sectional
thickness when forming
in elastic bending. During the bending
plastic curvature
bending, [8]. The
flattening following indices
is influenced by tubeare assumed
thickness andfor
the description of the shape of a cross-section after bending (Figure 1):
the material parameters of yield stress and strain hardening; however, these effects are very small.
Uzw: deflection
The issues related toofthe thebending
inner horizontal
process of wall,
box profiles are presented in numerous publications,
including experimental
Uzz: deflection of thestudies [8,11], theoretical
outer horizontal wall, considerations based on the deformation theory
of plasticity [12–15], numerical modelling
Uyw: deflection of the inner profile corners,with the use of FEM [16–19], and the use of artificial
intelligence identification [20]. Using the deformation theory of plasticity and the energy method that
Uyz: deflection of the outer profile corners,
Poulsen et al. [14] built, the suck-in of the external flange of the profile was almost independent of strain
Uym: maximum
hardening lateral displacement
and the material’s yield stress. of points of theand
Observations wall beyond the original
measurements cross-section.
of the bent cross-section
The horizontal walls were those that normalized to the bending plane; the
shape of the box-section enabled us to establish relationships that determine the dependence vertical wallsofwere
the
those parallel to
cross-sectional the bending
when forming plane. ‘Inner’curvature
the bending and ‘outer’
[8].refer
Thetofollowing
the direction forward
indices and away
are assumed forfrom
the
the bendingofaxis,
description respectively.
the shape of a cross-section after bending (Figure 1):

Figure 1. Characteristic tube dimensions and displacements of the deformed cross section [8].
Figure 1. Characteristic tube dimensions and displacements of the deformed cross section [8].
Uzw : deflection of the inner horizontal wall,
UThe purpose of this work was to verify the correctness of the numerical model used to determine
zz : deflection of the outer horizontal wall,
the changes in the geometry
Uyw : deflection of the
of the inner box profiles’
profile corners, cross-section, as well as the relationship between the
bending moment and
Uyz : deflection of thethe bending
outer profilecurvature
corners, based on the results of experimental studies. An
additional
Uym : maximum lateral displacement to
purpose of the research was determine
of points the
of the effect
wall of technological
beyond deformations and
the original cross-section.
internal stresses created
The horizontal in thethose
walls were plastic
thatshaping of a round
normalized tube intoplane;
to the bending a square section walls
the vertical on selected
were
bending parameters of a 25 × 25 × 2 mm square steel pipe. The scope of the research
those parallel to the bending plane. ‘Inner’ and ‘outer’ refer to the direction forward and away work included:
from
the bending axis, respectively.
1. FEM numerical modelling during the cold plastic shaping process of a round tube with an
The purpose
external of this(d
diameter work
= 30was
mm) toand
verify the correctness
a wall thickness (gof= the numerical
2 mm) model cross-section
into a square used to determine
pipe.
the changes in the geometry of the box profiles’ cross-section, as well as the relationship
2. FEM numerical modelling of the process of forming a square pipe with a pure bending moment. between the
bending moment and the bending curvature based on the results of experimental studies.
Model A took into account the technological deformations and residual stresses created during An additional
purpose of the research
shaping of a squarewas to determine
pipe. Model the effectnot
B did of technological deformations
take into account the impactand internal stresses
of technological
created in the plastic shaping of a round tube into a square section
deformations and internal stresses created during shaping of a square pipe. on selected bending parameters of
a 25 × 25 × 2 mm square steel pipe. The scope of the research work included:

1. FEM numerical modelling during the cold plastic shaping process of a round tube with an external
diameter (d = 30 mm) and a wall thickness (g = 2 mm) into a square cross-section pipe.
2. FEM numerical modelling of the process of forming a square pipe with a pure bending moment.
Model A took into account the technological deformations and residual stresses created during
shaping of a square pipe. Model B did not take into account the impact of technological
deformations and internal stresses created during shaping of a square pipe.
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Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

3. Experimental four point bending of a 25 × 25 × 2 mm square pipe was tested to verify the results
of numerical
2. Material calculations.Procedure
and Experimental
2. Material andwas
The study Experimental
carried outProcedure
on a 25 × 25 × 2 mm box profile, which was cold shaped from a welded
round tube made of constructional S235JR steel. The samples prepared from the profile wall were
The study was carried out on a 25 × 25 × 2 mm box profile, which was cold shaped from a welded
tested under uniaxial tension using the Hollomon strain–stress relationship in the form of 𝜎 =
round tube made of constructional S235JR steel. The samples prepared from the profile wall were
530𝜀 0.044 , which showed significant reproducibility. Other tensile parameters were as follows: yield
tested under uniaxial tension using the Hollomon strain–stress relationship in the form of σ = 530ε0.044 ,
stress Re = 388 MPa; ultimate strength Rm = 486 MPa; Young modulus E = 199 GPa; Poisson’s ratio ν =
which showed significant reproducibility. Other tensile parameters were as follows: yield stress
0.3.
Re = 388 MPa; ultimate strength Rm = 486 MPa; Young modulus E = 199 GPa; Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3.
The experimental tests were carried out with the help of a device mounted on a testing machine
The experimental tests were carried out with the help of a device mounted on a testing machine
(Figure 2). It should be noted that the sample was placed in the holders in such a way that the wall
(Figure 2). It should be noted that the sample was placed in the holders in such a way that the wall with
with the weld was a vertical wall, indicating that the joint material was in the neutral layer. The
the weld was a vertical wall, indicating that the joint material was in the neutral layer. The bending
bending on four supports ensured that the pipes were loaded with a pure bending moment, without
on four supports ensured that the pipes were loaded with a pure bending moment, without the use
the use of lateral forces. During bending, the deflection of horizontal (inner and outer) and vertical
of lateral forces. During bending, the deflection of horizontal (inner and outer) and vertical profile
profile walls, as well as the bending force, were measured continuously. Then, the bending moment
walls, as well as the bending force, were measured continuously. Then, the bending moment value
value was calculated. For several selected bending steps, measurements were made of the tube
was calculated. For several selected bending steps, measurements were made of the tube curvature
curvature and the displacement of characteristic points of individual walls of the cross-section, i.e.
and the displacement of characteristic points of individual walls of the cross-section, i.e., the value
the value of the section widening factor 2Uym, the value of the deflection of the internal horizontal
of the section widening factor 2Uym, the value of the deflection of the internal horizontal wall Uzw,
wall Uzw, and the external horizontal wall Uzz.
and the external horizontal wall Uzz.

Laboratoryfour
Figure 2. Laboratory fourpoint
point bending
bending testtest device
device [8]:[8]: 1—lever,
1- lever, 2—clamping
2 - clamping jaws, 3jaws, 3—sample,
- sample,
4 - connector, 5—bending
4—connector, 5 - bending arm,
arm, and
and 66—traverse
- traverse of ofthe
thetesting
testingmachine.
machine.

3. Numerical Calculations
3. Numerical Calculations
In order to determine the distributions and values of plastic deformations and residual stresses
In order to determine the distributions and values of plastic deformations and residual stresses
prevailing in the pipe after the cold shaping process, we constructed a numerical model of the cold
prevailing in the pipe after the cold shaping process, we constructed a numerical model of the cold
profiling process. The starting material was a round pipe with an external diameter (d = 30 mm)
profiling process. The starting material was a round pipe with an external diameter (d = 30 mm) and
and a wall thickness of 2 mm, made of S235JR constructional steel, which was profiled to obtain
a wall thickness of 2 mm, made of S235JR constructional steel, which was profiled to obtain a 25x25x2
a 25 × 25 × 2 mm square pipe. Due to the fact that the pipe length did not change during profiling,
mm square pipe. Due to the fact that the pipe length did not change during profiling, the profiling
the profiling analysis was carried out in a flat deformation state. Due to the occurrence of plane
analysis was carried out in a flat deformation state. Due to the occurrence of plane symmetry, the
symmetry, the numerical model was made for half of the cross-section. The shaping tools were modelled
numerical model was made for half of the cross-section. The shaping tools were modelled as perfectly
as perfectly rigid. Quad 4 elements type 11 were used to discretize the deformable body [21]. In order
rigid. Quad 4 elements type 11 were used to discretize the deformable body [21]. In order to improve
to improve the behavior of these elements during bending, an additional interpolation function was
the behavior of these elements during bending, an additional interpolation function was applied
applied during the assumed strain procedure [21]. An elastic–plastic model of the pipe material with
during the assumed strain procedure [21]. An elastic–plastic model of the pipe material with non-
non-linear strengthening described by the Hollomon power equation was adopted. Isotropic properties
linear strengthening described by the Hollomon power equation was adopted. Isotropic properties
of the pipe material were assumed for both elastic and plastic deformations. The strain curve was
of the pipe material were assumed for both elastic and plastic deformations. The strain curve was
introduced into the program in a tabular form. The entered coordinates of the strain hardening curve
introduced into the program in a tabular form. The entered coordinates of the strain hardening curve
were calculated on the basis of the pipe material parameters, which were determined on the basis of the
were calculated on the basis of the pipe material parameters, which were determined on the basis of
uniaxial tensile test: Re = 388 MPa, Rm = 486 MPa, C = 530 MPa, and n = 0.044. To describe the friction
the uniaxial tensile test: Re = 388 MPa, Rm = 486 MPa, C = 530 MPa, and n = 0.044. To describe the
friction between the tools and the profiled pipe, we used the Coulomb friction model with a friction
coefficient of 0.1. Numerical modelling was performed using a commercial MSC.MARC/Mentat
system, which is considered one of the most advanced programs for FEM analysis, and particularly
 Materials
Materials 2020,
2020, 13,13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
5170 4 of
4 of 10 10

the uniaxial tensile test: Re = 388 MPa, Rm = 486 MPa, C = 530 MPa, and n = 0.044. To describe the
between
frictionthe tools and
between thethe profiled
tools and thepipe, we used
profiled thewe
pipe, Coulomb
used thefriction
Coulombmodel with amodel
friction friction coefficient
with a friction
ofcoefficient
0.1. Numerical modelling was performed using a commercial MSC.MARC/Mentat
of 0.1. Numerical modelling was performed using a commercial MSC.MARC/Mentat system, which is
considered
system, whichone ofis the most advanced
considered one of theprograms for FEM
most advanced analysis,for
programs and particularly
FEM for modelling
analysis, and particularly
nonlinear and contact
for modelling nonlinearissues. The change
and contact in The
issues. the shape
changeofinthe
thecross-section during pipe shaping
shape of the cross-section is
during pipe
shown in Figure 3. The input material is a pipe with a circular cross-section (Figure 3a),
shaping is shown in Figure 3. The input material is a pipe with a circular cross-section (Figure 3a), which in the
technological
which in theprocess is constructed
technological processbyislongitudinal
constructed rolling. Such a pipe
by longitudinal is also
rolling. formed
Such a pipeby is
longitudinal
also formed
rolling
by longitudinal rolling and, in subsequent stages, it takes intermediate shapes (Figure 3b–d) square
and, in subsequent stages, it takes intermediate shapes (Figure 3b–d) until the required until the
section is obtained
required (Figureis3e).
square section obtained (Figure 3e).

Figure Change
3. 3.
Figure Changeininthe
theshape
shapeofofthe
thecross
crosssection
section of
of the
the pipe in the
the subsequent
subsequentstages
stagesofofprofiling:
profiling:(a)
(a)round
roundpipe,
pipe,(b–d)
(b–d)intermediate
intermediateshapes;
shapes;(e)
(e)square
squarepipe.
pipe.

AsAs is is
commonly
commonly known,
known, the
theproperties
properties ofof
elements
elements formed
formed via cold
via coldworking
working are significantly
are significantly
affected
affected byby the strain
the hardening
strain hardeningphenomenon,
phenomenon,which whichisiswhen
whena amaterial’s
material’sformability
formabilityisisreduced.
reduced.
Figure 4 shows the distribution and values of the total equivalent plastic strain in the
Figure 4 shows the distribution and values of the total equivalent plastic strain in the pipe material pipe material
after shaping.
after shaping.The Thehighest
highestvalues
valuesofofplastic
plasticstrain
strainoccur
occurininthe
thecorners,
corners,especially
especiallyininthe
thearea ofof
area thethe
internal radii, where their calculated values reach 0.55 (Figure 4a). Quite significant
internal radii, where their calculated values reach 0.55 (Figure 4a). Quite significant material material hardening
points are alsopoints
hardening deformations
are alsoin deformations
other areas of the material.
in other Theof
areas inequality of the distribution
the material. The inequality of plastic
of the
strains on the cross-section
distribution of the
of plastic strains on pipe is even moreofevident
the cross-section the pipewhen deformations
is even more evident arewhen
smaller than 0.1,
deformations
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10
as shown
are in Figure
smaller 4b. as shown in Figure 4b.
than 0.1,
The second important parameter that has a significant impact on the properties of components
shaped via cold forming are residual stresses that prevail in the material after the technological
process [16]. Residual stresses are the result of heterogeneous plastic deformations in the material
after its formation. The greater the heterogeneity and gradient of plastic deformations, the higher the
material stress values, which may be close to the yield point in accordance with the course of the
strain curve. Figure 5a shows the distribution and values of Huber–Mises equivalent stresses in the
final shaping phase are shown in Figure 5a, while Figure 5b shows the distribution of these stresses
that prevail in the material after the technological process. As can be seen, the largest values of
equivalent stresses occur in the areas of the largest deformation gradients and amount to about 590
MPa in the final shaping phase. In turn, the residual stresses in this area reach the highest value of
about 563 MPa, i.e., only slightly lower (about 27 MPa) than the yield point. Both plastic deformation
and own stress have a significant impact on the material after the technological process. As
demonstrated after the cold pipe profiling process, their share is significant. For this reason, we
carried out an analysis of the impact of these parameters for a square pipe bending process.
Figure 4. Distribution and values of the total equivalent plastic deformations in the pipe material after
Figure 4. Distribution and values of the total equivalent plastic deformations in the pipe material after
cold shaping; value scale: (a) strain range (0–0.55) and (b) strain range (0–0.10).
cold shaping; value scale: (a) strain range (0–0.55) and (b) strain range (0–0.10).
The second important parameter that has a significant impact on the properties of components
shaped via cold forming are residual stresses that prevail in the material after the technological
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10

Materials 2020, 13, 5170 5 of 10

process [16]. Residual stresses are the result of heterogeneous plastic deformations in the material
after its formation. The greater the heterogeneity and gradient of plastic deformations, the higher the
material stress values, which may be close to the yield point in accordance with the course of the strain
curve. Figure 5a shows the distribution and values of Huber–Mises equivalent stresses in the final
shaping phase are shown in Figure 5a, while Figure 5b shows the distribution of these stresses that
prevail in the material after the technological process. As can be seen, the largest values of equivalent
stresses occur in the areas of the largest deformation gradients and amount to about 590 MPa in the
final shaping phase. In turn, the residual stresses in this area reach the highest value of about 563 MPa,
i.e., only slightly lower (about 27 MPa) than the yield point. Both plastic deformation and own stress
have a significant impact on the material after the technological process. As demonstrated after the
Figure
cold pipe 4. Distribution
profiling andtheir
process, values of the
share is total equivalent
significant. Forplastic deformations
this reason, in the out
we carried pipean
material after
analysis of the
cold shaping; value scale: (a) strain range (0–0.55)
impact of these parameters for a square pipe bending process. and (b) strain range (0–0.10).

Figure 5. Distribution and values of the Huber–Mises equivalent stresses in the material of the shaped
Figure
pipe: (a)5.in
Distribution and values
the final shaping phaseofand
the (b)
Huber–Mises equivalent
after the shaping stresses
process in thestress).
(internal material of the shaped
pipe: (a) in the final shaping phase and (b) after the shaping process (internal stress).
Figure 3e shows the FEM analysis of the 25 × 25 × 2 beam bending process, which was carried
out inFigure 3e shows
two variants. Inthe
the FEM analysis(Model
first variant of the A),
25 ×both
25 ×residual
2 beam stresses
bendingand process,
plasticwhich was carried
deformation that
out in two
prevail variants.
in the In the first
beam material aftervariant (Model A), both
the technological processresidual stresses
were taken intoand plastic(Figures
account deformation
4 and that5b),
prevail in the beam material after the technological process were taken
whereas in the second variant (Model B), only the previously calculated cross-sectional shape was into account (Figures 4 and
5b), whereas
taken in thewithout
into account secondconsidering
variant (Model B), only
residual the previously
stresses calculated
and deformations. Othercross-sectional
parameters of shape
the
was taken
spatial into
stress account
state used without considering
in both models wereresidual
the same. stresses and deformations.
3D models of the beam bendingOther parameters
were made of
the spatial stress state used in both models were the same. 3D models
on the basis of bending device geometry, which was used in the experimental research described of the beam bending were
madeinon
later thethe basisDue
article. of bending device geometry,
to the occurrence of two planewhich was usedwhile
symmetries in the experimental
bending the tested research
beam
described later in the article. Due to the occurrence of two plane symmetries
along the beam axis and perpendicular to the cross-section in the middle of the distance between while bending the tested
beam
the along the
supports, the beam
numericalaxis models
and perpendicular
were simplifiedto theto 14cross-section in the middle
of the experimental model. of Thethe
beamdistance
was
betweenasthe
defined supports, the
a deformable body,numerical
while the models were
elements of simplified
the device in to contact
¼ of thewith experimental model.rigid.
it were perfectly The
beam was defined as a deformable body, while the elements of the device
To discretize the deformable body, 8-node hex-shaped elements of type 7 were used [21]. The size in contact with it were
perfectly
of rigid. To
the elements on discretize the deformable
the cross-section of the beambody,
was8-node
0.5 × hex-shaped
0.5 mm, while elements of typeit7was
on its length were1 used
mm,
[21]. The
which gavesize of theofelements
a total on the
68,400 finite cross-section
elements. The 3Dof the
model beam was 0.5
during × 0.5 mm,
bending, while with
together on itsthe
length
meshit
wasdefined
and 1 mm, which
bodiesgave a total of
in contact, as 68,400
well asfinite
planeselements. The 3D
of symmetry, is model
shown during
in Figure bending, together with
6. An elastic–plastic
the mesh and defined bodies in contact, as well as planes of symmetry,
model for beam material with a non-linear strain hardening curve described by the Hollomon is shown in Figurepower
6. An
elastic–plastic
equation model forThe
was adopted. beam material
material with a non-linear
parameters were thestrainsamehardening
and defined curve described
in the same way by theas
Hollomon power equation was adopted. The material parameters were the
during the simulation of the square pipe shaping process. In all models, the evolution of the plastic same and defined in the
same way
surface cameas as
during theofsimulation
a result of the square
the strain hardening pipe shaping
phenomenon, process.
which In all models,
was described usingthetheevolution
isotropic
of the plastic surface came as a result of the strain hardening phenomenon,
hardening model. The calculations used the Huber–Mises–Hencky plasticity condition, the associated which was described
Prandtl–Russ plastic flow law, and the implicit integration of differential equations over time with the
Newton–Raphson method.
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10

using the isotropic hardening model. The calculations used the Huber–Mises–Hencky plasticity
condition,
Materials 2020,the associated
13, 5170 Prandtl–Russ plastic flow law, and the implicit integration of differential
6 of 10
equations over time with the Newton–Raphson method.

Figure 6. 3D model of the analyzed bending process: 1, bent beam with a fine element (FE) mesh;
Figure 6. 3D model of the analyzed bending process: 1, bent beam with a fine element (FE) mesh; 2
2 and 3, surfaces of the clamping jaw; 4 and 5, longitudinal and transverse symmetry planes.
and 3, surfaces of the clamping jaw; 4 and 5, longitudinal and transverse symmetry planes.
Figures 7 and 8 show a comparison of the changing cross-sectional shape of the bent beam and
Figures 7 and 8 show a comparison of the changing cross-sectional shape of the bent beam and
the distribution and values of plastic deformations for Model A and Model B respectively. Taking into
the distribution and values of plastic deformations for Model A and Model B respectively. Taking
account technological deformations and residual stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe
into account technological deformations and residual stresses created when cold shaping a square
(model A), results had a much greater degree of deformation in the pipe’s cross-section than when
pipe (model A), results had a much greater degree of deformation in the pipe’s cross-section than
we did not take into account the impact of technological deformations and internal stresses created
when we did not take into account the impact of technological deformations and internal stresses
during the shaping (model B). Photographs of the pipe cross-sections before and after the bending
created during the shaping (model B). Photographs of the pipe cross-sections before and after the
process (Figure 7d) confirmed the above mentioned statement. The shape and size of the deflection of
bending process (Figure 7d) confirmed the above mentioned statement. The shape and size of the
the cross-section walls observed in the experimental sample photograph were similar to the image of
deflection of the cross-section walls observed in the experimental sample photograph were similar to
the cross-section obtained via numerical modeling, which considered technological deformations and
the image of the cross-section obtained via numerical modeling, which considered technological
residual stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A).
deformations and residual stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A).
With the measurements results carried out during the experimental studies, we compared
numerical calculations for the displacement values of selected points in the profile cross-section,
a) occurred duringb)a curvature increase. If c)
which the horizontal walls deflection
d) degree internally and
externally changed, good compliance of the calculation and experimental results were obtained
(Figure 9). However, this was only when we considered technological deformations and residual
stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A). Similarly, large differences between the
numerical calculation results and experimental results were found when we analyzed the degree of
the vertical wall bending (Figure 10). This was because it did not take into account the technological
deformations and stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model B). During experimental
bending tests, we observed that bending the pipe above the curvature κ > 6.0 caused a localization
of the deformation on the internal horizontal wall and led to the pipe’s local collapse. The above
observation was confirmed by the numerical calculation results carried out according to model A,
which indicated an intensive increase in the deflection of the internal horizontal wall for large bending
0.00
0.35

0.14

0.07
0.28
0.70
0.63

0.49

0.42

0.21
0.56

curves. The location of the deformation in the pipe cross-section resulted in its buckling and caused
a significant share of compressive stresses. It should be noted that deflecting the vertical walls in
the profile cross-section slightly affected the moment of inertia value, which is what determined the
bending moment value.
Figure 7. The change in the cross-sectional shape of a bent beam (model A) and the distribution of
total substitute plastic deformations for: (a) 1/R = 0 m−1, (b) 1/R = 4 m−1, (c) 1/R = 6 m−1, and (d) cross-
section templets before (upper) and after bending the local break (lower).
 when we did not take into account the impact of technological deformations and internal stresses
created during the shaping (model B). Photographs of the pipe cross-sections before and after the
bending process (Figure 7d) confirmed the above mentioned statement. The shape and size of the
deflection of the cross-section walls observed in the experimental sample photograph were similar to
the 2020,
Materials image
13, of the cross-section obtained via numerical modeling, which considered technological
5170 7 of 10
deformations and residual stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A).
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 10

a) b) c)
d)

0.00
0.35

0.14

0.07
0.28
0.70
0.63

0.49

0.42

0.21
0.56

Figure 7. The change in the cross-sectional shape of a bent beam (model A) and the distribution of total
Figure 8. Change in cross-sectional shape of the bent beam (model B) and−1distribution of total
substitute plastic deformations for: (a) 1/R = 0 m−1−1, (b) 1/R = 4 m−1 , (c) 1/R = 6 m , and (d) cross-section
Figure13,7.xplastic
Materialssubstitute
2020, The change
FOR in the cross-sectional
deformations
PEER REVIEW for: (a) 1/R = 0 shape
m , (b)of1/R
a bent
=4m beam
−1, and (model
(c) 1/RA)
= 6and
m−1the
. distribution of 7 of 10
templets before (upper) and after bending the local break (lower).
total substitute plastic deformations for: (a) 1/R = 0 m , (b) 1/R = 4 m , (c) 1/R = 6 m , and (d) cross-
−1 −1 −1

With thetemplets
section measurements results
before (upper) andcarried out during
after bending the localthe experimental
break (lower). studies, we compared
numerical calculations for the displacement values of selected points in the profile cross-section,
which occurred during a curvature increase. If the horizontal walls deflection degree internally and
externally changed, good compliance of the calculation and experimental results were obtained
(Figure 9). However, this was only when we considered technological deformations and residual
stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A). Similarly, large differences between the
numerical calculation results and experimental results were found when we analyzed the degree of
the vertical wall bending (Figure 10). This was because it did not take into account the technological
deformations and stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model B). During experimental
bending tests, we observed that bending the pipe above the curvature κ > 6.0 caused a localization of
the deformation on the internal horizontal wall and led to the pipe’s local collapse. The above
observation was confirmed by the numerical calculation results carried out according to model A,
which indicated an intensive increase in the deflection of the internal horizontal wall for large
bending curves. The location of the deformation in the pipe cross-section resulted in its buckling and
caused
Figurea significant
8. Change inshare of compressive
cross-sectional shape ofstresses.
the bentItbeam
should be noted
(model that
B) and deflecting
distribution ofthe vertical
total walls
substitute
Figure
in plastic
the 8. Change
profile in cross-sectional
cross-section slightly shapethe
affected of moment
the bent ofbeam (model
inertia B) which
value, and distribution
is what of total
determined
deformations for: (a) 1/R = 0 m , (b) 1/R =
−1 4 m , and (c) 1/R = 6 m .
−1 −1
thesubstitute plastic deformations
bending moment value. for: (a) 1/R = 0 m−1, (b) 1/R = 4 m−1, and (c) 1/R = 6 m−1.

With the measurements results carried out during the experimental studies, we compared
numerical calculations for the displacement values of selected points in the profile cross-section,
which occurred during a curvature increase. If the horizontal walls deflection degree internally and
externally changed, good compliance of the calculation and experimental results were obtained
(Figure 9). However, this was only when we considered technological deformations and residual
stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model A). Similarly, large differences between the
numerical calculation results and experimental results were found when we analyzed the degree of
the vertical wall bending (Figure 10). This was because it did not take into account the technological
deformations and stresses created when cold shaping a square pipe (model B). During experimental
bending tests, we observed that bending the pipe above the curvature κ > 6.0 caused a localization of
the deformation on the internal horizontal wall and led to the pipe’s local collapse. The above
observation was confirmed by the numerical calculation results carried out according to model A,
which indicated an intensive increase in the deflection of the internal horizontal wall for large
bending curves. The location of the deformation in the pipe cross-section resulted in its buckling and
caused a significant share of compressive stresses. It should be noted that deflecting the vertical walls
in the profile cross-section slightly affected the moment of inertia value, which is what determined
Figure The
9. 9.
Figure effect
The ofofbending
effect bendingcurvature
curvaturewhen
whendeflecting
deflecting the
the horizontal walls
wallsof
ofthe 25××2525× 2×square
the25 2 square
the bending moment value.
steel pipe.
steel pipe.
Materials 2020, 13, 5170 8 of 10
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

Figure 10. The

Figure effect
10. The of bending
effect curvature
of bending curvaturewhen
whendeflecting thevertical
deflecting the verticalwalls
wallsof of
thethe × 25××25
25 25 × 2 square
2 square
steel pipe.
steel pipe.
Figure 10. The effect of bending curvature when deflecting the vertical walls of the 25 × 25 × 2 square
As steel pipe. the the
As expected,
expected, improved
improved modellingof
modelling ofthe
the numerical
numerical degree
degreeofofdistortion
distortion for for
the the
bentbent
square
square
tube’stube’s cross-section
cross-section had compliance
had good good compliance with the with the bending
bending curve, was
curve, which which was experimentally
experimentally determined
As expected,
determined via the improved
numerical modelling
calculations of the
(Figure numerical
11). This degree
occurred of distortion
during for thedeformations
technological bent square
via numerical calculations (Figure 11). This occurred during technological deformations and residual
tube’s cross-section
and residual stresseshadaftergood
making compliance
a square tubewith from
the bending
a circularcurve, which
tube via was forming
the cold experimentally
process
stresses after making
determined via a square
numerical tube from
calculations a circular
(Figure 11). Thistube via the
occurred coldtechnological
during forming process (model A).
deformations
(model A). The bending characteristics that were determined numerically in accordance with the
The bending
and characteristics
residual stresses that were
afterB making determined numerically in accordance with the assumptions
process for
assumptions for model differeda from
squarethe tube from acharacteristics
bending circular tube via the cold forming
determined experimentally,
model B differed
(model
especially from
A).inThe
the the bending
bending
small bending characteristics
characteristics
curvature that were
area. determined
Onlydetermined experimentally,
numerically
in the bending curvature especially
in accordance
range > in
of κ with3.0the
the
m −1small

bending curvature
assumptions area.
for Only
model B in the bending
differed from curvature
the bending range of κ >
characteristics3.0 m −1 were the
determined
were the bending moment values numerically calculated. Over the wide range of bending curvatures, bending
experimentally, moment
especially
values numerically
the bending in moment
thecalculated.
smallvalues
bendingdid curvature
Over widearea.
thechange
not range
much,Onlyof in the
wasbending
bending
which curvature
curvatures,
partially the of
a result range
bending of moment
the pipe κmaterial’s
> 3.0 mvalues
−1

were
did not
slight the
change bending
strainmuch, moment
whichOn
hardening. values
was numerically
thepartially
other hand, calculated.
a result
even of Over
the pipe
a slight the wide
material’s
strain hardeningrange
slight of
should bending
strain curvatures,
hardening.
increase the value On the
otherthe
of bending
the
hand, evenmoment
bending slightvalues
a moment. strain did
At the not change
same
hardening time, much,
the
should whichthe
decrease
increase was partially a result
cross-section’s
the value of the of the of
moment
bending pipe material’s
inertia
moment. valueAt the
slight
was a strain
result hardening.
of the walls On the otherespecially
deflecting, hand, even thea horizontal
slight strain hardening
ones, which should increase
completely the value
eliminated the
same time, the decrease the cross-section’s moment of inertia value was a result of the walls deflecting,
of the bending
deformation moment. At the
strengthening sameFortime, the decrease the κcross-section’s
> 6.0 m−1, themoment of inertialocally,
value
especially the horizontal ones,effect.
which bending
completely curvatures
eliminated the deformation pipe collapsed
strengthening effect.
was a result of the walls deflecting,
which was accompanied by a sharp especially the horizontal
drop in the bending moment value. ones, which completely eliminated the
For bending curvatures κ > 6.0 m −1 , the pipe collapsed locally, which was
deformation strengthening effect. For bending curvatures κ > 6.0 m−1, the pipe collapsed locally, accompanied by a sharp
drop which
in thewasbending momentbyvalue.
accompanied a sharp drop in the bending moment value.

Figure 11. The effect of bending curvature on the bending moment of the 25 × 25 × 2 square steel pipe.
Materials 2020, 13, 5170 9 of 10

4. Conclusions
Our results made it possible to describe changes in the shape of a square tube’s cross-section as
a function of bending curvature. Further, our research determined the impact of these changes on force
characteristics, i.e., the value of the bending moment on bending curvature. As a result of cross-section
distortion for a curvature of κ > 2.0 m−1 in the initial bending phase, we observed a decrease in the
bending moment value. For a curvature of κ > 6.0 m−1 , the pipe collapsed locally. Satisfactory agreement
of the experimental results and numerical calculations was obtained by considering the technological
deformations and residual stresses created during the cold plastic shaping process of a round tube into
a square cross-section pipe.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K. and F.S.; methodology, S.K. and F.S.; experimental investigation, F.S.;
numerical calculation, S.K.; analytical and formal analysis, S.K. and F.S.; validation, S.K. and F.S.; writing—original
draft preparation, F.S.; review and editing, F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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