Key knowledge

Radiation and the human body

• distinguish between electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation
• describe how X-rays for medical use are produced including the distinction between soft
and hard X-rays
• describe how medical radioisotopes may be produced by neutron bombardment and high
energy collisions
• analyse decay series diagrams of medical radioisotopes with reference to type of decay
and stability of isotopes
• compare ionising and non-ionising radiation with reference to how each affects living
tissues and cells
• explain the effects of α, β and γ radiation on humans, including:
– different capacities to cause cell damage
– short- and long-term effects of low and high doses
– ionising impacts of radioactive sources outside and inside the body
– calculations of absorbed dose (gray), equivalent dose (sievert) and effective dose
(sievert).

The use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment of human illness and disease
• compare the processes of, and images produced by, medical imaging using two or more of
X-rays, computed tomography (CT), γ  radiation, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single
photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET)
• describe applications of medical radioisotopes in imaging and diagnosis
• explain the use of medical radioisotopes in therapy including the effects on healthy and
damaged tissues and cells
• relate the detection and penetrating properties of α, β and γ radiation to their use in
different medical applications
• analyse the strengths and limitations of a selected contemporary diagnostic or therapeutic
radiation technique.

NUCLEAR MEDICINE (pearson textbook)

- Radiation is energy that comes naturally from sunlight. It can travel as
electromagnetic waves or as small subatomic particles. It can also be man-made and
can be used for a variety of purposes from cancer treatment to nuclear weapons
development.
X-Rays 16.1
- X-rays are the most common form of medical imaging.
- Discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895
- Used in the balkan war to locate bullers in wounds
- There are dangers to overexposure to X-rays ; effects including hair loss, burns, skin
ulcers, skin cancers and death
Types of Radiation 16.1
- All life is exposed to a variety of radiation during every second of ts existence
- Radiation is made up of a range of energies with different wavelengths and
frequencies, and together they form the electromagnetic spectrum.
- Low-energy electromagnetic radiation is referred to as non-ionising radiation,
because it doesn’t carry enough energy to break molecular bonds and displace
 electrons from atoms. Radiation has very low frequency (below 1-2 x 10^15 hertz),
very low energy and long wavelengths (longer than 100 nm).
- Includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light and UV-A radiation

-
- Radiation that has very high energy levels that are enough to break apart molecular
bonds within molecules and remove outer shell electrons, which alters the atoms
original structure and creates ions. This is why it is known as ionising radiation.
- Radiation with a frequency above 2 x 10^16 Hz is ionising, which means gamma
rays, X-rays and ultraviolet B and C radiation are ionising
- When interacting with living tissues, ionising radiation may induce genetic defects
because it ionises certain biomolecules (mostly nucleic acids and proteins) that are
critical for cell survival, leading to significant biological damage
- Can also induce the development of cancerous tumours from the radiated cell
population
- Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays are all examples of ionising
radiation.
- Some radiation such as alpha and beta radiation come in the form of tiny particles of
matter, which are expelled from the nuclei of unstable atoms. For this reason,
ionising radiation is also called particle radiation.
- But gamma and X-rays are high energy electromagnetic waves, consisting of high
energy light (photons) with no mass

Types of X-rays
Soft X-rays Hard X-rays

- Wavelengths greater than 0.1 nm - Wavelengths less than 0.1 nm

- Inferior penetrative capacity - Greater energy (shorter wavelength)
- Less energy / longer wavelength - Higher frequency
- More absorbed by X-rays - Greater penetrative capacity
- Lower frequency - High voltages used in their
 - Low voltages used in production production
- Poorer resolution of radiographs - Superior resolution of radiographs

- Wilhelm Roentgen, German physicist, named the X-ray wherein X stands for
unknown.

X-Ray Production
- Used for medical imaging purposes
- Produced by accelerating a beam of electrons with a high voltage along a vacuum
tube and allowing them to collide with a metal target. The electrons then slam into a
positively charged target (usually made of tungsten) losing their energy very rapidly.
X-rays are produced as a result
- Result from the conversion of the kinetic energy attained by the electrons accelerated
under a high voltage into electromagnetic radiation, as a result of high speed
collisions.
- Essential instruments include a X-ray tube and X-ray generator.
- X-ray tube provides the suitable environment and components needed to generate
X-rays. There are three main components: the heated filament, an accelerating
potential (high voltage) and a target metal.
- X-ray generator provides the electrical power that is needed for the reaction to occur.

- Soft X-rays: used for medical imaging are produced by the same principle of
accelerating a beam of electrons along a vacuum. Voltages of typically 25 000 V give
the electrons a high enough speed to form X-rays with a frequency of 1-2 x 1016 Hz.
- Hard X-rays: more energy and greater penetrating ability. Produced by using
extremely high accelerating voltages of between 4 - 25 million volts. The principle of
X-ray production from rapidly decelerated electrons still applies to hard X-rays.
 However, due to the extremely high voltages used, these X-ray machines have a
slightly different set-up from those used for soft X-rays.
-

Production of radioisotopes:
- Naturally occurring radioisotopes: many

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