1 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

~CERTIFICATE~

This is to certify that “RESHAB RATHI” a student of

th
class 12 ‘I’ has successfully completed the research

project on the topic “STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF

ALLOYS” under the guidance of .

2015

This project is absolutely genuine and does not

indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The references

taken in making this project have been declared at

the end of this project.

Signature(subject teacher) Signature(examiner)

 2 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

ACKNOWLEDGEMEN
T
I feel proud to present my investigatory project in

chemistry on the “STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF

ALLOYS”. This project would not have been feasible

without the proper rigorous guidance of chemistry teacher

___ who guided me throughout this project in every possible

2015

way. An investigatory project involves various difficult lab

experiments, which have to obtain the observations and

conclude the reports on a meaningful note. These

experiments are very critical and in the case of failure may

result in disastrous consequences. Thereby, I would like to

thanks both ___ and lab assistant ___ for guiding me on

systematic basis and ensuring that in completed all my

experiments with ease. Rigorous hard work has put in this

project to ensure that it proves to be the best. I hope it

prove to be the best. I hope that this project will prove to

 3 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

be a breeding ground for the next generations of students

and will guide them in every possible way.

INTRODUCTION
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
metals or a metal and non-metal. They are
generally harder than their components with
reduced malleability and ductility. Alloys are
prepared to enhance certain characteristics of the
2015

constituent metals, as per requirement. The melting

point of an alloy is always lower than the melting
points of the constituent metals. Other properties
such as reactivity towards oxygen and moisture,
mechanical strength, ductility, colour etc also under
goes a change when an alloy is made from its
constituents (metals). This change of properties is
very useful and makes an alloy beneficial.
4 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Study Of
Constituents
Of
2015

Alloys
 5 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Some Common Alloys

2015

And Their Uses :-

:> BRASS :-

Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the

proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to
create a range of brasses with varying properties. By
comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper
and tin. However, the common term "bronze" may
also include arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium,
manganese, and silicon. Brass is used for decoration
 6 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications

where is required such as locks, gears, bearings,
doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves; for
plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively
in brass musical instruments such as horns and bells
where a combination of high workability (historically
with hand tools) and durability is desired. It is also
used in zippers. Brass is often used in situations in
which it is important that sparks not be struck, such
as in fittings and tools around explosive gases.
2015
 7 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

:> BRONZE :-

Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper and

2015

the addition of other metals (usually tin) and

sometimes arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium,
manganese, and silicon. These additions produces an
alloy much harder than copper alone. There are
many different bronze alloys, but typically modern
bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin. Alpha
bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in
copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to
make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Bronze
struck against a hard surface will not generate
sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) is used to
make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other
 8 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or

in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze also has
very low metal-on-metal friction, making it
invaluable for the building of cannon where iron
cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. It is
still widely used today for springs, bearings,
bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and
similar fittings, and is particularly common in the
bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is
particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and
2015

springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings.

 9 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

:> STEEL :-
Steels are alloys of iron and carbon, widely used in
construction and other applications because of their
high tensile strengths and low costs. Carbon, other
2015

elements, and inclusions within iron act as

hardening agents that prevent the movement
of dislocations that otherwise occur in the crystal
lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in typical steel
alloys may contribute up to 2.1% of its weight.
Varying the amount of alloying elements, their
formation in the steel either as solute elements or as
precipitated phases, retards the movement of those
dislocations that make iron so ductile and weak, and
thus controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility,
and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel's
10 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

strength compared to pure iron is only possible at

the expense of ductility, of which iron has an
excess. .Iron and steel are used widely in the
construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure,
appliances, and buildings. Most large modern
structures, such as stadiums and
skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by
a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure
employ steel for reinforcing. In addition, it sees
widespread use in major appliances and cars.
2015
11 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

:>NICKEL SILVER:-

Nickel silver, German silver, new silver, nickel

brass, or electrum is a copper alloy with nickel and
often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper,
20% nickel and 20% zinc. Nickel silver is named for
its silvery appearance, but it contains no
elemental silver unless plated. Nickel silver first
became popular as a base metal for silver-
plated cutlery and other silverware, notably
2015

the electroplated wares called EPNS (electro-plated

nickel silver). It is used in zippers, better-quality
keys, for making musical instruments
(e.g., flutes, clarinets), and is preferred for the track
in electrically powered model railway layouts, as its
oxide is conductive. It is widely used in the
production of coins (e.g. Portuguese escudo). Its
industrial and technical uses include marine fittings
and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance,
and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.
Many professional-level French horns are entirely
made of nickel silver. Many parts of brass
12 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

instruments are made of nickel silver, such as tubes,

braces or valve mechanism.

2015

EXPERIMENT:-1
Aim :To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.
13 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter

paper and common laboratory reagents.

Theory :
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the
following.

Composition :
Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.

Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of

2015

brass. Both these metals dissolved in 50% of nitric

acid due to formation of nitrates which are soluble.

3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

or

Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3– 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O

4Zn + 2NO3– + 10H+ 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O

14 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen

and the resulting solution is tested for Cu2+ and
Zn+2 ions.

Procedure :
1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and
heat this with minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so
as to dissolve the piece completely.

2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid

residue is obtained.
2015

3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter.

Add distilled water to the filtrate.

4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black

precipitate of copper sulphide is obtained. Separate
the black ppt. and keep the filtrate for the test of
Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with
50% HNO3. To this solution add ammonium
hydroxide solution. Appearance of deep blue
colouration in the solution shows the presence of
copper ions in the solution.
15 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S

gas, then add solid NH4Cl to this and heat to
dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of NH4OH so that a
solution is ammonia cal. Now pass H2S gas through
this ammonia cal solution. Dirty white or grey
precipitation indicates zinc. Separate the precipitates
and dissolve it in minimum amount of dil. HCl. Boil
to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro cyanide
solution, white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2
ions in the solution.
2015

Result :The given sample of brass contains copper

and zinc metals as the main constituents.

EXPERIMENT:-2
16 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Aim : Project Report to Analyze a Sample of Bronze

Qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter

paper and common laboratory reagents.

Theory :
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the
following.

Composition :
2015

Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.

Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of

bronze. Both these metals dissolved in nitric acid.

3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3–- 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O

4Sn + NO3– + 10 H+ 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O

(Cold and Dil. Acid)

Sn + 4NO3– + 4H+ H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O

(Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid)

17 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the

solution. The resulting solution now would contain
Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid. This solution is
acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed when
the sulphides of copper and tin are formed.

Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)

H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O

The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with

yellow ammonium sulphide when SnS2 goes into
2015

solution as thiostannate where as CuS is not

affected.

SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)

Ammonium thiostannate.

CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)

Black ppt.

The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the
solution is tested for Sn2+ ions as in elementary
qualitative analysis.
18 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Procedure :
1. Take about 1g of small pieces of bronze in a china
dish and add to it 5-10 ml. of dil. HNO3.

2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and

tin completely and then boil the contents to a paste
to remove excess of HNO3. All this is carried out in
cup board.

3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water

containing HCl (1:1) to get a clear solution.
2015

4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S

in excess i.e. till the precipitation is complete. Filter
and reject the filtrate.

5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it

2-3 ml. of yellow ammonium sulphide and heat.
Filter the contents. Black residue is tested for Cu+2
ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2 ions.

6. Analysis of black residue :

19 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube.

Add to it 2-3 ml. of 50%. HNO3 and boil the
contents of the tube. A light blue or green sol.
indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. into
two parts.

(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue

colouration confirms the presence of Cu+2 ions.

(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add
K4 [Fe (CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A
2015

reddish brown ppt. confirms the presence of Cu+2

ions.

7. Analysis of filtrate :

Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt.

is obtained. Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this
solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. dust and boil it for 2-3
minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of
mercuric chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey
on standing confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions.
20 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Result :The given sample of bronze contains - Cu

and Sn as the main constituents.

2015

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 www.wikipedia.com
 http://www.icbse.com
 Comprehensive chemistry practical class XII
21 CHEMISTRY PROJECT

 www.google.com
 www.allprojectreports.com

2015