International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

Thermodynamic modeling of an ammonia–water

absorption chiller
H.T. Chuaa,*, H.K. Tohb, K.C. Ngb
a
Bachelor of Technology Programme, Faculty of Engineering, The National University of Singapore, Blk EA, #07-32,
9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117576, Singapore
b
Mechanical and Production Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, The National University of Singapore,
Blk EA, #07-32, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117576, Singapore

Received 14 September 2000; received in revised form 10 September 2001; accepted 1 November 2001

Abstract
This article develops a general thermodynamic framework for the modeling of an irreversible absorption chiller at the
design point, with application to a single-stage ammonia–water absorption chiller. Component models of the chiller
have been assembled so as to quantify the internal entropy production and thermal conductance (UA) in a thermo-
dynamically rigorous formalism, which is in agreement with the simultaneous heat-and-mass transfer processes occur-
ring within the exchangers. Local thermodynamic balance (viz. energy, entropy, and mass balance) and consistency
within the components is respected, in addition to the overall thermodynamic balance as determined by the inlet and
outlet states of the components. For the absorbers, Colburn-and-Drew mass transfer equations are incorporated to
describe the absorption process. Furthermore, the impact of various irreversibilities on the performance of chiller is also
evaluated through the use of a general macroscopic equation. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Chiller; Absorption system; Ammonia/water; Operating; Thermodynamics; Modelling

Modélisation thermodynamique d’un refroidisseur d’eau à

absorption à ammoniac/eau

Mots cle´s : Refroidisseur d’eau ; Système à absorption ; Ammoniac/eau ; Fonctionnement ; Thermodynamique ; Modélisation

1. Introduction [1,2]. This article strives to provide a thorough and

The ammonia–water absorption chiller has been used
widely in refrigeration and air-conditioning applica-
tions. The thermodynamic model developed herein is
similar in spirit with recently developed thermodynamic
models for multi-stage lithium–bromide water chillers
generalized modeling approach that can encompass all
possible refrigerant-absorbent pairs regardless of their
degree of volatility to the likely behaviour of the chiller
at the design point. It represents an improvement over
previously developed thermodynamic models [3] by fur-
ther ensuring local thermodynamic balance, viz. energy,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +65-874-8057; fax: +65-874-3525.

E-mail address: engcht@nus.edu.sg (H.T. Chua).

0140-7007/02/$22.00 # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
PII: S0140-7007(01)00101-3
 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906 897

Nomenclature y mass concentration of NH3 in vapour

yi interfacial vapour mass concentration of
A heat exchanger area, m2 NH3
cp specific heat capacity, J g
1 K
1 ym molar concentration of NH3 in vapour
COP ratio of cooling capacity to heat input or z film thickness, m
Qevap/Qgen zG vapour film thickness, m
Dsol;12 eddy diffusivity in the solution phase, m2 s
1 zL liquid film thickness, m
Dvap;12 eddy diffusivity in the vapour phase, m2 s
1
h specific enthalpy, J g
1 Greek letters
H extensive enthalpy, J i chemical potential or partial Gibbs energy
m mass flow rate, g s
1 of species i, J g
1
mi mass of species i, g  density, kg m
3
mi,vap mass flow rate of species i in vapour phase, m molar density, km olm
3
g s
1 ! ratio of condenser heat rejection to total
mi,sol mass flow rate of species i in solution, gs
1 heat rejection in both the condenser and
Qcond
mgen mass flow rate of the generated vapour absorber or Qcond þQabs
which is in thermodynamic equilibrium with  molar composition of ammonia in the
the corresponding liquid phase, g s
1 absorbed vapour
msolmix mass flow rate of the condensed liquid,
which is in thermodynamic equilibrium with Superscripts/subscripts
the vapour phase, g s
1 1 water
mpump mass flow rate of solution at solution pump, 2 ammonia
g s
1 abs absorbers/air-cooled absorber
P pressure, Pa ana analyzer
Q heat flow across heat exchanger, W chilled chilled water
s specific entropy, J g
1 K
1 cond condenser
S extensive entropy, J K
1 cooling coolant
Sgen;total rate of total entropy generation, W K
1 evap evaporator
Sgen,int rate of total internal entropy generation, W gen generator
K
1 genheat hot and strong absorbent emanating from
T temperature/temperature of solution,  C or the bottom of the generator and acting as a
K heat source for the analyzer
Ti interfacial temperature,  C or K heating heat source
T process average temperature, K in inlet state
U overall effective heat transfer coefficient, W leak heat leak
m
2 K
1 m molar quantity
Ug vapour phase heat transfer coefficient, W out outlet state
m
2 K
1 rec rectifier
V extensive volumetric flowrate, m3 s
1 rhx refrigerant heat exchanger
W molecular mass, g sabs solution-cooled absorber
x mass concentration of NH3 in solution shx solution heat exchanger
xi interfacial liquid mass concentration of sol solution stream
NH3 system absorption cycle
xweak mass concentration of NH3 in weak vap vapour stream/phase
refrigerant solution

entropy and mass balance, within those components
undergoing heat and mass transfer, in addition to just
obeying the overall thermodynamic balance as is com-
monly practiced by the ‘‘black box’’ approach. With a
more thorough analysis, the number of arbitrary
assumptions required for a system analysis could be
reduced. A more exact and detailed quantification of the
various entropy-generating mechanisms within the chil-
ler can then be performed. This analysis would enable
attention to be more focused on the design of those
chiller components that generate more dissipative losses.
The methodology developed herein should contribute to
the recent development in absorption system design
process [4] and is meant solely for the design point. Any
898 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906

and the rising saturated ammonia vapour is in a counter-

flow direction to, and further heated and wetted by, the
downward flowing liquid. The vapour stream is, there-
fore, generally not in thermodynamic equilibrium with
the saturated liquid stream. The vapour stream is further
assumed to be saturated. In a well-designed generator,
since mass separation within the liquid phase should be
occurring in the nucleate boiling regime, the local vapour
generation process is assumed to be occurring at the
corresponding saturation temperature. This is consistent
with the previous treatment for a lithium–bromide water
mixture [1,2] in the generator. All the equations in this
article are derived under conditions of local thermo-
dynamic equilibrium within the various phases.
The energy balance of the generator can be expressed as

dQgen

 dTvap
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a single stage ammonia–water ¼ mvap cp Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap
dTgen dTgen
absorption chiller. (The numbering refers to the salient state


points used in the simulation code.)
msol cp Pgen ; Tgen ; xsol Pgen ; Tgen
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a single stage ammonia–water X2
@H

 dmi;vap
þ Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap
i¼1
@mi dTgen
attempt to extend it to off-design conditions must be X2
@H

 dmi;sol
performed with careful considerations of the additional
Pgen ; Tgen ; xsol Pgen ; Tgen ð1Þ
i¼1
@m i dTgen
phenomena associated with the situations where the
various heat-and-mass exchangers are off-designed.
All heat quantities are positive. For consistency with
the present chiller design [7], the path of integration is
2. Component modeling within a typical from the
solution
 outlet to inlet with the initial condi-
ammonia–water absorption cycle tion Qgen Tout
gen ¼ 0.
The mass balance equations for each species under a
This article will focus on the modeling of the gen- counter flow scheme are
erator(s), rectifier and absorber(s) where multi-stream
dmi;vap dmi;sol
non-isothermal heat-and-mass transfers occur, while the ¼ ð2Þ
dTgen dTgen
modeling of evaporator, condenser, regenerator(s), solu-
tion pump and throttling valves will follow conventional From the consideration that the vapour and liquid
‘‘black-box’’ approach. streams are separately saturated, the definitions of xsol
Component models are assembled for the computer and yvap and Eq. (2), it can be shown that
simulation of a typical absorption chiller modeled after


an ARKLA ammonia–water chiller (model No. ACC 
 dxsol Pgen ; Tgen
3600) [5]. Fig. 1 depicts the schematic diagram of the msol 1
yvap Pgen ; Tvap
dT

gen 
chiller model used in the analysis. 
 dyvap Pgen ; Tvap
In the present analysis, the generator has been taken
mvap 1
xsol Pgen ; Tgen
dm1;vap dTgen
to be the natural gas direct-fired type. Ref. [5] provides a ¼


detailed engineering description of the aforementioned dTgen yvap Pgen ; Tvap
xsol Pgen ; Tgen
chiller configuration and its various components. ð3Þ


2.1. Generator/analyzer
 dxsol Pgen ; Tgen
msol yvap Pgen ; Tvap
dT

gen 
For simplicity, the characteristics of the processes
 dyvap Pgen ; Tvap

mvap xsol Pgen ; Tgen
within the generator and analyzer are assumed to be dm2;vap dTgen
generally identical under isobaric conditions. Short of ¼

 ð4Þ
dTgen yvap Pgen ; Tvap
xsol Pgen ; Tgen
more detailed design information, they are also taken to
be isobaric with respect to the condenser and refrigerant

out 
heat exchanger. In the present chiller design [5], the first with the initial conditions m1;vap Tout
gen ¼ m2;vap Tgen
vapour pocket appears at the bottom of the generator ¼ 0.
 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906 899
 
From energy balance and assuming adiabatic mixing dSgen;total
gen dQgen 1 1
of the saturated vapour phase, the vapour-phase tem- ¼
þ mvap cp
dTgen dTgen Tgen Theating
perature within the generator can be expressed as  


 dTvap 1 1
Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap

dTgen Tvap Tgen
2 3 2  3


 dmgen @H


h Pgen ; Tgen ; ysol Pgen ; Tgen 6 @mi P gen ; T gen ; y sol P gen ; T gen 7
6 dTgen 7 6 7
6

 dmsolmix 7 6 @H

  7
6 7 6
7
6
h Pgen ; Tvap ; xvap Pgen ; Tvap 7 P ; T
6 @m gen vap vap gen vap 7 ; y P ; T
6 dT 7 2 6 7 dm
6 gen 7 X 6
i
7
4 P 2 @H

 dmi;vap 5 þ 6 Tgen 7
i;vap

Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap 6 7 dTgen
dTvap i¼1 @mi dT i¼1 6 @S

  7
¼

 gen 6

6 @mi Pgen ; Tgen ; ysol Pgen ; Tgen 7
7
dTgen mvap cp Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap 6 7
4 @S

 5
ð5Þ þ Pgen ; Tvap ; yvap Pgen ; Tvap
@mi
ð9Þ


with the initial condition Tvap Tout out
gen ¼ Tgen as the first
vapour pocket is assumed to be in thermodynamic The subscript ‘‘gen’’ refers to generator, while the
equilibrium with the solution. superscript ‘‘gen’’
refers to generation, with the initial
The quantities mgen and msolmix can be determined condition Sgen;total
gen T out
gen ¼ 0: Applying the general defi-
from a mass balance consideration: nition of process average temperature [1,2,6], T gen can
be expressed as
dmgen 1
¼
 Ð Tingen dQgen
dTgen ysol Pgen ; Tgen dTgen
 ð6Þ Tout
gen dT

 dmsolmix gen
dm2;vap T gen ¼ Ð in ð10Þ
þ xvap Pgen ; Tvap Tgen 1 dQgen
dTgen dTgen Tout
dTgen
gen T
gen dTgen

dmsolmix dmgen X 2
dmi;vap For the analyzer, the above equations for the gen-
¼
ð7Þ erator also apply by replacing dTgen with dTana, with the
dTgen dTgen i¼1 dTgen
addition of an extra relation for the hot, strong absor-
bent that emanates from the bottom of the generator


out  which acts as the heat source:
with the initial conditions mgen Tout gen ¼ msolmix Tgen

¼ 0. dTgenheat dðUAana Þ Tana
Tgenheat
¼
:
To arrive at the thermal conductance, UA, the heat dTana dTana mgenheat cp Pgenheat ; Tgenheat ; xgenheat
source is assumed to be characterized by a uniform, ð11Þ
representative temperature and in thermal contact only
out 
with the bulk liquid phase, so that the following relation The corresponding initial condition is Tgenheat Tana ¼
is invoked Tout
gen .
The above-mentioned set of coupled ordinary differ-
  ential equations is solved in double precision with the
dQgen fifth-order Gear’s backward differentiation formulae


d UAgen dTgen found in the DIVPAG subroutine of the IMSL Fortran
¼
 ð8Þ
dTgen Theating
Tgen library, using a tolerance of 110
6. Except otherwise
stated, the abovementioned computational scheme and
tolerance are applied for subsequent analyses.

 Since part of the present objective is to estimate the
with UAgen Tout gen ¼ 0 as the initial condition. rate of internal entropy generation, hence on account of
In the generator, since boiling and condensation is the dissipative nature of vapour and liquid mixing, the
regarded as proceeding in equilibrium, the evolution of the path of integration has to proceed from the bottom of
rate of entropy generation can be attributed to be that due the generator towards the top, i.e. outlet to inlet solu-
to heat transfer as well as
vapour and
liquid mixing.  tion temperature. For a given value of Theating, the
Exploiting

the fact
that i P gen; Tgen; ; xsol Pgen; Tgen; ¼ computation will start with a given Tout gen and march
i Pgen; Tgen; ; ysol Pgen; Tgen; at equilibrium, therefore towards a prescribed Tin gen , and thereby provide the
900 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906
" #
other corresponding results. Should another parameter, dm2;sol m Dvap;12 dðUAabs Þ 
ym
vap 2
instead of Tout
gen , be used as a constraint, the present for- ¼ W2  ln ð14Þ
dTabs zG Uabs dTabs 
ym
vap
mulation could be nested within an optimization routine,
so as to search for the compatible Toutgen that satisfies the
new constraint.  " #
m
sol Dsol;12 
xmsol
m
vap Dvap;12 
ym
i
ln ¼ ln ð15Þ
2.2. Absorbers zL 
xmi zG 
ym
vap

For the present system analysis, there is an internal
regenerative solution-cooled absorber and an air-cooled
absorber. The following absorber analysis pertains to a
falling-film absorber where the vapour and liquid are
flowing concurrently with the coolant flowing counter-
current to the solution. Short of detailed design infor-
mation, isobaric condition is assumed to prevail in the
evaporator, refrigerant heat exchanger, solution-cooled
absorber and the air-cooled absorber. It is envisaged
that pressure drop in the evaporator can result in a sig-
nificant lowering of the pressure in the absorber which
in turn results in a reduction in the efficiency of the
absorption process. Should more design information
pertaining to especially the evaporator and refrigerant
heat exchanger be available, they could be incorporated
into the present formulation. The following equations
can be easily reformulated for GAX absorbers.
The energy balance for the falling-film absorber is:
Eq. (15) can be solved for  by Newton’s iterative
method at every differential step taken throughout the
integration process. The gas diffusivity values are
computed from an empirical correlation attributed to
Fuller et al. [cited in 22 and 23], while the liquid diffu-
sivity values are compiled from the NH3–H2O experi-
mental data from Frank et al. [24]. Since they have
reported the mass diffusivity values up to a molar con-
centration of 0.312, the values at higher concentration are
extrapolated from their work. The mass balance equations
are:
dmi;sol dmi;vap
¼
ð16Þ
dTabs dTabs
The temperature profile of the vapour phase can be
determined from:

dQabs
 dTvap
¼
mvap cp Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap 2
dTabs dTabs Ug dðUAabs Þ
 3
Tabs
Tvap

msol cp ðPabs ; Tabs ; xsol Þ 6 Uabs dTabs 7
6 2
 dmi;vap 7
6 P 7
X2
@H
 dmi;vap ð12Þ 6 þ h Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap 7

Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap 6 dT 7
@mi dTabs 6 i¼1 abs 7
i¼1 4 P 2 @H
 dmi;vap 5

Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap
X
2
@H dmi;sol dTvap i¼1 @mi dTabs

ðPabs ; Tabs ; xsol Þ ¼
 ð17Þ
i¼1
@mi dTabs dTabs mvap cp Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap

All heat quantities are positive. As the mass transfer

process is irreversible, the path of integration can only where Ug is the single phase heat transfer coefficient,
proceed

from the inlet to the outlet [1,2] and computed by using the Chilton–Colburn analogy [25].
Qabs Tin
abs ¼ 0. Our present energy balance dispenses The transport properties of the ammonia–water mixture
with the need to use the common, though thermo- are computed using the Chemkin1 collection provided
dynamically inconsistent, Ackermann correction term. by the Chemical and Biosource Engineering Department
Since the Colburn–Drew equations have been used in from Colorado State University [26].
various forms for the analyses of absorption processes, The treatment of UA is similar

 to that of Eq. (8) with
absorbers and GAX components [7–21], they will, the initial condition UAabs T in
abs ¼ 0 and the evolution
therefore, be used as the basis of the present two-film of the coolant temperature is governed by:
absorber model.
The mass transport across the phases can accordingly
be governed by the following equations: dTcooling dQabs =dTabs
¼

 ð18Þ
dTabs mcooling cp Tcooling
" #
dm1;sol m
vap Dvap;12 dðUAabs Þ 
ym
1

¼ W 1 ð1
 Þ ln with the initial condition Tcooling T in out
dTabs zG Uabs dTabs 
ym
vap abs ¼ T cooling :
The total entropy generation of the absorber can be
ð13Þ
(13) expressed as:
 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906 901
 
dSgen;total
abs dQabs 1 1 2.3. Rectifier
¼

dTabs dTabs Tcooling Tabs
  Since the condensate is usually considered to be at

 dTvap 1 1
þ mvap cp Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap
saturated condition, the two-film absorption model can
dTabs Tvap Tabs
2 3 be reduced to a single-film model where the heat-and-
@H

P abs ; T vap ; y vap mass transfer resistances are lumped to the vapour phase.
6 @mi 7
6 7 For rectification of water from the vapour mixture, yi
6 @H 7
6
7 must be higher than yvap [16]. For simplicity, it is
6 @m ðPabs ; Tabs ; yi ðPabs ; Tabs ÞÞ 7
X6
2 6 i 7 dm assumed that the saturated vapour is cooled along the
7 i;vap

6 Tabs 7 dew line to the desired concentration while the con-
6
i¼1 6
 7 dTabs
@S 7 densate is being heated along the boiling line
at a lower
6
Pabs ; Tvap ; yvap 7
6 @mi 7 temperature subject to yi ðPrec ; Trec Þ > yvap Prec ; Tvap
6 7
4 @S 5
þ ðPabs ; Tabs ; yi ðPabs ; Tabs ÞÞ throughout the isobaric process.
@mi For a counterflow scheme between the vapour and
2 3
@H solution phase, and following the spirits of the gen-
ð P ; T
6 @mi abs abs i abs abs ; x ð P ; T Þ Þ 7
6 7 erator/analyzer and absorbers modeling, the modeling
6 @H 7 equations for the rectifier can be summarized as
6
ðPabs ; Tabs ; xsol Þ 7
6 @m 7
X2 6 i 7 dm
6 7 i;sol
þ 6 Tabs 7
6
i¼1 6
7 dTabs dQrec

 dTvap
@S 7
6
ðP ; T ; x ðP ; T ÞÞ 7 ¼ mvap cp Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap
6 @mi abs abs i abs abs 7 dTrec dTrec
6 7
4 @S 5
msol cp ðPrec ; Trec ; xsol ðPrec ; Trec ÞÞ
þ ðPabs ; Tabs ; xsol Þ
@mi X
2
@H

 dmi;vap
ð19Þ þ Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap
i¼1
@mi dTrec
The first term in the right-hand-side of Eq. (19) refers X
2
@H dmi;sol
to the rate of entropy generation due to thermal energy
ðPrec ; Trec ; xsol ðPrec ; Trec ÞÞ ð21Þ
i¼1
@mi dTrec
exchange with the coolant; the second and third terms
jointly account for the combined heat-and-mass transfer
entropy generation on the vapour side; and the last term 
 dxsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
msol 1
yrec Prec ; Tvap
is attributed to the mass transfer on the liquid phase. dT

rec 
T abs can be expressed in a form similar to Eq. (10). dyvap Prec ; Tvap

mvap ½1
xsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
The present set of equations is solved for a given dm1;vap dTrec
¼

degree of sub-cooling at the outlet of the absorber, given dTrec yvap Prec ; Tvap
xsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
solution inlet and outlet temperatures, a given evaporator ð22Þ
pressure, and a given solution pump flow rate at the outlet
of the air-cooled absorber. For the air-cooled absorber,

 dxsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
the solver is further nested within the DNEQNF sub- msol yrec Prec ; Tvap
routine found in the IMSL Fortran library that searches dT

rec 
for Uabs as the root to the constraint dyvap Prec ; Tvap

mvap xsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
dm2;vap dTrec
¼
 ð23Þ
ð dTrec yvap Prec ; Tvap
xsol ðPrec ; Trec Þ
dmabs ¼ mevap ð20Þ
dmi;vap dmi;sol
¼ ð24Þ
dTrec dTrec
where mevap refers to the refrigerant mass flow in eva-
porator. The tolerance for this non-linear equation sol-
2 Ug dðUArec Þ
 3
ver is set to 110
8. Eqs. (16) and (20) ensure that the
Trec
Tvap
overall and local mass balance of water and ammonia 6 Urec dTrec 7
6 2

 dmi;vap 7
fluxes are observed. Their corresponding effects on sen- 6 P 7
6 þ h Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap 7
sible and latent thermal energy exchanges are also 6 dT 7
6 i¼1 rec 7
reflected in Eqs. (12) and (17). 4 P 2 @H

 dmi;vap 5
Eqs. (13) to (15) are inherently dissipative. Hence the
Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap
dTvap i¼1 @mi dT
direction of integration in the case of the absorber, at ¼

 rec
dTrec mvap cp Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap
least for the solution, must proceed from the inlet to the
outlet. ð25Þ
902 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906

Table 1
Properties of the various state points for the chiller depicted in Fig. 1

State Mass flow Pressure, Temperature, NH3 wt fraction, Enthalpy, Entropy,

rate, m (g/s) P (kPa) T ( C) x h (J/g) s (J/g.K)

1 25.2000 480 45.0000 0.4314 102.9099 1.0973

2 25.2000 2070 45.0000 0.4314 104.1501 1.0952
3 25.2000 2070 68.2207 0.4314 212.4940 1.4239
3A 25.2000 2070 73.6414 0.4314 238.1234 1.4984
4 25.2000 2070 107.0575 0.4314 399.3680 1.9421
5 7.1245 2070 125.0060 0.9181 1915.6235 6.2443
6 5.8574 2070 95.0000 0.9803 1789.3645 5.9630
7 5.8574 2070 51.4231 0.9803 567.7610 2.2658
8 5.8574 2070 25.0000 0.9803 438.4509 1.8504
9 5.8574 480 3.5179 0.9803 438.4509 1.8728
10 5.8574 480 10.0000 0.9803 1493.1635 5.6697
11 5.8574 480 31.5584 0.9803 1622.4735 6.1126
11L 0.2224 480 31.5584 0.5389 79.3526 1.0500
11V 5.6350 480 31.5584 0.9977 1683.3656 6.3124
12L 19.7772 480 70.6043 0.2763 206.9019 1.2732
12V 5.4229 480 56.2558 0.9968 1743.2250 6.5014
13 1.2671 2070 74.7173 0.6308 344.5798 1.8511
14 19.3426 2070 123.4461 0.2651 452.4188 1.9181
15 19.3426 2070 78.0000 0.2651 242.3458 1.3558
15A 19.3426 480 78.2640 0.2651 242.3458 1.3610
15M 19.5650 480 77.9072 0.2683 240.4934 1.3597
16 455.0000 101.325 12.0000 0.0000 50.5068 0.1806
17 455.0000 101.325 8.7612 0.0000 36.9292 0.1327
18 24.1102 2070 112.0665 0.4074 416.6583 1.9703
19L 25.3120 2070 110.0000 0.4172 409.3587 1.9585
19V 0.0653 2070 110.0000 0.9575 1847.1690 6.1032
20 5.9694 2070 127.4151 0.9099 1927.9531 6.2669
21 6.0347 2070 127.2707 0.9104 1927.2011 6.2655
22 19.3426 2070 145.0000 0.2651 555.7901 2.1719

Note: ‘‘A’’ refers to the corresponding state point that follows immediately after the previous point. ‘‘M’’ refers to the corresponding
state point after mixing of streams. ‘‘L’’ refers to the corresponding state point of the liquid phase. ‘‘V’’ refers to the corresponding
state point of the vapour phase.

Table 2
Performance parameters of the chiller depicted in Fig. 1

Qgen (W) 11897.5 UAgen (W/K) 128.9

Qabs (W) 10951.8 UAabs (W/K) 432.3
Qevap (W) 6177.8 UAevap (W/K) 1321.6
Qcond (W) 7155.4 UAcond (W/K) 408.6
Qrhx (W) 757.4 UArhx (W/K) 31.7
Qrec (W) 2730.3 UArec (W/K) 196.4
Qshx (W) 4063.4 UAshx (W/K) 103.9
Qana (W) 1999.5 UAana (W/K) 84.1
Qsabs (W) 645.9 UAsabs (W/K) 247.0

Reversible pump power=31.3 W, COP=0.519. T gen =399.5 K, T abs =330.1 K, T evap =277.8 K, T cond =330.4 K, !=0.605,
Sgen;int gen;total 2 2 2
system =2.867 W/K, Ssystem =13.237 W/K. Effective U values:Uabs=288.7 W/m .K, Urec=650.0 W/m .K, Usabs=3100.0 W/m .K
 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906 903
 
dQrec Table 3
dðUArec Þ dTrec Relative impact of various mechanisms on 1/COP of the
¼
 ð26Þ ammonia–water absorption chiller
dTrec Trec
Tcooling
Carnot limit requirement 0.068
dTcooling dQrec =dTrec Heat Transfer with environment 0.484
¼

; ð27Þ
dTrec mcooling cp Tcooling Heat Transfer in solution-cooled absorber 0.004
Vapour heat-and-mass transfer in solution-cooled 0.024
and   absorber
dSgen;total
rec dQrec 1 1 Liquid mass transfer in solution-cooled absorber 0.003
¼

dTrec dTrec Tcooling Trec Solution streams mixing in solution-cooled absorber 0.007
  Vapour heat-and-mass transfer in air-cooled absorber 0.005


 dTvap 1 1
þ mvap cp Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap
Liquid mass transfer in air-cooled absorber 0.048
dTrec Trec Tvap
2 3 Heat transfer in analyzer 0.049
@H


Vapour mixing in analyzer 0.002
6 @mi P rec ; T vap ; y vap P rec ; T vap 7
6 7 Vapour mixing in generator 0.004
6 @H 7 Heat transfer in rectifier 0.062
6
ðPrec ; Trec ; ysol ðPrec ; Trec ÞÞ 7
6 @m 7 Vapour heat-and-mass transfer in rectifier 0.105
X62 6 i 7 dm
7 i;vap Heat transfer in refrigerant heat exchanger 0.025
þ 6 Trec 7
6  7 dTrec Expansion between state 8 and state 9 0.020
i¼1 6 @S

7
6
Prec ; Tvap ; yvap Prec ; Tvap 7 Expansion between state 15 and state 15A 0.016
6 @mi 7
6 7 Heat transfer in solution heat exchanger 0.049
4 @S 5
þ ðPrec ; Trec ; ysol ðPrec ; Trec ÞÞ Solution streams mixing (states 13 and 18 to state 19L) 0.019
@mi Vapour streams mixing (states 19V and 20 to state 21) 0.000
ð28Þ

in 
The initial

 conditions are
inaccordingly,
 Qrec T rec ¼ 0,
Ug
UArec T in in
rec ¼ 0, Tcooling T rec ¼ T cooling . Urec is taken to
be 0.1 in the simulation. This ratio is estimated from thermodynamic properties procedures developed by
previous simulation results for a smooth tube coil con- Tillner-Roth and Friend [27].
figuration [16], and generally does not exhibit significant The properties of the various state points for the
variation throughout the length of the rectifier. The chiller depicted in Fig. 1 is delineated in Table 1. Table 2
approximation of Ug is observed to have only a slight tabulates the corresponding energetic performance and
influence on the modeling results [14]. the component thermal conductances. Table 3 presents
the impact of the various dissipative mechanisms on the
chiller 1/COP based on the macroscopic equations of
3. Simulation and analysis of a single-stage Refs. [1,2,28], with the results of the abovementioned
ammonia–water absorption chiller formulations being used as inputs.
From Table 3, one can appreciate that the impact of
The above-mentioned system modeling formalism is heat exchange with the environment on 1/COP is most
illustrated with a single-stage absorption chiller. The dominant. The bulk of internal dissipation occurs due to
current analysis is based on the ammonia-water mixture combined heat and mass transfer within the vapour phase
in the rectifer. Approximately 19% of the thermal energy is
dissipated by sensible heat transfer losses within the
regenerative components in the chiller. Simultaneous heat-
and-mass transfer within the vapour phase in the absorbers
and rectifier also contributes about 13% to the 1/COP of
the chiller. The table also highlights the significant con-
tribution of the refrigerant expansion on the machine’s
performance. The impact of mass transfer within the liquid
phases in the absorbers tends to contribute about 6% to
the 1/COP of chiller. The present analysis shows that
while mass transfer is an important mechanism that
actually makes absorption induced evaporation possi-
ble, it is only a significant, though not a dominating
mechanism. The table also highlights the significant
contribution of the refrigerant expansin and mixing
Fig. 2. Local temperature profiles of the streams within the losses on the machine’s performance; each mechanism
generator. accounting for nearly 3–4% of the thermal power input.
904 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906
Fig. 3. Mass flow rate profiles of the streams within the
generator.
We have also developed a thermodynamically con-
sistent T-s diagram formalism to analyze the present
result. Interested readers may refer to Ref. [29] for
details.
4. Analysis of the component models
The simulated profiles in some chiller components
will now be presented and analyzed. The readers could
refer to Ref. [6] for a complete analysis.
4.1. Generator
Fig. 2 depicts the temperature profiles of the streams
within the generator. The first trace of the vapour
appears at the bottom of the generator, where it is in
equilibrium with the solution. As the vapour flows
upwards to the top of the generator, the adiabatic mix-
ing with the generated vapour along the way ensures
that the vapour phase is hotter than the solution stream
at any section within the generator. Fig. 3 shows the
Fig. 4. Local temperature profiles of the streams within the air-
cooled absorber.
Fig. 5. Local concentration profiles of the streams within the
air-cooled absorber.
ammonia and water mass flow rate profiles in both
phases.
4.2. Air-cooled absorber
Fig. 4 shows the temperature of the various streams
within the air-cooled absorber. When the temperature of
the bulk vapour exceeds that of the bulk liquid, Second
Law of Thermodynamics is not violated as the effect of
the latent heat evolved due to the desorption of water
from the aqueous solution must be accounted for. Fig. 5
depicts the concentration profile within the air-cooled
absorber. The interfacial and bulk vapour concentration
crosses over each other near 60% of the length of the
absorber. Prior to the crossover point, the ammonia
content of the absorbed vapour mass flux is higher than
that of the bulk vapour. Beyond that point, the absor-
bed mass flux constitutes a richer concentration of water
compared to the bulk vapour. The local mass fluxes of
the two species are shown in Fig. 6. The ammonia flux
decreases sharply for the initial 10% of the length of the
absorber, and then increases steadily throughout the
Fig. 6. Local mass flux profiles within the air-cooled absorber.
Fig. 1. Local mass flux profiles within the air-cooled absorber.
 H.T. Chua et al. / International Journal of Refrigeration 25 (2002) 896–906
Fig. 7. Local temperature profiles of the streams within the
rectifier.
Fig. 8. Mass flow rate profiles of the streams within the rectifier.
process while the water flux changes from negative
(desorption) to positive (absorption) at about 30%
along the length of the absorber.
4.3. Rectifier
Fig. 7 depicts the temperature profiles and the flow
directions of the streams within the rectifier. Partial
condensation of the vapour occurs within the rectifier
which results in an increase in the ammonia content
within the vapour stream. Fig. 8 depicts the mass flow
rate profiles of the streams within the rectifier.
5. Conclusions
In this article, a component-by-component model has
been developed for the analysis of a typical ammonia-
water absorption chiller at the design point. The corre-
905
sponding impact of various loss mechanisms on 1/COP
of the chiller are also analyzed based on a general
macroscopic equation [1,2,28].
The present study respects the local thermodynamic
balance within every component black box. Conse-
quently, the number of arbitrary assumptions required
in a system analysis is reduced. The resultant thermal
conductance for the various components and the vapour
outlet states from the generator/analyzer are therefore
generally consistent. The present absorption process
modeling is based on the Colburn–Drew equations, and
the heat transfer relation for the vapour phase is eval-
uated by a thermodynamically consistent approach
instead of the ‘‘Ackermann correction term’’.
The present study finds that heat-and-mass transfer in
the vapour phase within the rectifier and regenerative
heat transfer contribute dominantly to the internal los-
ses; about 30% of the thermal energy input is dissipated
jointly by the two mechanisms. On the other hand, liquid
phase mass transfer within the absorbers contributes
typically 6% to the 1/COP of the chiller. Simultaneous
heat-and-mass transfer in the vapour region within the
absorbers accounts for approximately 3% of the dis-
sipative losses. It can therefore be concluded that inter-
nal losses are dominated by regenerative heat exchange
and vapour phase heat-and-mass transfer dissipation.
The component routines assembled herein also pro-
vides a good motivation towards a more in-depth
examination of heat-and-mass transfer processes within
any component from a system perspective. The present
formulation could be further enhanced when more
detailed design information is available so that the effect
of pressure drop could be incorporated.
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