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A Historical Review of The Development of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) and Its Implications For The Twenty-First Century
A Historical Review of The Development of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) and Its Implications For The Twenty-First Century
www.emeraldinsight.com/0048-3486.htm
Development
A historical review of the of OCB and its
development of organizational implications
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a historical account of organizational citizenship behavior
(OCB) based on the existing literature.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper performs keywords search of published articles from 1930 to
2017 in widely used research databases.
Findings – The historical review shows that the OCB, as a field of study, was slow to develop. Although it
has been introduced in the late 1970s and officially defined in the 1980s, its origins can be traced
back to the 1930s. Despite this, OCB is generally regarded as a relatively new construct and has become
one of the biggest subjects studied in the literature. OCB has reached far and wide into the business
and management domains, supporting the fact that the well-being employees and their behaviors
can greatly affect organizations’ effectiveness and performance. Having been the topic of a significant
number of studies, there have been inconsistent research findings regarding the concepts. Furthermore,
some concepts have been noted to overlap, with several scholars using different terms for essentially
similar concepts.
Originality/value – The advent of technology and globalization has greatly affected organizations today
which resulted in increased competition in the global business. Firms have started to look into the behavior
exhibited by employees as a means of achieving competitive advantage, such as OCB. Voluminous works
have been conducted regarding the study of OCB; however, none have been recorded to make an in-depth
exploration of when and how it first surfaced. Since its official introduction, explorations regarding OCB have
dramatically increased, most especially in the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, this has resulted in an
increasing difficulty to keep up with the theoretical and empirical developments in the literature. As interest
in OCB continues to grow, coherent integration of the concept becomes progressively more complex and
necessary. This paper looks into the chronological evolution of the OCB, giving precise details of its
development from the time it was first conceptualized up until the present wherein OCB has been used to
indicate organizational effectiveness and performance.
Keywords Qualitative, Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), Critical, Twenty-first century,
Chronological evolution, Historical review, Literature development, OCB development
Paper type Literature review
1. Introduction
Although Katz and Kahn (1966) were the first to observe employees’ extra-role behavior in Personnel Review
the workplace, it was Bateman and Organ (1983) who coined the term “organizational Vol. 47 No. 4, 2018
pp. 821-862
citizenship behavior” (OCB). Organ (1988, p. 4) concretely defined OCB as “individual © Emerald Publishing Limited
0048-3486
behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward DOI 10.1108/PR-04-2017-0136
PR system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.”
47,4 According to Podsakoff et al. (2000) and Cinar et al. (2013), this definition was actually
drawn from Barnard’s (1938) concept of individuals’ “willingness to cooperate” and
Katz’s (1964) differentiation between one’s reliable performance of work functions and
“innovative and spontaneous behaviors.” Organ (1997) later on redefined the concept,
referring to OCB as any discretionary work-related behavior that goes beyond routine
822 duties and which supports one’s social or psychological environment (Cem-Ersoy et al., 2015;
Zeinabadi and Salehi, 2011).
Organ’s and his colleagues’ works on OCB became the foundation upon which
succeeding authors based their own studies. Although there have been some attempts to
define OCB in their own terms, these definitions still share essentially the same meaning
with Organ and colleagues. Niehoff and Moorman (1993), for instance, stated that OCBs are
behaviors not formally required of employees. On the other hand, Van Dyne et al. (1994)
took OCB to mean a concept that encompasses an individual’s positive behaviors that
are relevant to the organization. Clearly, Organ and his colleagues continue to influence
the field.
OCB has been explored in various perspectives and contexts. This interest of domain
scholars on OCB in both theory and practice has been motivated largely by a volume of
evidence which shows that OCB is related to a number of individual level (e.g. managerial
ratings of employee performance, reward allocation decisions, and a variety of
withdrawal-related criteria) and organizational-level outcomes (e.g. productivity,
efficiency, reduced costs, customer satisfaction, and unit-level turnover) as reported by
Podsakoff et al. (2009). This has resulted to a great number of studies which covered the link
between OCB and its determinants and dimensions, such as job satisfaction and
organizational commitment (Koys, 2001; Yoon and Suh, 2003). Moreover, the relationship of
OCB to other related concepts was also explored by many scholars. However, there were
apparent inconsistencies in their results. This has led to confusion in the presentation of
OCB and its extensions, suggesting a lack of focus in the literature.
The dramatic growth of OCB investigations in the twenty-first century has made it
increasingly difficult to keep up with the empirical and theoretical developments in the
literature (Podsakoff et al., 2000). This paper aims to address these research gaps by
presenting a sequential account of the growth of OCB. In light of this, suggestions for
future research that could further the understanding of the nature of the concept
are provided.
2. Methodology
Articles about OCB are spread out among several journals that fall into the categories of
organizational behavior, psychology, and management, among others. Significant studies
that were related to OCB were identified by searching different databases for different
materials to be used. The following databases were used and searched for relevant
publications from the 1930s to the present (2017): EBSCOhost, Scopus, Emerald Insight,
JSTOR, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis, Questia, Elsevier, Springer, and Google
Scholar. The research process was limited to journals that were peer-reviewed and were
based on the keywords “organizational citizenship behavior,” “antecedents of OCB,”
“dimensions of OCB,” “prosocial behavior and OCB,” “helping behavior and OCB,”
“communication and OCB,” “trust and OCB,” “1930s and OCB,” “1940s and OCB,” “1950s
and OCB,” “1960s and OCB,” “1970s and OCB,” “1980s and OCB,” “1990s and OCB,” “OCB
in the 21st century,” “OCB and 2000s,” “history of OCB,” and “OCB historical
development.” The full content of the different papers was examined in order to eliminate
those that were of no relevance and to determine important information that can be used
in the review.
Figure 1 shows the top five journals used in the review. These journals consist of the Development
following: Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Journal of of OCB and its
Personality and Social Psychology, Administrative Science Quarterly, and Human implications
Performance. We used 134 journals from different sources and used a total of 267 articles.
As shown in Figure 2, most journal articles used in the review were published during
2000-2009, followed by those published from 2010 to 2017, and finally, from 1990 to 1999.
Since OCB has been introduced in the late 1970s, we can gather that OCB has become a 823
popular field despite being a relatively young concept.
Figure 3, on the other hand, shows the most commonly used publishers. The group used
34 publishers from different sources and used a total of 52 publications. The top publishers
used in the review are Wiley and Sage Publications.
35
30
25
Academy of Management
Journal
20 Administrative Science
Quarterly
Human Performance
15 Journal of Applied Psychology
Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology
10
5 Figure 1.
Top five
academic/scientific
0 journals used
Number of Journal Articles
90
80
70
60 1930-1939
1940-1949
50 1950-1959
1960-1969
1970-1979
40
1980-1989
1990-1999
30 2000-2009
2010-2017
20
Figure 2.
10
OCB development
according to
0 publication (journals)
Decade Published
PR 10
47,4 9
8 Academic Press
7 Harvard University Press
6 JAI Press
Kogan Page Publishers
5
Prentice Hall
4
824 3
Routledge
Sage Publications
2 Wiley
Figure 3. 1
Top publishers used 0
Number of Publications
Meanwhile, Figure 4 indicates that the most commonly used books were published during
1960-1969. This decade saw sociologists studying the interactions and relationships of
individuals between and within groups.
The review also included working papers and dissertations which served as tertiary
references. These papers were referred to by a number of relevant journal articles and were
chosen because of their relevance to the review.
Following the review of articles, the next section is dedicated to the categorization of these
articles in terms of the historical development of OCB and its implications in the twenty-first
century. The existing literature is classified and analyzed in different decades in order to examine
the gradual development of the field of OCB. This study attempts to contribute to the literature
by sequentially identifying the progress in the field and to direct future research efforts.
3. Development of OCB
The study of OCB has undergone several developments over the past decades. Since its
introduction in 1983, more than 30 different forms of OCB have been identified by a number
of researchers (Podsakoff et al., 2000). As we can see in the following sections, however, the
concept of OCB was slow to evolve.
14
12
10 1930-1939
1940-1949
1950-1959
8
1960-1969
1970-1979
6 1980-1989
1990-1999
2000-2009
4 2010-2016
Figure 4. 2
OCB development
according to
publication (books) 0
Decade Published
3.1 1930-1939: the human relations era Development
Organ et al. (2006) indicated that the ideas related to OCB emerged from the satisfaction- of OCB and its
productivity argument of the late 1930s. This period was called the “human relations era” implications
because of the prevailing human relations movement ( Judge et al., 2001). Hoppock (1935)
defined satisfaction as the combination of the psychological and social conditions in the
workplace that produces an overall positive feeling toward the job and the organization.
During this time, it was generally presumed that employee satisfaction influenced 825
productivity (Organ et al., 2005). However, empirical research during this period found little
basis for this assumption.
According to Naidu (1996), scholars were first made aware of the connection between
satisfaction and performance through Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger’s Hawthorne
Studies, which occurred during 1924-1933. Regarded as the most significant exploration of
the human aspect of industrial relations in the early twentieth century, Hawthorne studies
marked the beginning of relating ergonomics, design, and productivity to the study of
job satisfaction.
The Hawthorne studies extensively investigated ways to enhance productivity in the
Western Electrical Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago. Originally, Mayo and
Roethlisberger sought to find how various conditions (i.e. workplace illumination) could
affect employee productivity as a consequence of the issues that arose from Taylor’s (1911)
scientific perspectives on management. Instead, they, later on, found that employees’
productivity increased when they feel valued by the organization. Because this proved that
employees work not just for the compensation they receive, but scholars studied other
factors that could also lead to better employee performance (i.e. satisfaction).
Many believe that the Hawthorne studies conducted from the 1920s until early 1930s
emphasized the socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in institutions (Muldoon,
2012). In 1939, Roethlisberger and Dickson’s (1939) management and the worker provided
an account of the Hawthorne studies as they took place. Organ et al. (2006) reported that
Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) distinguished between formal and informal organization
within an institution. However, Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939, p. 562) stated that
informal groups “exist as a necessary condition for collaboration.”
When Barnard (1938) discussed a theory of organization based on his conception of
cooperative systems, he came up with the notion of individuals’ inclination to work together
to achieve organizational goals. This perspective is banked on the idea of an individual
choosing independently to participate in a formal system of cooperation. Although Barnard
(1938) stressed the importance of cooperation in organizations, a significant amount of time
would pass before it becomes the basis from which the construct of OCB would appear.
(continued ) Table I.
PR Year Development Findings/Description Source
47,4
1990s
1990 Peacekeeping and Two years after coining “OCB,” Organ added Organ (1990b)
cheerleading “peacekeeping” and “cheerleading” to the
original five dimensions
844 1990-1993 Organizational justice Aside from job satisfaction, another Moorman (1991),
antecedent was created in connection to OCB Niehoff and
Moorman (1993)
1991 Six-dimension scale Lin developed the six-dimension scale which Lin (1991)
includes identification with the organization,
harmony, assistance to colleagues, discipline,
righteousness, and self- improvement
1991 OCBI and OCBO Williams and Anderson categorized OCB in Williams and
terms of the targeted party of the behavior: Anderson (1991)
OCB directed toward individuals (OCBI) and
OCB directed toward the organization (OCBO)
1994 OCB as a impacts sales unit Podsakoff and MacKenzie reported that the Podsakoff and
performance impact of OCB on sales unit performance MacKenzie (1994)
1994 Three more dimensions Van Dyne and his colleagues introduced Van Dyne et al.
another three dimensions: obedience, loyalty, (1994)
and participation
1995-1997 OCB-personality relationship Voluminous studies have been carried out on Organ and Lingl
OCB-personality relationship (1995), Penner
et al. (1997)
1997 OCB as a factor of Podsakoff showed that OCB is related to Podsakoff and
organizational performance organizational performance MacKenzie (1997)
2000 Podsakoff categorized 30 Classified the 30 dimensions, previously Podsakoff et al.
researched dimensions into identified in the past years, into seven (2000)
seven categories general categories
2001 – present
21st Knowledge age Exploration of OCB in relation to other Various
Table I. century disciplines researchers
energy from its employees in order to survive. Jobs are becoming more unpredictable and
complex, thus resulting in greater challenges for employees.
Finally, recent changes in the workplace set-up entail major concerns for organizations
since today’s highly globalized and diversified environment makes it challenging to
encourage OCB among employees. Manyika et al. (2017) reported that with the advent of
automation today, people and technology need to work together in order to harness and
realize the full potential of robotics. It is expected that new antecedents of OCB will emerge,
causing other identified ones to become irrelevant.
5. Conclusion
Based on the review presented, it can be observed that the concept of OCB was slow to develop.
Although it has been introduced in the late 1970s and officially defined in the 1980s, its origins
can be traced back to the 1930s. Despite this, OCB is generally regarded as a relatively new
construct and has become one of the biggest subjects studied in the literature. The concept has
reached far and wide into the business world, supporting the fact that employees’ well-being
and behaviors can greatly affect organizations’ effectiveness and performance.
It is recommended that a deeper investigation of the relationship between its
antecedents, determinants, and other concepts related to OCB is needed. Having been the
topic of a significant number of studies, there have been inconsistent research findings
regarding the concepts. Furthermore, some concepts have been noted to overlap, with Development
several scholars using different terms for essentially similar concepts. These overlaps were of OCB and its
demonstrated in several levels. First, on the basis of the term, OCB is highly associated with implications
contextual performance, prosocial organizational behavior, and extra-role behavior with few
studies demonstrating the precise overlaps of these terms in various possible contexts.
Second, widely known OCB antecedents are also established constructs in their own right
and these constructs influence the display of OCB both in the individual and organizational 845
levels. Aside from these causal relationships, these antecedents have significant overlaps
with scant empirical reports in the current literature. It is not also widely known whether
and how these overlaps of antecedents impact OCB. Finally, other organizational factors
have been reported to relate OCB with varying degrees. These include corporate
championship, corporate sustainability (i.e. initiatives brought about by the emerging
pressures related to sustainable development), demographic factors such as age, rank,
gender, and tenure, and the rise of service industries and servitization patterns in the
twenty-first century which may set forth a collective interest on OCB toward customers.
These factors have not been comprehensively explored and understood well in the
current literature.
This has brought about disorganization in the literature. A more careful research
analysis is recommended in order to avoid confusion, such as a longitudinal OCB analysis
(which may be conducted to generate greater insight rather than a cross-sectional
approach). Finally, Ueda (2016) provided interesting points for future work on OCB such as
the need to understand the relationships of OCB with other relevant factors, to provide a
meta-analysis of national/cultural differences, and to explore OCB antecedents. These areas
require significant attention as the twenty-first century unfolds.
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Corresponding author
Lanndon Ocampo can be contacted at: lanndonocampo@gmail.com
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