LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Enhancing Prevention Programs' Credibility

Through the Use of a Logic Model
Dear Editor:
As park, recreation and sport management professionals become
increasingly involved in youtb development, they find themselves
operating in a world requiring diverse and complementary program
justification. There is an interest to move beyond the provision of
facilities and eqiaipment for traditional sports activities to the devel-
opment of programs that target specific outcomes diat benefit youtb
(EUis, Braff, & Hutchinson, 2001). Program justification has become
essential for credibility. Credibility depends on a sound program-
ming process that clearly establishes a Unk between tbeory, the pro-
gram model and subsequent bebavioral changes in participating youth
(McKenzie & Smeltzer, 1997). This pendulum shift has presented
several challenges to park, recreation and sport management profes-
sionals.

While park, recreation and sport professionals are quick to tout

the posidve impact of their programs for at-risk youth in terms of
increased self-esteem, improved school achievement, and better com-
munication skills; however, the actual relationship between recre-
ation and beneficial outcomes bas not been adequately explained
(Baker & Witt, 2000). Baldwin (2000) stated there has been Utde
discussion of the dieoretical foundation of park and recreation pro-
gramming for at-risk youth, despite the need for sciendfic rigor to
establish the leisure services and sport field's credibility of tbese pro-
grams.

Secondly, most professionals have not been trained in scientific

evaluation or bave not used dieir skills in years, consequendy have
not embraced evaluadon as a programming process. These issues are
further complicated because tbe evaluation process in park, recre-
 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL 9

ation and sport often lacks specificity in die selection of possible

program outcomes despite recent improvements in program plan-
ning. Many programs are dominated by sbort-term, unstructured
activities, sucb as recreational basketball, tbat do not focus on be-
havioral cbanges. Kleiber (1999) stated diat these tradidonal acdvi-
ties do not provide the "challenge" necessary to promote development
in participants.
Recent research reveals that park and recreation practitioners are
expressing a desire to understand theory and incorporate it into their
programs (McKenzie & Smeltzer, 1999). Practitioners realize that
such inclusion provides credence and a rationale for the intervention
or program, as well as a foundation for the desired outcome. How-
ever, most park and recreation prevention programs have used broad/
vague program objectives, making it difficult to assess specific pro-
gram outcomes (Baldwin, 2000). Baldwin asserted diat identifying
tbe bebavioral framework of tbe recreation program context is par-
ticularly challenging for park and recreation professionals.
To advance professional use of evaluation models, die audior
developed a logic model to systematically illustrate and evaluate the
relationship between tbeories, procedures, programmatic content,
evaluation metbods, and outcome of a mulddisciplinary, commu-
nity-based prevention project tbat was designed for "high at-risk"
youth. The author hopes that this experience will bridge theory and
practice, and assist in advancing funding and collaboradve opportu-
nities. Wbile it is not the intent of this communication to report
findings of the study, the author does provide general informadon
regarding the results to explain the interrelated components of the
model. The project examined the outcomes of recreation and health
related activities to improve youth academic standing and reduce
youth negative behaviors such as drugs and criminal activities. A
multidisciplinary team of educators, prevention professionals, com-
munity organizations, college students, and parents undertook the
project referred to as Project WISE-UP, which was funded by a two-
year grant from tbe U.S. Department of Juvenile Justice and tbe
Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. The goals of die project
10 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL

were: (a) to reduce the risk that youth wiU engage in dysfunctional
bebavior sucb as drugs and criminal activities; and (b) to improve
participants' academic standing while reducing their in-school sus-
pension rates. Specific objectives included increase participants' GPA
and decrease aggregate absences, suspensions and referrals to the
principal's office, and improve their leisure attitudes and behavior.
The WISE-UP Logic Model (See Figure 1) illustrated a logic-
flow from program activities to the anticipated short-and long-term
impact of the intervention.
Figure 1 shows the improved framework for the WISE-UP Logic
Model. It consisted of five components: (1) Assumpdons/Theoreti-
cal Premise, (2) Program Activities, (3) Immediate Outcomes/Evalu-
ative Activities, (4) Intermediate Outcomes/Objectives, and (5) Final
outcomes / Goals.

The assumpdon/theoretical premise, which included social de-

velopment theory, provided a foundation to define and design the
content and structure of intervention activities. Social development
theory provided staff the means to understand the interrelatedness
or covariates of risk behavior. Jessor (1991) discussed the impor-
tance of understanding adolescent risk behavior as a cluster instead
of attempting to focus on an independent or separate behavior
to develop effective prevention programs. According to Jessor, at-
risk youths' lifestyle often involves a constelladon of risk behaviors
(driving after drinking, unprotected sexual intercourse, fighting, smok-
ing, illicit drug use, etc). Therefore, die development of a single-
focused program is not as effective as a comprehensive program
designed to focus on the entire array of adolescent risk behaviors. A
program that focuses on "Just say no to drugs" needs to concentrate
on drug education, alcohol abuse, decision-making, self-esteem, and
sexual precocity, as a minimal to be effecdve. Jessor's tbeoretical no-
tion - Conceptual Framework for Adolescent Risk Bebavior: Risk
and Protective Factors, Risk Bebavior, and Risk Outcomes - pro-
vided tbe means for staff to understand risk behavior in the context
of a "web of causadon" (Jessor, 1991). The conceptual framework
also provided an understanding of the interrelated nature of risk
 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL 11

factors and protective factors, risk behavior, and consequences of

the risk behaviors. Drawing from this theoretical notion, the staff
designed Project WISE-UP as a comprehensive, multidisciplinary
program that included drug education, crime prevendon, decision-
making, tutoring, leisure education, recreation, family discussions,
and life skills.
12 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL

The assumption/theoretical premises component also relies on

methods extrapolated from the Family Ecological Systems approach,
which is derived from theory and research in human development,
cognitive development, child and adolescent psychology, family
therapy, and community mental health (Henggeler, 1982). Henggeler's
perspective is that the adolescent is embedded in and interacts with
various systems and subsystems, ranging from personal attributes,
parents, siblings and extended family, to the school, church, and com-
munity organizations. The Family Ecological System designates five
spheres of influence on an individual, including the following: per-
sonal attributes of the individual [intrapersonal system); interpersonal
relations within the immediate settings in which an adolescent devel-
ops and interacts {microsystem); linkages between two or more ele-
ments in the microsystem; social structures that influence power over
the adolescent indirectly {exosystem); and patterns of cultures, values
and belief {macrosystem). It is within these systems that the individual's
behavior and development are shaped. This theoretical notion aided
the staff in understanding the interrelations among the adolescent,
family, and extrafamilial systems. Given this theoretical premise, the
author established a parmership with the adolescents (intrapersonal
system); parents, extended family, siblings, peers, teachers and the rec-
reation staff (microsystem <& mesosystem); and community organizations
and the school system (exosystem).

Figure 1 presents additional theoretical notions regarding deci-

sion-making and problem-solving knowledge and skills, construc-
tive use of leisure activities, healthy lifestyles, and good study habits
that guided the development of the program and evaluation activi-
ties. For example, one theoretical notion that influenced program
development was the belief that constructive and wise use of a di-
verse range of enjoyable and rewarding leisure activities will deter
drug use and criminal behavior. Additionally, research suggests that
having a great deal of unstructured, unsupervised discretionary time
can undermine positive youth development (Curruthers and Busser,
2000). From these assumptions, the author designed the program-
matic activities for Project WISE-UP that included crime preven-
 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL 13

tion, drug education, leisure education, life skills (decision-making,

problem solving and conflict resolution), teen courts, a tutorial pro-
gram, field trips, chess, and parental involvement. It was offered in
two-hour sessions, four times a week for 32 weeks over two-years,
using the university semester as a framework. AU project activities
were held in the participants' community, a federally subsidized hous-
ing project, where they resided and attended public school.
All middle school students, ages 11-14 and a younger sibling,
were invited to participate in the program. Thirty-seven (37) stu-
dents agreed to participate. Fifty-nine percent of participants were
males and 4 1 % were females. All participants were African Ameri-
cans with 100% of them receiving free school lunches. Most of the
participants were "high- at risk" students from households headed
by a single parent whose household income fell below the state's
poverty level. They were exposed to multiple risk factors: economic
disadvantage, alcohol and drug experimentation, chronic failure in
school, learning disabilities, et cetera. All participants had poor aca-
demic achievement records, poor school attendance, and very high
in/out of school suspensions based on misconduct. Most partici-
pants had been administratively promoted for several grades.
Project staff tested these hypotheses and refined assumptions
through various programmatic and evaluative activities. For instance,
evaluative activities for the leisure education module included "pre"
and "post" surveys to assess subjects' perceptions of satisfaction
and value of leisure, combined with a self-inventory of leisure be-
havior. The immediate outcomes resulted direcdy from an activity
and led to intermediate outcomes; for example, enriched knowledge
of the harmful effects of drugs; advanced perceptions and attitudes
toward leisure activities, decision-making and problem solving skills;
increased family bonding; and improved study skills. Intermediate
objectives were evaluated by comparing the pardcipants' GPAs, school
attendance, in/out of school suspensions, and disciplinary referrals
at various intervals. Data were obtained from the school board, one
of the project's partners. If the project was effecdve, then improved
GPAs, reduced days of absence, reduced suspensions, and reduced
14 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL

referrals should have followed the improved knowledge and attitudes

of drugs, improved leisure attitudes and perceptions, improved life
skills, and improved family bonding and communication.
Table 1 presents a summary of the intermediate outcomes for
Year 1 and Year 2. By the end of Year 1, data revealed participants'
GPA decreased from 2.21 to 1.95; days of absence increased from
14.4 to 19.06 days; and school suspensions increased from 2.19 to
7.91 times.

The only area that suggested program effectiveness in Year 1

was disciplinary referrals to the principal or dean of student's office.
It decreased from an average of 9.66 to 6.53 times. Year 2 data re-
vealed improvements in all areas, consequently demonstrating the
logical progression of the project's impact. By the end of Year 2,
39% (« = 12) of participants improved in their GPA. The average
improvement for the project participants was .15. The number of
referrals to the principal or dean of student's office decreased by an
average of 2.3 encounters, which represented 55% of the partici-
pants showing a decrease in referrals. The average number of school
suspensions decreased by 5.5 times, and 7 1 % of the participants
showed a decrease in the number of school suspensions. The aver-
age days of absences decreased by 1.7 days, with 38% of partici-
pants showing a decrease in absences.
At the end of Year 1, data on participants' drug and alcohol
knowledge showed an 11% increase overall. Forty-six percent of
participants (« = 14) improved their knowledge (See Table 2).
Thirty-six percent of participants (« = 11) improved their atti-
tudes toward drugs and alcohol abuse. Fifty-five percent of partici-
pants (« = 17) improved their leisure attitudes. These were measured
using a Iikert-type scale using a range of 1 to 5. Data on partici-
pants' decision-making and conflict resolution knowledge revealed
that 55% of participants (« = 17) reported an itnprovement. Data
revealed 64% percent of participants (« = 20) improved their deci-
sion-making behaviors and forty-six (46%) {n- 14) of participants
improved family bonding and communication scores.
ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL 15

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Students were presented a series of questions, which were indi-

cators of parental involvement in their completion of homework,
problems, and social decisions. Data revealed 36% (« = 11) of the
participants improved their study habits during Year 1. One obvious
limitation of the study was an inability to control for other interven-
ing variables that may have contributed to participants' success.
Park, recreation and sport professionals of youth-serving agen-
cies are facing increasing challenges to align programs with policy
directions that endorse a youth development approach. Such an ap-
proach requires program documentation of outcomes and the utili-
zation of a sound programming process that clearly establishes a
link between theory, program model and subsequent behavioral
changes in participating youths. Documentation of the value of park,
recreation and sport activities is the most difficult type of evaluation
because it requires a systematic methodology for collecting informa-
tion, a careful topology of activities, clearly defined goals and per-
formance outcomes, and specific measures of outcomes and
perceived benefits. Perhaps this is why only a few studies have been
conducted that specifically evaluate program effectiveness (Baker &
Witt, 1996). These challenges will require more dialogue of the theo-
retical foundation of park, recreation and sport programming for at-
risk youth, funding, and staff training. Establishing programs on a
sound theoretical base enhances the rigor and quality of programs
and subsequent outcome evaluation (Baldwin, 2000). Through this
research endeavor, the author hopes to advance professional use of
evaluation models and to facilitate their use in park, recreation, sport,
and leisure services. It has been the author's experience that most
stakeholders perceive recreation programs as nonessential and in-
tangible service. Most stakeholders understand the relationship be-
tween recreation and economic impact and/or personal fitness; but
too few perceive recreation as a vital element in behavioral modifica-
tion or youth development. The author found this to be the case in
seeking funding for the discussed project. Prior to the state agency's
approval of funding, the author was summoned to a meeting of
prevention, law enforcement, and youth development personnel to
18 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL

discuss strategies to achieve such long-term goals. When the author

noted the second goal of the project - to reduce youth dysfunc-
tional behaviors, such as drugs and criminal activities, the question
was raised: "How are you going to achieve it." The logic- model was
a "saving grace" in explaining how the intervention had been con-
ceptualized to enhance youth development. Having studied the es-
sence of social learning theory, Jessor's Conceptual Framework for
Adolescent Risk Behavior, and the Family Ecological Model (Jessor,
1991), the author was able to provide a "map" of critical program
variables and their relationship to theory and practice.
In addition to the model providing a paradigm to systematically
explain the relationship between theoretical premise, program inter-
vention, immediate and long-term outcomes, it provided a logical
explanation of the logic flow from program activities to the antici-
pated short and long-term impact of the intervention.
The results at the end of Year 1 were not as positive as those at
the end of Year 2. After one year of intervention, the only area that
suggested program effectiveness was disciplinary referrals. As noted,
it decreased from an average of 9.66 to 6.53 times. For Year 1, data
revealed that the project was effective only in slowing the rate of
academic deterioration after the first year. This result was somewhat
expected, recalling that these were high-risk youth, and many of them
had been administratively promoted. It is the contention of the au-
thor that without the prevention program, the participants' dysfunc-
tional behavior would have increased significandy in the absence of
the project intervention. Second year data revealed improvements in
all areas, consequently suggesting the logical progression of the
project's impact. These findings support the literature, which holds
youth development takes time and is most effectively addressed by
programs that focus on an array of risk factors.
As illustrated in the logic model, immediate objective measures
need to occur before indicators of intermediate outcome/objectives
or final outcomes can be expected. Results of the data analysis sup-
port this logical progression. Participants' academic performance and
 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL 19

disciplinary behaviors improved after they showed improvements in

drug and alcohol knowledge and attitudes, leisure attitudes and per-
ception, study habits, family bonding and communication, and in
decision-making knowledge and skills.
In conclusions, there are several implications for this study. The
modest improvements in the participants' academic performance and
improved knowledge and skills in decision-making, drug education,
and improved leisure attitudes and recreation participation suggest
that park and recreation programs can make a positive contribution
to youth development. The study results also give credence to park,
recreation and sport prevention programs that target youth who are
failing in the school system. The logic model suggests that agency
effectiveness may be enhanced if there is a direct link between as-
sumptions/theoretical notions, goals, programs and the valued out-
comes, which give credence to Baldwin (2000), Cato, Chen and
Corbett-Perez (1998), and McKenzie's (1997) assertions. The model
also provides a strategy for managers of youth serving agencies who
are encountering high demands for services, scrutiny from flinders,
and the need to go an extra step in justifying the beneflts of recre-
ation in youth development.
Despite this effort, as well as other advancements in the evalua-
tion and documentation of park, recreation and sport prevention
programs, there are still issues to be resolved. On-going research is
required to further test the model and document the value of such
programs in the behavior modification and youth development. If
park, recreation and sport professionals want to move beyond tradi-
tional recreation programming for youth, to the development of
programs that target specific outcomes for at-risk youth, they must
provide diverse and complementary program strategies that are ob-
jective and measurable. Intervention programs that can document
positive behavioral changes in participants enhance collaborative and
funding opportunities.
Bertha Cato, Department of Tourism, Recreation and
Sports Management, College of Health & Human Performance,
University of Florida
20 ENHANCING CREDIBILITY USING A LOGIC MODEL

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goals and content of two after-school enrichment programs. Journal
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Baldwin, C. K. (2000). Theory, programs, and outcomes: Assessing the

challenges of evaluating at-risk youth recreation programs. Journal of
Park and Recreation Administration, 18, 19-33.

Cato, B., Chen, W, & Corbett-Perez, S. (1998). Logic model: A tool for
planning and evaluating health and recreation prevention projects.
journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 69, 57-61.

Curruthers, C , & Busser, J. A. (2000). A qualitative outcome study of

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Ellis, J. M., Braff, E., & Hutchinson, S. L. (2001). Youth recreation and
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Kleiber, D. (1999). Leisure experience and human development: A dialectical

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