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TECHNOLOGY & EMPLOYMENT SKILLS TRAINING 2015

APPLIED TECHNOLOGY
TEXTBOOK

YEAR 11

Technology and Employment Skills Training

Ministry of Education

6th January, 2015

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This text book has been written for the new Year 11 Applied Technology syllabus to be trialed in Fiji secondary
schools this year, 2015. It is the second edition of the Year 11 Applied Technology resource material.

It is designed to introduce students to the fundamental knowledge and skills in basic plumbing, tiling, electricity,
welding, building fundamentals, and air conditioning and processes with related knowledge on safety, materials,
design & enterprising, portable machines and hand tools.

This is the second edition of Year 11 Applied Technology textbook and any suggestions for amendments will be
welcomed.

It is hoped that for beginners for Applied Technology this text book will be relevant for them and that it provides
them the opportunity to pursue further in this field.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
SUVA.
6th January, 2015.

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This textbook for Year 11 Applied Technology has been produced by the Industrial Arts Section of the Technology
and Employment Skills Training Section of the Ministry of Education. It has been written and compiled by the Year
11 text book writers‘ panel comprising of:

1. Mr. Sunil Praneel Narayan - HOD Industrial Arts - Nadi Sangam (SKM) College, Nadi.
2. Mr. Umendra Sharma - A/HOD Industrial Arts - Gospel High School, Samabula, Suva.
3. Mr. Raj I. Chand - SEO Industrial Arts – TEST Section, Ministry of Education.

This publication has been made possible through the support and assistance provided by the Senior Education Officer,
TEST: Mr Pene Aropio, Principal Education Officer, TEST, Mr Tomasi Naborisi, Director TEST, Ms Alumeci
Tuisawau and other Senior Staff of The Ministry of Education.

Above all the TEST staff and the family members of the writers are thanked for their patience and wholehearted
support.

Every effort has been made to acknowledge all copyright.

© Copyright
Ministry of Education, Fiji, 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Suva, Fiji.

Any person who commits any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable for prosecution.

Published in 2015 by
Technology and Employment Skills Training
Ministry of Education
Marela House
Private Mail Bag
Suva
Fiji.

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Strand 1 Safety 6

Strand 2 Design and Enterprising 14

Strand 3 Engineering Materials 33

Strand 4 Basic Home Improvement 58

Strand 5 Machines and Engines 77

Strand 6 Applied Engineering 86

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 STRAND 1
SAFETY
STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Identify and practice general safety rules.

 Practice good housekeeping in the workshop.
 Recognize and use systematic working procedures.
 Recognize hazardous situations in the workshop.
 Develop safe working attitudes and practices.

INTRODUCTION
Workshop safety rules are a means of keeping one safe and healthy in a protected environment. Safety must be
considered at all times in the workshop. A reasonably safe person is one who is considerate to others, tidy and
prepared to ‗ask if unsure‘. It is important to adhere to all the safety rules of the workshop in order to keep oneself
safe.

STARTS WITH YOU

GENERAL SAFETY
An important part of experiences in the workshop will be learning to follow practices and procedures that will prevent
injuries to self and others. Close attention needs to be paid to the instructions and demonstrations given. The directions
given in this chapter need to be studied for using tools and equipment. As you learn to use them the correct way, you
also learn to use them the safe way. It is entirely upon you to develop good attitude toward safety. This means that you
have to have a strong feeling towards the importance of safety and are willing to give time and attention to learning
the safest way to perform your work. It means that you will be certain to work carefully and follow the rules – even
when no one is watching you. A safe attitude will protect you and others, not only in the workshop, but also in
activities outside of school.

The following are general rules that apply to all workshop workers, whether you are permanently attending a practical
class or are in the workshop for any other purpose:
 Keep the workshop clean and tidy at all times;
 Always seek instruction before using an unfamiliar piece of equipment;
 Only use tools and machines for their intended purpose;
 Focus on what you are doing at all times, and take a break if your mind starts to wander;
 Always be patient, never rush in the workshop;
 Do not run, push, call out or play jokes in a workshop environment;
 Never distract the attention of another co-worker when that person is operating equipment and never indulge
in horseplay;
 Always use the appropriate personal protective devices and check that they are clean and in good repair before
and after use;
 Report all hazards and unsafe conditions and work practices immediately to your teacher.
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Secure your teacher‗s approvals for all work you plan to do in the workshop, if it doesn‗t feel good, don‗t do it. If you
are not comfortable making a particular cut, or are not sure if it is safe, get advice from your teacher before you try.
He or she is the one to decide if the work can and should be done, and will be able to suggest the best, easiest, and
safest way to do it.

PERSONAL SAFETY
When in the workshop you must understand the several personal safety measures that will help keep you and others
safe in the workshop.

❶ PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT.

Safety equipment is important for general shop safety rules. The specific type of personal safety equipment to
be used will be greatly determined by the actual type of equipment in the workshop.

The most common personal safety equipment will be safety eye goggles, safety masks, dust masks, gloves, hard hats
and closed-toed shoes. Make a list of the required personal safety equipment to be in the workshop area in your
school. If you have different stations that require additional protection, be certain to post a clear sign stating the
requirements for that section.

❷ EYE PROTECTION. Wear safety glasses or a face shield when doing

any work that may endanger your eyes. Be sure you have enough good
light to see what you are doing without straining your eyes.

❸ MASKS AND MUFFS. Make sure that you wear appropriate

masks in dusty conditions and ear muffs while using machines
with impact noise or lower intensity steady state noise over a long
period of time.

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❹ CLEAN HANDS. Keep your hands clean and free of oil or grease.
You will do better and safer work, and the tools and your project will
stay in good condition.

❺ APPROPRIATE CLOTHING. Another issue to address

with general shop safety rules is appropriate clothing. Loose
clothing, jewellery and even shoe laces can get caught in power
equipment and cause extreme injury. Make certain that you
understand how something as simple as a shoe lace can get caught
in equipment.

❻ CLEAN WORKING AREA. It is the responsibility of you, the

students to maintain a clean shop. Cleaning as you work is
compulsory. Plan 10 minutes at the end of each practical class to
clean your workspace, as well as the common areas of the shop. One
of the biggest problems in a general shop area is the potential for
accidents. Students and workers must be taught the importance of
cleaning their work stations on a regular basis. All equipment and
items must be put back in their proper storage areas after each use. It's
imperative that you do not let a general shop become cluttered and
disorganized in order to prevent accidents.

❼ CONSIDERATION OF OTHERS. Be thoughtful and helpful

toward other students in the class. Be sure that the work you are doing
does not endanger someone else. Caution other students if they are
violating a safety rule.

❽ FLOOR SAFETY. The floor should be clear of scrap blocks and excessive litter. Keep projects, stools,
sawhorses, and other equipment and materials away from working area. Immediately wipe up any liquids
spilled on the floor.

❾ MATERIAL AND PROJECT STORAGE. Store and stack

your project pieces carefully in assigned areas. Two students should
carry boards and long pieces of timber.

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❿ LIFTING. Protect your back muscles when lifting heavy objects. Have someone help you. Lift with your arm and
leg muscles.

⓫ CHEMICALS. Does your shop have chemicals? Chemical safety must be

covered with anyone that might use them. Store all chemicals in a cabinet
with clear labels. No student is allowed to use any chemicals with prior
permission of the teacher. Does your workshop safety kit has an eye wash in
it? Additionally, you should know how to use the eye wash if chemicals go
into your eyes.

SAFETY WHILE USING HAND TOOLS

KNOW YOUR TOOLS

Don't operate any tools with which you are unfamiliar or for purposes other than those for which they are designed.
Even if you are trained in the safe operation of a tool, review operating instructions occasionally to be sure you are not
overlooking proper procedures. Inspect tools before you use them, looking for signs of damage and for missing parts.
Check electrical and hose connections for signs of wear. If you find damage, store the tool away from the work area
and attach a warning label to it.
Workshops contain many types of hand tools and it is essential that you are instructed and trained by your teacher in
the correct method of handling and care of the tools you use. Inspect tools for any damage prior to each use and if a
tool is defective, remove it from service, and tag it clearly "Out of service - for repair". Substitution is not allowed if
the correct tool is not immediately available.

CARRYING AND STORING HAND TOOLS

You can help prevent injuries and provide a better workplace for everyone if you follow the following precautions:
1. Carry tools securely in a tool box. Do not carry too many tools at once. Carry sharp edge or pointed tools close to
the body and pointed down to the floor.
2. Never carry sharp or pointed tools such as a screwdriver
in your pocket.
3. Pass a tool to another person by the handle; never toss it
to them.
4. Store tools properly. Do not clutter tools all over the
workplace, on the bench and projected over the edge of
the bench. Properly store tools being used in the bench
well and in the tool box after use.

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Be sure you are fully aware on the proper use and operation of any tool before beginning a job. Go by the following
precautions to ensure a safe working environment.

1. Use the right tool for the right job. Do not use your wrench as a hammer. Do not use a screwdriver as a chisel.
2. Always keep your tools in top condition. A dull blade or blunt point can lead to injury.
3. Cut in a direction away from your body, especially when paring with chisels.
4. Do not use broken or damaged tools, dull cutting tools, or screwdrivers with worn tips. Do not use hammers
with loose heads or chipped faces and splintered or broken handles. Do not use files without handles.
5. Use a hammer for driving punches, etc., and a mallet for chisels with wooden handles.

BE PATIENT
Make all adjustments to your tools or work piece before turning on power tools. Secure your work with a proper vice
or clamp, and do not attempt to adjust it while the tool is turned on. Use all power tools at full operating speed, and
never when they are powering up to or down from full speed

CLEAN UP

Perform routine maintenance on tools after each use. Store all tools, and keep all
accessories, like bits and blades, organized.

Clean oil or water spills as soon as they happen. Make sure combustible materials
are stored away from welding areas and any power tools that are capable of
producing sparks. Observe all ventilation warnings on substances you use in the
workshop. Know where to dispose of oily rags and other materials that have
come in contact with hazardous materials. Familiarize yourself with fire safety
escape routes from your shop.

SAFETY WHEN USING MACHINES

PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
Your first responsibility in the machine shop is to be alert. Never operate power tools if you are tired, distracted or
impaired by prescription drugs, or on medication. Save conversation for when the tools are shut off. Operate only tools
with which you are familiar. Leave safety guards in place, and take all of the extra precautions that safe operation
requires. Don't use headphones or ear-buds, but do use ear plugs when teachers recommend that you do.

COVER UP

When operating any power tool that removes material, cover

your head, hair, eyes and face with safety devices. Wear well-
fitting clothing and steel-tipped work shoes. Use a face guard
over your goggles when using grinders or welding equipment.
An exception: don't wear gloves when operating any tool or
machine that has exposed rotating or other moving parts.

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MACHINES MUST BE TREATED WITH RESPECT
A workshop can be a creative and enjoyable place to spend time, but it is not a playground, and must never be treated
as such. In an environment full of motors, spinning blades, whirring knives, and moving metal, carelessness and lack
of attention can easily lead to injury or disaster. Following basic safety rules is not difficult, and should be an absolute
requirement in any machine shop.

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

At a minimum, anyone working in a workshop should wear hearing and eye

protection and steel-toed boots. In many shops, hard hats are also required.
Lack of hearing protection is not likely to cause immediate injury, but
prolonged exposure to high levels of noise can damage ears in the long term.
You may discover your hearing failing ten years later as a result of not
wearing hearing protection. Neglecting safety glasses can lead to much more
immediate and permanent injury. A sliver of metal shooting into your eye can
blind you in an instant. Safety glasses are a simple and very effective way to
prevent such injuries.

MAINTENANCE
All machines should be regularly serviced and maintained. This includes
keeping hinges, axles, and other moving parts greased and lubricated, and
keeping blades, knives and bits sharp. Any machine being worked on
should be unplugged and locked out. Locking out a machine involves
placing the plug into a locked plastic box, preventing other students from
inadvertently plugging the machine back in while it is being worked on.
Maintenance work at this level will be done by your subject teachers only.
You are to observe the demonstration and learn.

PROPER TRAINING
The most effective way to prevent injury in a machine shop is thorough training and education. Whenever a person
uses a machine for the first time, he must be required to read the operating manual, and be introduced to the machine
by a more experienced supervisor or co-worker. It is your responsibility to recall what you have learnt and be safe in
the workshop during your practical classes. One of the best ways to avoid injury is to develop consistent procedures
on a machine which are repeated every time it is used. Because a new worker hasn't had the opportunity to develop
these routines, he is at greater risk of accident or injury. Being shown the procedures of a more experienced worker
(your teacher or senior student) can greatly accelerate your learning, thus reducing the amount of work time spent in
this danger zone of inexperience.

The following precautions will help in ensuring a safe working environment in the workshop.

1. You must stay away from and report on any electrical faults immediately to your teacher. Do not attempt to
touch plugs which are broken or cracked, electrical wires and power cords which are broken or any worn or
damaged electrical parts of machines.
2. The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used. The risks are greatest in
harsh conditions, for example:
 in wet surroundings - unsuitable equipment can easily become live and can make its surroundings live;
 out of doors - equipment may not only become wet but may be at greater risk of damages;
 In cramped spaces with a lot of earthed metalwork, such as inside a tank or bin - if an electrical fault
developed it could be very difficult to prevent a shock.
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 3. Machine areas are clearly marked with a danger zone line which you should not go beyond.
4. You must be wide awake and alert when near machine areas. Know where you are and what you are doing
and what the machine is doing.
5. Never distract the attention of another student or worker when that person is operating a machine.
6. A running machine must not be left unattended. Do not go near it but advice your teacher about it.
7. Never attempt to operate a machine without the permission of your teacher.

FIRST AID

Workshops, by nature, contain items that can be hazardous. One of the most
important things to plan for in a workshop is to carry out first aid. Encourage,
stop, look and think before taking on any hazardous task or activity.

Following are a few suggestions on first aid in the workshop:

1. All accidents, injuries, incidents, illnesses and hazards must be reported
immediately.
2. All injuries require the completion of an accident report form by your
teacher.
3. It is highly recommended that no one works alone in the workshop. You
are to be supervised at all times by your teacher.
4. A first-aid kit is always available in the workshop, and you should know
where it is. Essential items include bandages, antiseptic wipes, gauze,
scissors, tweezers and a cold-pack.
5. Be prepared for accidents. Consider these questions: where is the nearest telephone, the first aid kit, and the
nearest person who can help.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY.

Occupational health and safety is concerned with safe guarding your safety, health and welfare while in the workshop.
The goal of all occupational health and safety programs is to foster a safe work environment. Your school workshop
should be having an OHS Policy. Discuss this policy with your teacher so that you are aware of the procedures set by
your school heads and management. The school you attend is required by the OHS Act 1996 and OHS Regulation to
provide a workplace that is safe and minimizes risk to you, your fellow workers and teachers. Knowing and
understanding the occupational health and safety regulations will help you avoid unnecessary injury and illness and
damage to property.

Under the OHS legislations the school is to provide the following:

 safe premises;
 safe machinery and materials;
 safe systems of work;
 a suitable working environment and facilities

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What action should be taken if you had:

a) a burn,
b) something in your eye,
c) an electric shock?
2. Draw a person wearing five pieces of safety clothing.
3. What five general safety rules would you use if writing a ‘machine safety’ notice for a general purpose
workshop?
4. Make a safety notice for a drilling machine which is to be placed next to the drilling machine.
5. What safety advice should be given to a person who has been given an old electric drill?

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6. List the faults shown in the diagram given below. An example has been done for you.

7. Why is health and safety important in the workshop?

8. What is the first step you will take if your colleague gets hurt while using a hand chisel?
9. What does the following safety symbols mean?

10. What is first aid?

11. List five important supplies or equipment used while giving first aid. Where are these supplies kept?
12. What is a service/maintenance record? How often should you service a portable drilling machine?
13. How should you lift a box from the floor to the work bench?
14. In a group of five, make a list of the hazardous areas you find in your school workshop and the school
campus. Whom should you submit this list to? Have you highlighted the areas that need immediate
attention? Do you know your schools OHS representatives?
15. In a group of five, make a chart on ‘safety in the workshop’ and do a class presentation by explaining
each element listed/drawn on the chart.

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 STRAND 2
DESIGN & ENTERPRISING

DESIGN

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Identify, understand and interpret the relevance of the design cycle in designing.
 Use basic design cycle and design elements to solve design problems.
 Know the effects of design on environment and how it is related to climate change.

INTRODUCTION
Throughout the history of mankind, modern invention and technology has been produced to solve human needs or
problems. The invention of cars, aeroplanes, electrically operated trains, mobile phones, the internet, latex and
electricity, for instance, are examples of human problems solved through design.

Design is a methodological process which involves the solution of a human problem whereby an idea from one’s
brain is changed into reality. Creative ideas are recorded by the designer as sketches and improved to produce the
final solution. A set of detailed working drawings are made after which a model (prototype) is constructed before large
scale production. After the evaluation (testing) of the model, changes are made to the design if required.

To design any item, that is, form one‘s brain to reality; a designer would have to make use of some of the design tools
(elements) and guidelines (principles).

You need to use the right combination of design elements, used according to design principles in order to
effectively communicate your visual instructional message (sketches and drawings) in the form of design folders and
successfully use them to construct quality design projects. Learning about design elements and principles will help
you create and evaluate design sketches.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

These can be simply classified as the tools (ingredients) of design which include point, line, shape, form, space,
materials, value, texture, colour and light.
1. Point- is the first and simplest element of visual design.

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 The point serves as the focus of a
visual, highlighting or drawing
attention to important information.
Example the ‗bulls eye‘.
Remember to use points or dots effectively in your sketches while designing:
Emphasize key ideas
Represent a more complicated object or
idea in order to keep the image clear and
simple.
Several points in combination may
represent a more complicated object or
idea. For example, constellations can
be thought of as points in the sky
representing the figure we "see."
Direct the learner's attention
A series of points can attract attention,
especially as they move closer together.
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2. Line- is the basic element of design. The element of line is used to produce a sense of movement within an object
or to produce a greater sense of length or height.
i) Vertical line – creates the illusion of an increase in height.
ii) Horizontal line – creates the illusion of an increase in width
iii) Diagonal line – create a feeling of transition (change)

Vertical lines also equate to power

Vertical lines can stop eye
and strength.
movement.

A line can be thought of as points so close Since lines can be straight, curved, or
together that they lose their individual identity irregularly shaped, you can also think of a
and form a new entity line as the track of a point in motion.

Horizontal lines symbolize rest and

Diagonal lines are dynamic and
relaxation.
action oriented.

Do you recognise this place?

Lines, like points, can direct attention to a specific location in a visual image.

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 Lines act as a borders between ideas, concepts,
or steps in a sequence.

Thick lines are more powerful than thin

lines.

2. Shape - lines are joined together to produce a shape (2-dimensional). Shapes can be geometrical or
informal.

A shape is defined as an area that stands out from the

space next to or around it due to a defined or implied A shape is formed when
boundary, or because of differences of value, colour, a line encloses an area.
or texture.

4. Form - lines joined together produce form (3 dimensional) and create the shape of an area. Straight lines joined
together produce rectangles, squares, and other geometric shapes. Curved lines form circles, ovals and ellipses. The
form of the object, however, should always be determined by its function.
5. Space - space surrounds form and is enclosed within it. The design can create a feeling of space.
6. Materials - materials are the raw substance with which designers create. Materials have their own colour, form,
dimension, degree of hardness and texture. Texture refers to the surface finish of an object – its roughness,
smoothness, coarseness and fineness.
7. Value - is the relative degree of lightness and darkness in a design element.

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8. Texture- is defined as the surface characteristics of a material that can be experienced through the sense of touch
or the illusion of touch. In visual images, actual textures can be used, such as cloth, boxes, small objects, and
natural items. Texture can be used to accent an area so that it becomes more dominant than another.

9. Colour -colour comes from a material or must be added in design to create the desired effect. It distinguishes
items, strengthens interest and reduces eye contact.

i) Primary colour – cannot be made from any other colour, i.e., Red, yellow and blue
ii) Secondary colour – made from equal mixtures of 2 primary colours
iii) Tertiary colour – a combination of a primary and a neighbouring secondary colour.
iv) Neutral colour – white, grey and black.
v) If the 3 primary colours are mixed in equal strengths, the colour black is made.

Colour is the part of light that is

reflected by the object we The primary colours are red, yellow,
see. and blue. They are called primary
because they are not mixtures of other
colours.

Red, orange, and yellow are considered Blue, green, and violet are considered
warm colors. cool colours.

10. Light and shadow – light reflects from the surfaces of forms and shadows appear in the area that light cannot
reach. Light and shadow both give a sense of depth to any structure or object.

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PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
The basic principles of design are the guidelines for using the elements of design to create aesthetically functional
objects. The basic principles of design are balance, variety, emphasis, unity, proportion, rhythm, harmony and
repetition.
1. Balance – it is the achievement of equilibrium in design. Objects are formally balanced if they are
symmetrical.

In visual images, balance is formal when both sides are symmetrical in terms of arrangement.

2. Rhythm – when lines, planes and surface treatments are repeated in a regular sequence, a sense of rhythm is
achieved. Rhythm is used to create motion and carries the viewer‘s eyes to various parts of the space. This
may be done by the repetition of lines, colours and patterns.

3. Emphasis – the principle of emphasis (domination) is used by the designer to draw attention to an area or
subject.

4. Proportion – it is the relationship of the parts of an object to each other and to the total product. The golden
mean rectangle has a perfect proportion since the ration between its shorter and longer dimensions of the
rectangle is 1 to 1.618 or approximately 5 to 8.

5. Unity – it is the sense of wholeness in the design. Every part of the object should appear complete
and not seen as after thoughts.

6. Variety – without variety any area can become dull and tiresome to the eye of the observer. Light, shadow,
and colour are used extensively to achieve variety.

7. Repetition – vertical lines, spaces and texture are repeated throughout the design to tie the structure together
aesthetically and to achieve unity.

8. Harmony in visual design means all parts of the visual image relate to and complement each other.

OTHER DESIGN TERMS

1. Function - the object performs or does its job or intended task.
2. Aesthetics - the beauty aspects of an object which make it appealing or pleasing to the viewer such as
colour, shape, texture and appearance.
3. Ergonomics - it is “fitting work to people”. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the people who use them.
It can also be defined as the human factors or as a branch of science that aims to learn about human abilities
and limitations and then applies that knowledge to improve people‘s interaction with products, systems and
environments.

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THE DESIGN CYCLE
Design is a methodological process which involves the solution of a human problem whereby an idea from one‘s
brain is changed into reality. It follows the process as outlined below.

Design
Situation

Design
Reflecting
Brief

Presenting Research /
Investigation
The Design
Cycle
Thinking-
Evaluating Possible
Solutions

Making Choosing-
(Realisation) Final Solution

Design Situation: it is the reason or need for designing and is almost always a human need or
problem.

HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY A DESIGN PROBLEM?

You will have to identify a realistic design problem and follow the design process to successfully solve the design
problem. Any design results from attempts to find a solution to a problem which has arisen. The problem might be, for
example, to satisfy the common human need to sit in comfort-resulting in the numerous designs of chairs in use today.
There is also the modem problem that people wish to travel from place to place as quickly as possible, resulting in
designs for vehicles of all types-bicycles, cars, buses, trains, ships, airplanes.

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Some examples of the types of problems at school or home to tackle are:
1. The problem of switching a lamp on and off from a remote position.
2. The problem of switching the lights in a house on and off at given times, without being in the house.
3. The problems arising when a person becomes bed-ridden such as:
a) the discomfort of lying in the same position for long periods of time
b) finding difficulty in eating with comfort
c) Being unable to read in comfort.
4. How to help a disabled person to overcome the problem of not being able to move easily from place to place.
5. The problem of designing a robot which will lift a weight from one position to another.
6. The problem of designing a device allowing you to open the door of a garage while sitting in a car.

The problem to be overcome may not seem all that obvious at first. In the example given above of finding a way of
switching lights on and off in a house, the original problem might have been that the owners of the house wanted to
give the impression that the house was occupied when in fact it was not. Thus the problem of switching the lights was
identified as a method by which the original problem could be overcome.
HOW DO YOU ANALYZE THE DESIGN PROBLEM?
When the problem has been identified, it is necessary to examine and analyse it. If, for example, one is trying to find a
solution to the problem of fast travel from place to place, the analysis of the problem may take a form such as the
following:
1. How many people are to be carried at a time?
2. How fast?
3. Wheeled vehicle? One, two, three, four or more wheels?
4. Are wheels in fact necessary?
5. Human-powered vehicle? Pulled, pushed, bicycle type?
6. Animal-powered vehicle? Which animal?
7. To travel on land, on water, in the air?
8. Wind powered? If so, is it to be a land, water or air vehicle?
9. Powered by some form of mechanical unit? Gas powered, oil or petrol powered, powered by electricity?
10. Any other form of power suitable?
Only after analysing such details arising from the original problem is it possible to arrive at a design brief.

Design Brief: is a brief statement of what is to be designed. It also contains the

detailed specifications (requirements) and any limitations such as cost and time.

When the problem has been clearly identified, a design brief must be stated. This usually takes the form of a written
statement in which a clear description is given of what it is that is to be designed. Many design briefs take the form of
a single sentence. Others may be more complicated.
TWO EXAMPLES OF DESIGN BRIEFS
1. Design a lighting unit, for temporary lighting in a bedroom, which is to be worked from its own power source.
Note the clear definitions in this brief-the lighting is to be temporary; it is to be suitable for a bedroom it is to be
powered from its own power source.
2. Design a timer, which can be adjusted to give timings between O and 5 minutes, accurate to 0.5 second.
Note again the clear definitions-the timer must be adjustable; it must range from 0 to 5 minutes; it must be
graduated in 0.5 second intervals.
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All designing should include a design brief. At any stage it can be referred to in order to check whether or not it is
being followed. It is easy to be misled by outside areas when designing and to stray away from the brief. Note that
amendments to an original design brief may be necessary if, during the process of design, it is found that the original
brief does not state clearly what is to be designed.
HOW DO YOU WRITE A DESIGN SPECIFICATION?
A specification may accompany a design brief.
This should specify details expected from the design. A specification to accompany the design brief for a temporary
bedroom light given above might be:
1. The lighting unit must be small enough to be placed on a bedside table.
2. The power supply is to be two 1.5V dry battery cells.
3. The unit must incorporate an on/off switch.

Researching and Investigating: is when you find out what has been done by
others and what is already known. This is also called research. This information can
be collected from a wide variety of sources and in different forms e.g. Magazines,
brochures, interviews, newspapers, internet.

This is the stage in the design process when ideas are investigated, noted, drawn and, if necessary, tested.
Each idea which comes to mind should be drawn, with notes added to describe the drawings.
Drawings may be freehand, drawn with instruments or drawn with the aid of a computer program (computer aided
drawing).
Notes which accompany drawings may be written, typed, produced with the aid of a computer word processor(MS
Word), written in capitals or in lower case printed lettering, added to drawings with the aid of letter stencils, or
freehand.

Thinking (Possible Solutions): here you need to think of lots of ideas. Think of
at least three different ways you could meet the need. Use quick thumbnail sketches
with lots of labels and notes around them.

Each idea for a solution may have to be evaluated, i.e. checked to test whether or not the idea is one which could be
developed.
Consideration will have to be given to details such as:
1. Will the solution idea work as expected?
2. Are ergonomic considerations satisfied?
3. Will the idea be aesthetically pleasing, i.e. attractive to look at? Is its shape and form pleasing? Are its
proportions good? In some examples, this consideration will not affect the idea-e. g. An idea for an electronics or
pneumatics circuit need not necessarily be aesthetically pleasing.
4. Can the idea be constructed? There is no point in suggestions for solutions which cannot be made. Are the tools
and equipment needed to make the design available in school/home for constructing a suggested solution?
5. Are materials for making the solution available, or can they be purchased, can you, your school or your
parents afford to buy the materials?
6. Will the constructed solution be sufficiently strong?
7. Have all safety considerations been taken into account?
22
 Is the solution economic?(enterprising) Not only whether the solution can be made economically in cash terms, but
also whether its shape and form are economically designed, and whether there is time to construct the solution.

Freehand sketching is an integral part of a good design.

Use good sketching technique while solving design problems.

Choosing (Final Solution): which of your ideas is your favorite but which of your
ideas best fits the design brief and meets the specifications? This means you will have
to evaluate each of your design ideas. List the good and bad points for each one.

A time must come when one of the possible solutions can be chosen as an appropriate solution to the design
brief. If none of the ideas for solutions are suitable,
Figurea8:modification ofSolution
The Final/Best one or more of the ideas may be developed into
an appropriate final solution. The selected, chosen solution should be accurately drawn and ‗written up'. This chosen
solution must be evaluated. All the details of function, ergonomics and so on should again be assessed with regard to
the final solution.

Executing the Best Solution

23
 Making:it is nearly time to make your design prototype (the first one of its kind). Decide whether
you are making a model or the real thing. For this subject your teacher would have explained to
you the course outline and you should be aware of the type of project you are required to design
and make this year. As per your course outline you will be told weather to make a model, the real
thing or both. Consider scale, finance, environment and techniques. This process of making the
model is also called “Realization”.

The model should be a scaled replica of the real thing.

It should portray the true physical picture of the real thing.

THE PROTOTYPE
At this stage in the design process, consider whether a model (a prototype) should be made.
The construction of a model could save considerable time and effort later. Errors, mistakes, poor constructions and
other details needing attention may show up in a prototype.

The design can then be amended at this early stage, rather than at a later stage when the final design has been
made and when it will be too late to remedy poor details in the design.

EVALUATING THE PROTOTYPE (MODEL)

Evaluation ('finding the true value of) plays an important and repeatedly occurring part in any design process. Each
and every idea for solving a design brief needs to be examined in order to assess whether it meets the requirements of
its design brief. Evaluation of a chosen appropriate solution and its model (if made) is of particular importance,
because this is the last stage before the design is made or realized. If an evaluation shows that modifications are
necessary, these can be carried out at this stage, before starting to make the final design.

REALIZATION
This means making the design, before making the design it may be necessary to draw up a production plan, listing
the order in which parts of the design are to be made, together with the possible times that each part will take to
complete.

24
The making of a design assumes that the maker has the necessary skills, resources and equipment and materials from
which the design can be made. Do you have the necessary skills in you or does your school has the resources,
equipment and materials available?

Evaluating: this is where you list down the strengths and the weaknesses of the
prototype (model) and compare it with the original specifications.

HOW TO EVALUATE?
This final evaluation of the completed design is of particular importance. An honest assessment of the design is
essential. Even though you may have been completely and solely responsible for all stages of the design, this does not
necessarily mean that you must just sing its praises. Try to look at the finished work with a truly critical judgment. If
you find you cannot do this yourself, ask others to make the evaluation for you, especially your school mates who
don‘t take Technical subjects. If they could understand your design problem, model, file work and final solution, then
it means you are on the right track. Ask the following questions of the design:
1. Does the design meet the requirements of its design brief?
2. Does the design function as it should?
3. Does it meet ergonomic requirements?
4. Is it pleasing in its shape and form it‘s Proportions; its colour its surface finish its general appearance?
5. Has it been successful economically-in terms of its financial cost, its appearance and the amount of time spent
on making it?
6. Does it need modifying? Are the modifications worthwhile in terms of the time and money needed to carry
them out?

Presenting: it is time to present your design to an audience by showing the design

portfolio.

The best groups to present your design solution are your class mates and teachers. Ensure that your design portfolio
contains all the materials required as per the project requirements.

Reflecting: once you have finished your project, check if you have learnt anything new or
special and how your design could be developed further to provide for a better lifestyle product.

25
ENTERPRISING

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Recognise and develop enterprising skills and characteristics.

 Develop enterprise skills through project work.
 Identify types of costs incurred in project construction.
 Set up costs and pricing and calculate costs.

INTRODUCTION
An enterprising person is one who comes across a pile of scrap metal and sees the making of a wonderful sculpture.
An enterprising person is one who drives through an old decrepit part of town and sees a new housing development.
An enterprising person is one who sees opportunity in all areas of life. In this chapter you would learn about
enterprise skills that would tend to exhibit particular sets of behaviours, attributes and talents in you. Enterprise can
be best described as skill development and it involves measures (skills) to encourage you as an individual to become
innovative. You will be introduced to some basic skills that will equip you and make you interested in business.

THE ENTERPRISER
An entrepreneur is the person who comes up with an idea, takes the initiative in setting up a venture to make money,
and bears the risk associated with it. The reward for all this initiative and risk-taking comes in the form of profit.

26
ENTREPRENEURS ARE BORN, NOT MADE.
This is a common perception which is supported by considerable evidence. Enterprising people exhibit certain
personal attributes (or characteristics) and business skills, which mark them stand out from their peers. Various
academic studies based on successful entrepreneurs have recognized some of these outstanding features.

Very often, they display initiative or business intelligence at a young age such as doing jobs in the neighbourhood or
undertaking enterprising ventures in construction, sport or music while still in school. You may be having classmates
of similar nature in your school too. This apparent enthusiasm and need for achievement is often related to their
position within the family, relationship with parents, and domestic environment.

ENTERPRISING CHARACTERISTICS AND SKILLS

Enterprise characteristics (personal attributes) are ingrained aspects of one's character distinguishing them from other
people. Entrepreneurs tend to be independent, self-confident and resourceful, they believe in what they are doing and
they can convey this confidence to others. They appreciate and enjoy challenges, struggle to overcome obstacles and
they are committed and determined in all the tasks they undertake. Enterprise skills, on the other hand, are particular
abilities that may be gained through experience and developed through practice. While all entrepreneurs are
innovative, in that they are willing to try new ideas and approaches to particular markets, they must also apply basic
business skills to their enterprise if it is to be successful. Planning, setting targets and applying controls in financial
management are essential elements of the process.

While every researcher and academic is different, those who are enterprising have in common a number of skills,
attributes, and behaviours. Some of the most important are summarised in the following table:

SKILLS ATTRIBUTES BEHAVIOURS

intuitive decision making with sense of belief in self seeks and takes opportunities
limited information

coping with uncertainty and strong sense of independence takes initiative

complexity

building know-how and trust goal/achievement orientated builds and develops networks
relationships

creative approach to problem builds own know-how and trust assesses and takes risks
solving relationships

negotiation capacity commitment to see things through holistic management of

situations

selling/persuasive capacity sense of ownership over thinks strategically

problems/actions

The ability to make decisions, realistically judge situations, and take moderate risks are crucial. A facility for selling
and promotion is vital for the growth of business. Having well developed interpersonal communication skills are
essential to lead others towards a common goal.

Enterprising people promote change and make things happen. They push back boundaries and they make a difference.
The skills and attributes of enterprising people may be applied to a wide variety of situations and circumstances,
from big business development to small community initiatives, from the public life of a nation to the personal life of
an individual.

Enterprise skills through project work for an individual person, taking up a new challenge can lead to personal reward.
Learning how to touch-type takes time and practice but, once the skill is mastered, school projects can be presented to
the highest standards. Learning to drive gives greater personal freedom as well as being an essential skill in many jobs.

27
People who lack enterprise may miss out on opportunities to enhance their life. The design projects that you have
planned to do this year should be also enterprising.

To test your understanding of these concepts, you will need to be introduced to the following important aspects:

HOW TO ESTIMATE COSTS

Estimating the total cost of a project is one of the first puzzling
challenges you'll face when turning your project work into a
business. There are so many things to consider, it's easy to get
bogged down in the details before you really get started. But,
there's no avoiding it. You can't even price your work without
knowing the cost. In fact, many workers figure their final price
by adding a profit margin onto their cost estimate. And, even if
you price your work based on market factors, you'll still want to
check that price against your cost. If you don't, you could be
losing money without knowing it. Fortunately, there are a few
tricks and tools to make estimating easier.

BREAK THE PUZZLE INTO

PIECES
When you build a big project, you make
the job manageable by splitting it into
smaller components. That's how to make
estimates, too. The total cost is really
just the combination of the component
costs. And it's much easier to think about
the separate pieces:

Cost = Materials + Labour + Overhead

Then, if you want to base your price directly on the cost, just add a profit margin and you're done.

MATERIALS
Anything you purchase to build the project goes into the "Materials" category. Start with the obvious type of material
and hardware. This is the only piece of the puzzle you can calculate almost exactly.

Using a cutting list table will figure out the best way to work out your cutting list, and work out the costs. You
should also include hardware supplies like fasteners, sandpaper, varnish, rags and so on. As an alternative, it's fine to
list these supplies as overhead. Just don't include them in both places.
LABOUR
The labour estimate is the least exact piece of the puzzle. There are
two approaches you can use. The easiest technique is to figure your
labour cost as a percent of your materials cost. Of course, the
percentage that is "right" will vary quite a bit. It depends on things
like the style of joinery to be used and the amount of custom design
work required.
More troublesome is the implied link between the material's price and
the hours of labour. For example, consider two identical projects,
except one is built using something inexpensive (Pine, maybe) and the
other with a more expensive material (say Mahogany). If you figure
your labour estimate as a fixed percent of the materials cost, your labour cost estimate for the two projects will be
quite different. That doesn't really make sense. A more accurate, but more time-consuming technique is to estimate
the number of hours required for each stage in the construction process. You assign an hourly rate to your labour
and multiply to get the total labour cost. You would wonder if you should include your own labour as part of the cost.
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OVERHEAD
The overhead category includes all the other
things you spend money on, even if you don't
build anything. Things like utilities (electricity,
water, telephone, etc.), rent, insurance, office
expenses, software, advertising and anything
else not directly part of the project cost.
There are several ways to figure a value for
overhead. For example, you can use a fixed
amount per project or base it on a percent of
labour and materials.

PROFIT MARGIN
If you're basing your price directly on the cost
estimate, you'll want to include a profit.
Remember, you've already built in labour costs
(even if the labour is your own), so the profit is
the extra amount you deserve for taking the
entrepreneurial risks. This is usually calculated
as a percent of other costs.

CUTTING LIST
An example of a cutting list is given below which you can use to work out the required materials for a particular
project. Proper planning is needed before commencing with the cutting list. Refer to the detailed exploded view.

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 CUTTING LIST
(Overall Dimensions: 34”H x 35”W x 30”D)

Another sample of a Cutting List which you can use for projects is given below. Note this cutting list also states the
‗thicknesses of the material. This becomes useful when materials of multiple thickness are used.

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A SAMPLE OF A COSTING LIST & CUTTING LIST TOGETHER IN ONE TABLE FORM
A sample costing and cutting list is given below which you can use to work out the costs for a particular project. In
this case a simple CD Holder. This table provides two very important details in on table form, instead of having two
separate tables.

QUALITY CONTROL

Quality Control is a process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product

or service. Quality is determined by the product users, clients or customers, not by
society in general. In relation to the projects you will make the inspection of the project
throughout the entire design and production cycle that will reduce defects and cost.

Another aspect is known as the Quality Assurance, or QA for short, which is the
systematic monitoring and evaluation of the various aspects of a project, to maximize
standards of quality attained by the production process.

There are two principles included in QA: "Fit for purpose" - the product should be suitable for the intended purpose;
and "Right first time" - mistakes should be eliminated. QA for your project work will basically include the assurance
of quality of raw materials, assemblies, production and inspection processes.
The basic goal of quality control for you would be to ensure that the projects made meet specific requirements and are
satisfactory, and fiscally sound. Inspections for quality can be conducted at any point throughout the production
process, with the maximum benefit observed when strategically employed at the beginning (first-stage), in-process
(30% -50% complete) and pre-completion (100%). The idea is to identify, contain and resolve issues as quickly as
possible. A key component and initial step of the inspection process is the development of an inspection plan which
can be done in consultation with your teacher. Note: An Inspection Plan is a document that provides instructions on
how an inspection of a product is to take place. Inspection plans provide details about what characteristics must be
tested in order to ensure the quality of the product, as well as specific metrics and measurements that must be achieved
in order for the product to be judged in compliance with standards.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. Refer to the two diagrams showing samples of the desk tidy and answer the questions that follow.

a) Design a folder cover for a desk tidy that includes your name,
the title ‗desk tidy‘ and the subject.
b) If you were to make a desk tidy what equipment would you like
to store in it?
c) Sketch in some details showing three different ways of
arranging six colouring pens or pencils that are often used.
d) Sketch in detail then colour two ideas (possible solutions)
suitable for a desk tidy that a person keen on sport, computers
or animals may like as a present. (theme base design-refer to
page 18 for concepts on colouring)

e) Draw a desk tidy that is to be made from four separate parts. Each
art must be capable of being made by itself before being assembled.
Show these parts using good sketching techniques.
f) Make a Cutting List together with a Cost Estimate for the desk tidy
based on question five above. (See page 32 for reference)
g) Discuss the cost of the desk tidy before it goes into production. Are
the materials used cheap and readily available? Will you be able the
make a good profit. Have you considered the overhead cost?
h) List a few tests that can be carried out on the desk tidy to successfully
evaluate the final idea. List at least three evaluating tools you can
use to evaluate the desk tidy. Why is testing and evaluation an
important part of the design process. (see page 20)

2. What is a design specification?

3. What are the three factors you should consider when selecting a material for design work?
4. Why are availability, properties and price of material important while doing design work?
5. Why are experiments useful in design work?
6. What is anthropometric data and how is it collected? Why is the collection of this data important before
starting any design work?
7. What is aesthetics and why it is important in design solution?
8. Why do you need more than one possible solution to a problem?
9. Why are written notes on sketch sheets important?
10. What is the function of a parts list in a design folder?
11. Why should you check your progress against your plan while designing?
12. How could an evaluation improve your future design work?
13. What are working drawings used for?
14. Which three views are usually sufficient in providing the needed information?
15. Why would you use a detail drawing and what sort of scale would you use?
16. What is the difference between shape and form? What is proportion?
17. Why does a white object appear white?
18. What are the primary colours?
19. How do natural and neutral colours differ?
20. The diagram on the right represents the section through a tomato. A piece of
costume jewellery is required, the design of which is to be influenced by this natural form.
a) Explore this form through a range of sketches developing ideas by making 3 possible solutions.
b) Make your final solution from the 3 possible solutions stating its purpose and explain the main process
you would use in making it, paying particular attention to any methods of linking and fixing used.
c) Name all the materials you would require for the piece of jewellery, indicating why you would choose
them.

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 STRAND 3

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Identify the types of materials, safety and tools widely used for engineering purpose and
building structures
 Classify the examples of materials available for building purposes and constructions

INTRODUCTION
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the origin of human
life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found
copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a
stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap
process to make steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the
industrial world. Materials are an important aspect of engineering design and analysis. There is a wide variety of
materials available which have shown their potential in various engineering fields ranging from aerospace to house
hold applications. The materials are usually selected after considering their characteristics, specific application areas,
advantages and limitations.

Classification of Materials
Engineering materials are classified into the following broad groups:

33
TIMBER
The timbers used in woodwork are divided into two classes, softwoods and hardwoods.

SOFTWOODS
Softwoods or coniferous timber are obtained from cone-bearing trees
(confers) such as pines or firs, mostly with evergreen, needle leaves.
The structure of softwood is simple. They have no ‗vessels‘ or ‗pores‘ like
hardwood but rely on a single type of cell called ‗tracheids‘ to serve both to
support the tree and to convey the sap to the leaves. As a result, they are often
referred to as ‗non-pores‘ wood.
HARDWOODS
These are obtained from broad-leaves tree that may
be deciduous, i.e., lose their leaves in winter, or
maybe evergreen. The structure of hardwoods is
more complex than that of softwoods for they have two types of cell:
‗vessels‘ or ‗pores‘ and ‗fibers‘.

The vessels or pores are thin-walled cells joined together end to end like
drain pipe.

The fibers are thick-wall cells, which serve to support the tree. Hardwoods
are often referred to as ‗pores woods.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOFTWOODS AND HARDWOODS

SOFTWOODS
Needle-leaves, cone-bearing pines and firs
Usually evergreen
Branches usually grow in whorls, i.e. more than two
at the same level.
Medullary rays are narrow and indistinct.
One type of cell (tracheids) serves both to sap and to
support the tree.
Non-pores, i.e. without vessels or pores.
Produce uncovered seeds, .e.g. pine cone seeds
Gymnosperms
Timber usually fairly soft and easily worked.
HARDWOODS
Broad-leaved tree. Usually but not necessarily
deciduous i.e. lose leaves in winter.
Branches usually grow at different levels same time
two but not more.
Modularly rays vary from narrow to wide and may be
indistinct or conspicuous.
Two type of cell, vessels or pores to conduct sap and
fibers to support tree.
Porous, e.g. contain vessels or pores.
Produce covered seeds e.g. acorns (oak)
Angiosperms
Timber usually heavy and hard.

All the named parts on this cross-section of a tree serve a necessary function in the tree growth, but you will only use
the heart wood and sap wood, with the annual (growth rings) and the medullary rays producing the decorative, grain
and figure effects that make timber so appealing.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS

PITH (medulla)
Soft spongy centre of the tree. Should be cut out where
possible. Serve as a sap carrier in the young tree.
Very prone to rotting,

HEARTWOOD (True wood)

Surrounds the pith.
It is the section of the tree which has ceased to grow (fully
developed matured). The cell may be filled with resin and
gum, which generally give it a darker colour.

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SAPWOOD
Surround the heartwood. It is the living section of the tree trunk, and carries the sap from the ground to the leaves. The
sap is the solution of water and mineral salts. It is light in colour. Sapwood contain starch which makes it more
susceptible to insect attack, particularly in hardwoods.

Sapwood is just as strong as heartwood and it can be readily treated with chemicals to prevent insect attack. In some
species e.g. Rain tree, Vesi the colour differences between heartwood and sapwood is very obvious. In others, e.g.
Dakua Makadre, the sapwood is more difficult to identify from the heartwood. In species such as Kauvula it is
impossible to tell the different between heartwood and sapwood from its colour.
CAMBIUM LAYER
Cambium, thin layer of generative tissue lying between the bark and the wood of a stem, most active in woody plants.
The cambium produces new layers of phloem on the outside and of xylem (wood) on the inside, thus increasing the
diameter of the stem

BARK
The bark is divided into two parts:
i. Outer Bark (Cortex) - Fibrous substances protect the cambium layer. No practical use in furniture
manufacture.
ii. Inner Bark (Bast or Phloem) - Convey the converted plant food from the leaves to the cambium and
living parts of the tree.

ANNUAL RINGS (growth rings)

Represent periods of growth and are usually formed at the rate of
one per year. They may vary in width, and their prominence varies
from one species to another. They can produce a decorative effect
on the surface of a board, depending on the type of tree and the
method of milling. Annual rings are not prominent in most of the
timbers from tropical regions because in these areas the growing
season is not as defined as it is in colder climates. Grows tends to
occur nearly all year around, slow down during the colder months
or during the dry season. In colder climates, growth is most rapid
during spring. It slow down during summer and stop during winter.
Oregon is a good example of a timber from a temperature climate,
while dakua shows typical tropical growth.

MEDULLARY RAYS
Group of cells radiating horizontally from the pith. When quarter
cut, will produce a fleck which in certain species of timber is very prominent and considered rather attractive.

SEASONING
Seasoning is the process of removing the moisture content from wood to minimize structural problems when used in
construction or to provide less smoke and more uniform combustion when used as firewood. Dried wood, although
lighter than green wood, which still contains moisture, is stronger, less likely to warp or mold and is easier to finish
with paint or varnish. The length of the process depends on the type of wood used along with relative humidity in the
area where the wood is seasoned.

Air Seasoning
The traditional method for drying wood, air seasoning is also
the longest, taking six to nine months. To air season wood,
stack logs or planks outside on pallets in such a manner that
air can circulate vertically and horizontally through the
timbers. The raised pallets also keep wood away from
vegetation and damp ground. Plank and log ends are often
wrapped or sealed to prevent excessive moisture loss
through these areas. Protect the drying wood from the
elements with an overhead canopy.

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Kiln Seasoning
The most common and effective commercial process for drying wood is kiln seasoning, which accelerates the process
of removing moisture through the use of external energy. Drying takes two days to one weekend, depending on the
type of wood. Two methods, progressive and compartmental, are used for kiln seasoning. In a progressive kiln, timber
enters at one end and travels on a trolley through chambers with different air conditions to progressive dry the wood.
This method produces a constant flow of seasoned timber. Wood seasoned via the compartmental process remains in a
single building where it is subjected to a program of varying conditions until the moisture content is removed. This
process is used for hard-to-dry or expensive wood.

MANUFACTURED BOARDS

PLYWOOD
Plywood is the name given to panels or sheets constructed by gluing together three or more layers of thin wood called
‗veneers‘ or ‗plies‘, so that the grain of one layer runs at right angles to that of any adjacent layer.

USE OF PLYWOOD

FURNITURE MANUFACTURE
In carcase construction it is glued to the framework. It is also used for backing for cabinets, drawer bottoms, radio
cabinets, door panels, sliding doors and chair backs and bottoms.

BUILDING WORK
Here it is used for paneling, flush doors and built-in fitments. Exterior grades are used for wall sheathing, concrete
form-work and many other purposes.

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BOATBUILDING
It is used in yachts and craft of all sizes. Special waterproof marine grade plywood is manufactured to resist water
indefinitely.

AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION
The strength of plywood combined with its lightness makes it ideal for this type of work. light gliders and sailplanes
are often constructed of light plywood only 2 mm thick.

OTHER USES
It is also used in coachwork, railway carriages and boxes.

ADVANTAGES AND STABILITY OF PLYWOOD.

Among the outstanding advantages of plywood are its strength and toughness in relation to its thickness, its
availability in large sizes, its bending properties, its stability and comparative freedom from warping, and the fact that
it does not shrink or expand as doe‘s solid timber.

STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF PLYWOOD

One of the most important characteristics of wood is that it absorbs and loses moisture. When moisture enters the
wood, it swells across the grain and when moisture dries out it shrinks across the grain. Plywood, however, because of
the way in which it is constructed, is little affected by atmospheric changes. In the construction of plywood, the layers
of veneer are placed a crossed as well as lengthwise and there is hardly any movement of the wood.
MANUFACTURE OF PLYWOODS
The manufacturing process of plywood consists of cutting and drying the veneers or plies, gluing and pressing the
plies, and finishing the plywood.

CUTTING THE VENEERS

There are two commonly used methods of cutting veneers for plywood‘s. These are rotary cutting (or peeling) and
slice cutting.

DRYING OF VENEERS
The veneers are dried as soon as possible after cutting. This is carried out in mechanical drying chambers which
reduce the moisture content to about 10 per cent. The veneers pass through the dries on endless belts or rollers where
the carefully controlled hot air dries them rapidly.

COREBOARD

The name ‗core board‘ is generally accepted to

include all type of boards or panel made up of a
core of solid timber covered on both sides with two
layers of veneers, one of which is cross band
running at right angles to the grain of the solid core
and the other running in the same grain direction as
the solid, centre core.

USES OF COREBOARD
Core board is used extensively in the woodworking
industries in almost every interior condition where a
wide stable panel is required.

FURNITURE MANUFACTURE
It is used in carcase construction, in which it replace
the solid ends, division top etc., flush doors and
flaps and also as a ground work for veneering

37
ADVANTAGE OF CORE BOARD
The main advantages of core board are its ability to remain perfectly flat and straight – shrinking and swelling are
almost entirely absent.

MANUFACTURE OF COREBOARD
The manufacturing process of coreboard consists of:
 Cutting and drying the veneers.
 Preparing and edge gluing the solid core stock.
 Planning the core stock to thickness.
 Gluing and pressing the plies and core.
 Finishing the core board panel.

PARTICLE BOARD

One of the most important advances in the woodworking industry has been the
development of particle board. Its use increases enormously each year as new
applications are found for it. Particle board or chip board as is often known, is a sheet
or panel of material manufactured from small pieces of wood, e.g. chips, fla ke or
splinters of wood bound together by a synthetic resin glued and pressed under heat to
form a flat panel, one which is free from many of the disadvantages of solid timber
and which can be cut to sizes without having to consider grain direction.

MANUFACTURE OF PARTICLE BOARD

Small pine logs or trimming from pine trees are sawn into convenient lengths,
debarked and feed into a chipping machine which reduce them to small chips. The machine can be regulated to
provide two thicknesses of particles, fine chips which are used for surface of the board and thicker chips to give a
stronger core.

PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES BOARD

Particle board is a stable panel which shrinks or moves very little with change in humidity and so it is an ideal base or
core for veneering. A boric acid insecticide is added during manufacture and it makes it resistant to attack by insects
and, provided it is used in properly ventilated conditions, it is also immune to fungal infection.

USES OF PARTICLE BOARD

The uses to which particle boards are put are many and varied, from floor and concrete formwork to high quality
furniture.
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FIBREBOARD
Fibre board is a much denser board than particle board and while the original base of the board is also small chips of
pine, the process is taken a step further, the chips being passed through a machine which reduce them to a fine fluffy
fibre which compress into hard, dense, smooth-textured board. It is a single – layer board of density unlike particle
board which has a coarser core.

MANUFACTURE OF FIBRE BOARD

Small logs or trimmings from the pine forests are sawn into short
billets, debarked and fed into a chipping machine which reduces them to
small fine chips or particles. An electric magnet removes any foreign
pieces of metal before the chips are passed through another chipper
where they are further reduce in size.

The chips are washed and passed into a deliberator refiner where they
are force through the centre of two vertical grinding plate or discs, one
fixed and the other revolving at high speed, to merge at the end of the
disc as a fine fluffy fibre.

The fibre pass through a drying oven, then through a gluing bay where urea resin is injected into the system under
pressure and then on to a storage bin.

PROPERTIES OF FIBRE BOARD

Fibre board is a grain less, grey-straw coloured stable panel of even density throughout its thickness. It has a smooth
surface ideal for painting, staining or veneering with wood or plastic. The denseness allows the edge of the board to be
moulded and screwed with success and the internal bond strength gives better results for mitring, rebating, etc., at the
corners. Being grain less, it can be cut in any direction.

TIMBER DEFECTS

A defect is an irregularity or abnormality occurring in or on wood which is responsible for its

 strength reduction
 lowering of durability
 lowering of utility
 poor appearance
 decay

Classification of defects
 natural
 seasoning
 conversion
 fungi
 inserts

Chemical stain:-the wood is sometimes

discoloured by the chemical action caused
with it by some external agency. This is known
as chemical stain

Rind galls:-the rind means bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence
peculiar curved swellings found on the body of tree are known as rind gall.
They develop at points from where branches are improperly cut off or
removed. They are rarely found in a tree and the timber in this part is very
weak and not durable.
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Coarse grain:-if the tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are widened.it is
known as the coarsed grain timber and such timber possesses less strength

Knots:-these are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off
from the tree. The portion from which the branch is removed receives
nourishment from the stem for a pretty long time and it ultimately results in
formation of dark hard rings which are known as knots.as continuity of wood
fibres are broken by knots, they form a source of weakness

Dead wood:-the timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains
dead wood.it is indicated by light weight and reddish colour

Druxiness:-this defect is indicated by white

decayed spots which are concealed by healthy
wood they are probably formed by access of
fungi

Shakes:-these are longitudinal separations in

wood between the annual rings. These are
cracks which partly or completely separate
fibres of wood. The separations make the wood
undesirable when appearance is important

Types of shakes

Star shakes:-these are cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood. These
are usually confined up to the plane of sap wood. These are wider on outside ends
and narrower on inside ends. They are usually formed due to extreme heat or severe
frost during the growth of tree

Cup shakes:-it appears as curved split which partly

or wholly separates annual rings from one another.it
is caused due to excessive frost action on sap present in the tree especially when the
tree is young

Heart shakes:-these cracks occur in centre of cross-section of tree and they extend
from pith to sap wood in direction of medullary rays. These cracks occur due to
shrinkage of interior part of tree which is approaching maturity. The heart shake
divide the tree cross-section into two or four parts.

Ring shakes:-when cup shakes cover the entire, they are known as ring shakes

40
Twisted fibres:-these are known as wandering hearts and caused by twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind. The
timbers with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing

Upsets:-these indicate wood fibres which are injured by crushing or

compression. The upsets are mainly due to improper felling of tree and
exposure of tree in its young age to fast blowing wind

Burls:-they are particularly formed

when a tree receives shock or
injury in its young age. Due to its
injury, the growth of tree is completely upset and irregular projections appear on
the body of timber

METALS
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet. Metals have useful
properties including strength, ductility, high melting points, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness. From
the periodic table, it can be seen that a large number of the elements are classified as being a metal. A few of the
common metals and their typical uses are presented below.

Common Metallic Materials

 Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications
 Aluminium - Aluminium and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily available, inexpensive, and
recyclable.
 Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them useful, including high electrical
and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion resistance.
 Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F) application, when component
weight is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is required
 Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F) applications or when good corrosion
resistance is required.

41
Metals are generally shiny, malleable, and hard. Metals are also good conductors of electricity. Examples of metals
are Gold, Silver, Iron, Uranium, and Zinc.

Non-metals do not conduct heat or electricity very well. Non-metals are typically brittle and are not easily molded
into shapes. Example non-metal elements are Hydrogen and Carbon.

Metalloids share characteristics of both metals and non-metals and are also called semimetals. Metalloids are
typically semi-conductors, which means that they both insulate and conduct electricity. This semi-conducting property
makes Metalloids very useful as a computer chip material. Examples of metalloid elements are Silicon and Boron.

Metals are classified into two categories:

1. Ferrous
2. Non – ferrous

The characteristics of ferrous metals

Ferrous metals include mild steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and wrought iron. They contain iron content
in them and are magnetic. These metals are primarily used for their tensile strength and durability, especially mild
steel which helps hold up the tallest skyscrapers and the longest bridges in the world.

Due to the high amounts of carbon used when creating them, most ferrous metals and alloys are vulnerable to rust
when exposed to the elements. While this isn‘t true of wrought iron, which is so iron pure that it resists oxidization, or
stainless steel, which is protected thanks to its high chromium content, it‘s a good rule of thumb that if you see rust,
it‘s a ferrous metal.

Most ferrous metals also have magnetic properties, which makes them very useful in the creation of large motors and
electrical appliances.

The characteristics of non-ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals include aluminium, brass, copper, nickel, tin, lead, and zinc, as well as precious metals like gold
and silver which does not have iron content in them. While non-ferrous metals can provide strength, they are primarily
used where their differences from ferrous metals can provide an advantage.

For instance, non-ferrous metals are much more malleable than ferrous metals. Non-ferrous metals are also much
lighter, making them well-suited for use where strength is needed, but weight is a factor, such as in the aircraft or
canning industries. Because they contain no iron, non-ferrous metals have a higher resistance to rust and corrosion,
which is why you‘ll find these materials in use for gutters, water pipes, roofing, and road signs. Finally, they are also
non-magnetic, which makes them perfect for use in small electronics and as electrical wiring.

Ceramics
A ceramic has traditionally been defined as ―an inorganic, non- metallic solid that is prepared from powdered
materials, is fabricated into products through the application of heat, and
displays such characteristic properties as hardness, strength, low electrical
conductivity, and brittleness." They are typically crystalline in nature and are
compounds formed between metallic and non- metallic elements such as
aluminium and oxygen (alumina-Al2O3), calcium and oxygen (calcia - CaO),
and silicon and nitrogen (silicon nitride-Si3N4).

Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or

lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness
properties; however, they are often brittle in nature. Ceramics can also be
formed to serve as electrically conductive materials or insulators. Some
ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic properties. They are also
more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and
polymers. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for
a multitude of applications.

42
The broad categories or segments that make up the ceramic industry can be classified as: Structural clay products
(brick, sewer pipe, roofing and wall tile, flue linings, etc.) Whitewares (dinnerware, floor and wall tile, electrical
porcelain, etc.)Refractories (brick and monolithic products used in metal, glass, cements, ceramics, energy conversion,
petroleum, and chemicals industries). Glasses (flat glass (windows), container glass (bottles), pressed and blown glass
(dinnerware), glass fibers (home insulation), and advanced/specialty glass (optical fibers)). Abrasives (natural (garnet,
diamond, etc.) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina, etc.) abrasives are used for grinding, cutting,
polishing, lapping, or pressure blasting of materials). Cements (for roads, bridges, buildings, dams, and etc.)

Hence ceramics are extremely

 Heat resistant.
 Brittleness
 High thermal and electrical resistance
 High resistance to corrosion
 Opaque
 High temperature stability

Polymers
A polymeric solid can be thought of as a material that contains many chemically bonded parts or units which
themselves are bonded together to form a solid. The word polymer literally means "many parts." Two industrially
important polymeric materials are plastics and elastomers. Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials
which are processed by forming or moulding into shape. Just as there are many types of metals such as aluminium and
copper, there are many types of plastics, such as polyethylene and nylon. Elastomers or rubbers can be elastically
deformed a large amount when a force is applied to them and can return to their original shape (or almost) when the
force is released.

Polymers have many properties that make them attractive to use in certain
conditions. Many polymers: are less dense than metals or ceramics, resist
atmospheric and other forms of corrosion, offer good compatibility with
human tissue, or exhibit excellent resistance to the conduction of electrical
current. The polymer plastics can be divided into two classes,
thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics, depending on how they are
structurally and chemically bonded.

Thermoplastic polymers comprise the four most important commodity

materials – polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl
chloride. There are also a number of specialized engineering polymers. The
term ‗thermoplastic‘ indicates that these materials melt on heating and may
be processed by a variety of moulding and extrusion techniques.
Alternately, ‗thermosetting‘ polymers cannot be melted or re- melted.
Thermosetting polymers include alkyds, amino and phenolic resins,
epoxies, polyurethanes, and unsaturated polyesters.

43
Rubber is a natural occurring polymer. However, most polymers are created by engineering the combination of
hydrogen and carbon atoms and the arrangement of the chains they form. The polymer molecule is a long chain of
covalent-bonded atoms and secondary bonds then hold groups of polymer chains together to form the polymeric
material.

Composites
A composite is commonly defined as a combination of two or more
distinct materials, each of which retains its own distinctive
properties, to create a new material with properties that cannot be
achieved by any of the components acting alone. Using this
definition, it can be determined that a wide range of engineering
materials fall into this category. For example, concrete is a
composite because it is a mixture of Portland cement and aggregate.
Fiberglass sheet is a composite since it is made of glass fibres
imbedded in a polymer.

Composite materials are said to have two phases. The reinforcing

phase is the fibres, sheets, or particles that are embedded in the
matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material can
be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are
strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or
tough, material.

Some of the common classifications of composites are:

 Reinforced plastics
 Metal-matrix composites
 Ceramic-matrix composites
 Sandwich structures
 Concrete

Composite materials can take many forms but they can be separated into three categories based on the strengthening
mechanism. These categories are dispersion strengthened, particle reinforced and fibre reinforced. Dispersion
strengthened composites have a fine distribution of secondary particles in the matrix of the material. These particles
impede the mechanisms that allow a material to deform. . Many metal-matrix composites would fall into the
dispersion strengthened composite category. Particle reinforced composites have a large volume fraction of particle
dispersed in the matrix and the load is shared by the particles and the matrix. Most commercial ceramics and many
filled polymers are particle-reinforced composites. In fibre-reinforced composites, the fibre is the primary load-
bearing component. Fiberglass and carbon fibre composites are examples of fibre-reinforced composites.

CONCRETE
Concrete is probably the most valuable of building materials. It is used in enormous quantities all over the world for
all types of building work from the small job around the home to the many huge engineering projects such as dams
and roads. Concrete is a building material made by mixing together sand, crushed rock or gravel and cement. The
ingredients are mixed together with clean water into a plastic mass which gradually hardens into a rock-like substance
of great strength. The sand and crushed rock or gravel are known as aggregate.

Cement
Cement, the main ingredient of concrete, is a material in powder form which, when mixed with water, sets into a hard
mass. The raw materials in the manufacture of cement are limestone (or chalk) and clay, shale and river mud. The
materials are crushed and ground, then mixed thoroughly in the correct proportions and fed into deep circular tanks
where they are mixed with water and formed into a fine paste or slurry by revolving mixers.

Storing Cement
When water is mixed with cement a chemical action takes place and the mixture will set into a hard mass. Even the
moisture from the air or ground will cause this to happen, so the main provision in the storage of cement is to keep it
dry. It should be stored dry on a raised platform and, if outside, covered with a tarpaulin.
44
Aggregates
Aggregate consists of stone material such as rock or crushed gravel, which is added to the cement and water to form
concrete or mortar. Aggregate ranges in size from the finest grains, ‗sand‘, called ‗fine aggregate‘, to the larger
material called ‗coarse aggregate‘.

Water-Cement Ratio
The proportion of water to cement, known as the water-cement ratio, is an important factor in the making of good
concrete. If too much water is used the strength of the concrete will be lowered. Within limits, the less water used the
stronger will be the concrete. However, sufficient water is required to allow the mix to be workable.

Mixing the Concrete

Concrete mixing is carried out by hand or by mechanical batch mixers.

Proportions of Aggregates and Cement

When the aggregates are proportioned by volume, it is the general practice to use one part of fine aggregate to two
parts of coarse aggregate. These proportions of dry materials have been found to produce concrete suitable for most
purposes. The most commonly used mix by volume is 1:2:4—one measure of cement, two measures of sand, and four
measures of coarse aggregate.

Mixing by Hand
For hand mixing, the aggregates and sand are shovelled separately into the gauge box or measuring container and
turned out on to a flat, watertight timber platform or flat, clean surface such as concrete.

Mixing by Machine
Except for the very small job, hand mixing is too laborious and uneconomical.
A mechanical concrete mixing machine consists of a conical shaped drum in
which blades are fixed. The drum is rotated on a framework to mix the
materials.

Mechanical mixing is best carried out as follows:

 Add three-quarters of the water to the revolving drum.
 Add the correct quantities of coarse aggregate, cement and sand, in that
order.
 Add the remaining water gradually until the mixture falls cleanly from the
top of the mixer drum as it rotates.

Testing the Concrete

It is important that the concrete mix for a job is consistent. A batch of concrete
that is wetter than the rest will mean that a portion of the job is weaker.

The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of
fresh concrete. More specifically, it measures the consistency of the concrete in
that specific batch. This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly
made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely related to workability. It is a
term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease with which
the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness. Workability of
concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It is also used to determine
consistency between individual batches.

FIBERGLASS
Fiberglass (or fibreglass) is a type of fiber reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber.
The glass fiber may be randomly arranged but is commonly woven into a mat. The plastic matrix may be a
thermosetting plastic- most often epoxy, polyester resin- or vinylester, or a thermoplastic.

The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use. These glasses all contain silica
or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass,
45
glass fibers are made with very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a strong lightweight material and is used for many
products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on carbon fiber, it is less brittle, and its raw
materials are much cheaper. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, and it can be more readily
molded into complex shapes. Applications of fiberglass include, aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and enclosures,
hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards, and external door skins.

LEATHER
Leather is a durable and flexible material created by the tanning of animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be
produced through manufacturing processes ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry. Leather is used for
various purposes including clothing (e.g. shoes, hats, jackets, skirts, trousers and belts), bookbinding, leather
wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a wide variety of types and styles and is decorated by a wide
range of techniques.

Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather
covers. The term is equally applicable to domestic, automobile, airplane and boat furniture, and can be applied to
mattresses, particularly the upper layers, though these often differ significantly in design. A person who works with
upholstery is called an upholsterer; an apprentice upholsterer is sometimes called an outsider or trimmer.

ADHESIVES
Adhesives have been used for many years. The adhesives in these earlier times were made with blood, bones, hides,
vegetables, eggs, and milk; these contain protein - the chemical backbone of the adhesive. These adhesives are called
natural adhesives.

A key point to remember is that all adhesives can, when used correctly, make a joint that will be stronger than the
wood itself. In other words, the best adhesive is not necessarily the most expensive; therefore, in choosing adhesives,
its cost and its ease of application are often key factors. Other considerations must involve the glue's important
adhesive properties. These are described as follows:

 Moisture durability. Resistance to loss of strength with exposure to high humidity or liquid water.
 Heat temperature sensitivity. Resistance to loss of strength above normal room temperature.
 Flexibility. Ability of the glue to flow or "give" after curing. Note: Most furniture is designed so the joint carries
the load; the glue just holds the joint together. However, a laminated beam would need a low flexibility adhesive
as the adhesives carry the load.
 Color. The color of the cured glue line.
 Staining. A color change in the wood due to interaction of glue and wood.

Animal Glues
These adhesives (often called "hot glue") are made from hides, bones, and other parts of cattle. These are applied hot
to the pieces to be glued and, as the adhesives cool and lose their moisture, they become quite hard. The glue is
supplied in flakes, which are soaked in water and then heated with additional water in the old-time glue pot. In
addition, the wood must also be warm: cold wood can cool the adhesive too rapidly to permit a strong joint. The major
drawback to these adhesives is their low moisture resistance. In the presence of moisture, the strength of the joint
deteriorates.

Starch (vegetable) Glues

Made from cassava starch in water, these adhesives can be applied hot or cold. They cure by loss of moisture.
Prepared from powder mixed with water, they are usually very thick. Their chief advantage is the very slow curing
rate although there is plenty of assembly time. Disadvantages include slight staining of the wood and poor moisture
resistance.

Casein
A popular adhesive, casein is formulated from protein (curds) obtained from
milk. It is usually supplied in powder form and mixed with water. It cures by
evaporation of the water, so temperature is important. Its low cost, ease of use,
good gap-filling properties, and moderate moisture resistance contribute to its
popularity. Disadvantages include the tendency to stain wood, short working life,
46
and dulling effects on knives when glued pieces are machined. Also, high density species often glue less well.
However, recent improved formulations are available that can eliminate these disadvantages.

Synthetic Adhesives
These adhesives are of two basic chemical types: 1) thermosetting, which require heat to cure, and thermoplastic,
which undergo irreversible chemical curing reactions to produce the glue joint; and 2) those that do not chemically
cure and, therefore, may soften with heat. The thermosetting adhesives often contain formaldehyde as a major
ingredient (but the name may not include the word "formaldehyde"). Most thermosetting adhesives have catalysts
added to control the speed of the curing reaction. Fillers can be added to control glue properties - for example, to make
the adhesive thicker. Extenders can be added to reduce the amount of glue used (and therefore costs).

Thermosetting Adhesives

Urea, urea-formaldehyde. - This is one of the most popular woodworking adhesives, as it will provide moderate
moisture resistance, colorless glue lines, and a wide variety of properties through multiple formations. Its chief
disadvantage is that it is not a good gap filler, in gaps, it will crystallize and crumble in time, so the joints must fit
well. Although often cured in minutes at high temperature, it can be formulated to cure at room temperature.
Phenol. - This dark red adhesive is usually cured above 250 degrees F and provides the most moisture-durable joint.
Although expensive, it contains no moisture, and can be provided in a thin, dry film for gluing thin, fragile veneers.
Resorcinol and phenol-resorcinol. - The resorcinol adhesives are similar to the phenols, but cure at low
temperatures. As they are expensive, a formulation of phenol-resorcinol provides a lower cost adhesive that still has
exceptional and desirable properties. They are used in exterior exposure conditions, including boat building.
Melamine. - These adhesives, providing intermediate cost and performance between urea and phenols, are seldom
used alone, but rather are combined with urea adhesives to increase urea's moisture durability. Melamine-urea is
suitable for radio-frequency curing.
Epoxy, cyanoacrylate. - These adhesives are usually too expensive for production woodworking - other adhesives
(above) will provide the same performance.

Thermoplastic Hot Melts

These popular adhesives, using polyamides and polyesters (polyethylene and polypropylene, for example), cure by
cooling, so care must be taken to assure that the joint is assembled before the glue cools. The fast cure rate, but easy
handling, is their main advantage. They can be used to tack a joint together before the main adhesive has cured.

Thermoplastic Emulsion (PVA)

These adhesives come ready to use and set to a colorless glue line at room temperature by losing
water. PVA (polyvinyl-acetate) is often called "white glue." They have a high degree of tack
(instant stickiness) with a wide range of application temperatures. These are suitable adhesives
for furniture manufacturing and the home workshop alike.

ABRASIVE
An abrasive is any material which wears away a softer surface when they are rubbed together.
Sanding is referred to the process of using an abrasive to remove material from are surface
Abrasive materials can be grouped into two i) natural ii) manufactured

Natural
Garnet – a semi-precoiusstone, reddish-brown in colour and is available in sheets and rolls. Emery cloth – made from
emery grains

Manufactured
 Aluminium oxide – made from bauxite, iron fillings and coke. It is brown in colour but is available in other
dyed colours like green, redish brown and black.
 Silicon carbide- made by fusing together sawdust, sand, and coke at are temperature of 1320°C.it is one of the
hardest material next to diamond. It is used for metals when are cloth backing is manufactured however in
wood it is used mostly for floor sanding.
 Tungsten carbide – a thin steel backing of fine particles of tungsten carbide.

47
Coated abrasives
Basically there are two types of coated abrasives, they are:
Open coated (O.P); when the grains are spaced out, which is used for machine work and on resinous or sappy woods.
Closed coat (C.L): when grains are close together, it is used for hardwoods although it may cause clogging.

Open closed

Type of abrasive backing

Abrasive backing come in many materials depending on the intended application. Some of them are
i. Paper back – for general hand and machine sanding
ii. Cloth backing – for sanding belts used on sanding machines.
iii. Fibre backing – for machine sanding discs.

On the abrasive back, letters used together with numbers represent the type and weight of the backing. Animal or resin
glue or a combination of both is the common glue used in abrasive materials.

Coarseness Mesh or grit number Application

very coarse 12,16,20,24,30 Rough shaping forming of stock
Coarse 36,40,50 For removing deep marks and imperfection
Medium sanding before exterior painting or as
Medium 60,80,100
an intermediate stage before fine sanding
Last sanding prior to the application of stain
Fine 120,150,180
or paint
For rubbing and polishing finish after it has
Very fine 220,240,280,320,360,400,500,600 been applied and for cutting back surfaces
between coats.

When ordering abrasives

To make are order at the hardware shops the grit size, the backing grade(paper or cloth), open or closed coat, and the
type of abrasive must all be stated; e.g.100 sheets 120 –A garnet or 1 roll 80mm wide 80 – E Aluminium oxide O.P

Types of abrasives

Aluminium Oxide Cloth Sand Sheets.

Aluminium oxide cloth sheets are excellent for general clean up on metal and wood
surfaces. They last longer than paper sheets. They have a flexible durable backing and
are water resistant.

Emery Cloth Sand Sheets

Emery cloth sheets are close coat construction and are made of emery grain. They have a
cloth backing which is very flexible. They are excellent for cleaning and polishing metal
surfaces. They are also used on wood.

Crocus Cloth Sand Sheets

Crocus cloth sheets are made of a natural mineral used for extremely fine finishing and
polishing on metals, plastics and woods.

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Silicon Carbide Waterproof Sand Paper
Silicon carbide waterproof paper is best for wet and dry sanding of metal, paints and
plastics. It leaves an excellent finish on most precious metals. It has a long life and is
economical.

Silicon Carbide Stearate Sand Paper Sheets

Silicon carbide stearate coated paper sheets reduce loading of material and are excellent on wood, plastics and metals

Garnet Finishing & Cabinet Sand Paper Sheets

Garnet finishing & cabinet paper leaves an excellent finish on woods. It has a medium aggressiveness. It has a long
life and is economical.

Aluminium Oxide and Cabinet Sand Paper Sheets

Aluminium oxide and cabinet paper is excellent for wood sanding.

Sanding belts
Aluminium oxide belts are resin bonded, and have tear and break resistant
joints. They are excellent on all metals and hard woods however are also
available for soft woods. Belts made of Aluminium oxide poly/cotton material have a specially coated backing which
provides high performance for washable belts. Aluminium oxide premium cotton belts are flexible enough for most
contour surfaces.

Wheel dresser
A Bench grinder wheel being dressed by a wheel dresser (fig.).this removes the glazed surface of the
grinding wheel, which will allow new cutting surface exposed.

WOOD FINISHING
Wood Finishing is the process of applying to the surface after it has been prepared, by filling and smoothing, or
otherwise, a thin coating of varnish or other substance, to render it durable, enhance its beauty or change its
appearance. There are numerous methods of finishing, and a variety of materials are used; the varieties of varnish
being the principal. The distinctive qualities of these varieties are treated under their proper headings.

In their natural state all woods are more or less porous, consisting of bundles of hard fibres, with interstices filled with
a softer substance. These constitute the grain, and as the hard or soft parts predominate the wood is said to be hard,
fine, or close-grained, or soft and open-grained. 'I o fill these softer parts, or pores, and give to the whole an even,
uniform surface, hard, and capable of a brilliant polish, is the object of the finishers' art. This hard, firm surface face
was formerly gained by the successive application of several coats of varnish, at least three preliminary coats being
required to fill the pores; the inequalities were then reduced by fine sand or glass-paper, and several additional coats
laid on, the last, after becoming thoroughly hard, being polished if desired. In this operation, however, a great quantity
of varnish is absorbed by the open pores of the wood, and it is consequently so expensive that it is now seldom used.
Recourse is therefore had to various plans to render the wood non -absorbent before applying varnishes, and certain
compounds called fillers are largely used for this purpose.

49
Vanish
Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in wood finishing but also for other materials.
Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. Varnish finishes are usually
glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents. Varnish has
little or no color, is transparent, and has no added pigment, as opposed to paints or wood stains, which contain
pigment and generally range from opaque to translucent. Varnishes are also applied over wood stains as a final step to
achieve a film for gloss and protection. Some products are marketed as a combined stain and varnish.

Paint
Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a
solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, colour, or provide texture to objects. Paint can be made or purchased
in many colours—and in many different types, such as water colour, artificial, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and
applied as a liquid, but dries into a solid.

Sealers
Sealers are typically lower strength, yet flexible, bonding agents used between substrates of differing physical
properties to form a seal between the materials. Sealants, despite not having great strength, convey a number of
properties. They seal top structures to the substrate, and are particularly effective in waterproofing processes by
keeping moisture out (or in) the components in which they are used. They can provide thermal and acoustical
insulation, and may serve as fire
barriers. They may have electrical
properties, as well. Sealants can also be
used for simple smoothing or filling.
They are often called upon to perform
several of these functions at once.

Stain
A wood stain consists of a colorant
suspended or dissolved in an agent or
solvent. The suspension agent can be
water, alcohol, petroleum distillate, or
the actual finishing agent (shellac,
lacquer, varnish, polyurethane, etc.).
Coloured or 'stained' finishes, like
polyurethane, do not penetrate the pores
of the wood to any significant degree
and will disappear when the finish itself
deteriorates or is removed intentionally.

Greasing/Oiling
Grease is a semisolid lubricant. It
generally consists of a soap emulsified
with mineral or vegetable oil.[1] The
characteristic feature of greases is that
they possess a high initial viscosity, which upon the application of shear, drops to give the effect of an oil-lubricated
bearing of approximately the same viscosity as the base oil used in the grease. Greases are applied to mechanisms that
can only be lubricated infrequently and where a lubricating oil would not stay in position. They also act as sealants to
prevent ingress of water and incompressible materials.

An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both
hydrophobic (immiscible with water, literally "water fearing") and lipophilic (miscible with other oils, literally "fat
loving"). Oils have a high carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable and slippery. The general
definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and
uses. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile. They are used for
food, fuel, lubrication, and the manufacture of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in
some religious ceremonies as purifying agents.

50
Corrosion Protection
What is corrosion or commonly called rust?
Corrosion is the natural process of ferrous metal trying to return to its original form of iron ore. Corrosion also takes
place in all metals in the same fashion e.g. Copper and nickel corrosion is in the form of "tarnish", aluminium
corrosion is in the form of white rust or aluminium oxide

What causes rust?

Corrosion takes place due to air (oxygen) and water (moisture) attacking the surface of metal (known as oxidation)
and creating the most common form of corrosion, known as rust. Rust is a flaky substance that appears on the metal
surface, which was once part of the metal, and is turned into iron oxide. This process is also referred to as oxidation.

HARDWARE
This term is given to the many fittings such as hinges and locks, used on the many articles made under the heading of
cabinet work.

Hinges
Used are used on any article that swings, such as doors, flaps, lids or windows.

Butt Hinge:
Butt hinges are available in a great variety of sizes and are used in all type of
woodwork. Sizes range from 13 to 200mm and they may be obtained in brass or steel
and finished chrome plated, oxidised or antiqued. There are several methods of fitting
butt hinges. The usual method is that the hinge knuckle is let entirely into one piece
and one leaf let into the other.

Back flap hinge:

The back flap hinge is used chiefly on fall down flaps. It is a wide hinge, usually with three
screw holes in each leaf, which is let equally into both joining parts or merely screwed on
the surface. The most popular sizes used are 35 to 50mm, measured across the width of
hinge. The finish is bright steel.

Rule joint hinge:

This hinge is used for the flaps of tables with the rule joint on the edges. One
flap, flange or leaf is longer than the other to bridge across the hollow of the
joint. The short flap is fixed to the top of the table and the long flap to the leaf.
The screw holes are countersunk on the reverse side so that the knuckle is
recessed into the wood. The usual sizes are 35mm and 38mm and are available
in either brass or bright steel.

Surface hinges:
There are several designs of surface hinges. They are used on flash doors and are screwed
straight on to the face of the door and to the framing. Two hinges are shown, the butterfly
(a) and a more modern style
(b) Surface hinges are available in a number of finishes, chrome plated, oxidised or antiqued.

T or Tee Hinges:
These hinges are used mostly on batten doors. The long flange is tapered and ranges
from 100 to 600mm long. They are screwed to the face of the door and the frame. The
size is measured from the knuckle to the end of the strap.
Made in steel, they may be finished bright steel, black japanned or galvanised.

51
Strap hinge:
The strap hinge is used where two doors are hung one to the other. They are screwed on
to the surface of the doors and not let in. They are measured closed so that a 150mm strap
hinge when opened measures 300mm. The finish is bright steel, black japanned or
galvanised.

LOCKS

Cupboard Lock
This is a lock used on doors fitting between carcase ends. It is screwed on the inside of the
door and is not usually let in. The bolt can shoot right or left hand. It is usually made in brass
but a cheaper type can be obtained in bright steel.

Drawer or Till Lock:

This is a ‗cut‘ lock and must be ‗cut‘ or let into the inner side of the drawer. The bolt shoots into
a recess cut into the drawer rail. This recess is usually cut with a special drawer lock chisel. It is
usually made in brass.

Box Lock:
This box is let into the inside of the box or chest and the plate is let into the lid. Made in
brass or bright steel, they range in size from 19 to 10 0mm.

Mortise Lock:
Used for interior doors in houses, this lock fits into a mortise cut into the door stile. These locks
are sold in sets and comprise the lock itself, the knobs and spindle and two escutcheon plates,
together with lock plate, packing washers and fitting screws. The usual dimensions are 75mm
long by 95mm wide and 13mm thick.

Rim Lock:
This lock is screwed to the inside of the door. It is usually reversible and may be
used on either the left or right-hand door stile. It is a cheap lock used on doors to
outbuildings and sheds. It is usually finished black japanned.

Escutcheons:
An escutcheon is a metal fitting used to protect a keyhole. It
is available in a number of different styles and finishes.
There are two types, let-in and plate. The let-in type is usually used on cabinetwork while the
plate type is generally used on cheaper work or on large doors and for bigger locks. It is fixed
in place by means of screws or escutcheon pins.

CATCHES

Ball Catch:
The ball catch consists of a steel ball mounted on a spring and a brass striker plate. The ball
is usually fitted into the door and the plate fitted on to the carcase. However, some
woodworkers prefer to reverse this order. Sizes range from 8mm diameter for light work to
25mm diameter for larger or heavier doors. The most used size is 10mm. The method of
fitting a ball catch is outlined.

52
Double Ball Catch:
This is a simple catch which requires less skill in fitting. One part, usually the ball
fitting, screws to the door and one part to the carcase. They are available in brass or
bright steel or may be chromium plated.

Gripper Catch:
This is a cheaper catch which acts in the same way as the double ball catch. It screws on
to the back of the door and engages in a clip screwed to the carcase. A completely plastic
type is also available.

Inside Spring Catch:

Sometimes called an elbow catch, this catch is used where there are double doors. It
screws on to the back of the one door and snaps it into position, allowing the other door to
be locked. It is made in bright steel and is suitable for light doors only. A plastic type is
also available.

Magnetic Catch:
This is a simple, effective and easily fitted door catch. It consists of a small steel plate
which is fitted to the back of the door and a small strong magnet screwed to the inside
of the door opening. On contact, these hold the door firmly closed.

BOLTS AND HOOKS

Barrel Bolt:
The barrel bolt is used on the inside of doors. The bolt engages or shoots into a metal
socket or staple fixed to the door frame or into a hole bored in the carcase of a cabinet. In
this case the bolt may be offset or cranked for extra strength. Barrel bolts are made in
steel, brass or bronze and may be finished black japanned, chromium plated or oxidised.
Sizes vary from 50 to 100mm for cabinetwork and up to 150mm for heavier doors.

Surface Bolt:
This serves the same purpose as the barrel bolt but it looks neater. It is used on
light cabinets and screws on to the back of the door in the same way. It is
usually made in bright steel and is available in small sizes only from 50mm to
75mm.

Tower Bolt:
This is similar to the barrel bolt but is used on larger interior doors to
reinforce the door lock and also in double door work to fasten one door so
that the other may lock into it. It can also be used in conjunction with a
padlock for doors of sheds and gates. It is available black japanned or in
galvanised pressed steel; usual sizes are 100 to 200mm.

53
Hasp and Staple:
This is used for fastening sin gle or double exterior doors. A padlock is
used to secure the hasp to the staple. The ‗safety‘ type of hasp and staple
is where the hasp is wider and covers the screws. The lighter type is
usually black japanned or galvanised.

Cabin Hook:
This is a long hook for engaging in the eye. It is used for holding open casements or
doors. The name originated from the hooks used for holding back cabin doors on ships.
Available usually in brass, it may be oxidised or chromium plated. Sizes vary from 50
to 180mm or more.

Cup Hook:
This is a screw-in hook for building cups and other articles. It is available in a variety of
finishes: solid brass, brass plated, chromium plated, and bright steel and coated with
coloured plastic.

Screw Eye:
This is a screw with a closed eye used for a variety of purposes such as
hanging picture frames. It is available in bright steel, brass plated, solid
brass and chromium plated and in sizes from 6mm up to 25mm.

STAYS, BRACKETS AND CASTORS

Lid Support:
This stay is used to support lids of boxes and cabinets. It is made in bright steel or brass,
and is usually chromium plated.

Straight Stay:
A stay that can be used for any lid or flap. It has an advantage over others in that
it can be fixed in any open position by turn ing a thumb-screw thus locking the
stay. It is usually made in bright steel or brass which is chromium plated.

Shelf Bracket:
This is a metal bracke t for supporting shelves. There are a number of types available, the
most popular being the pressed steel type which is usually finished black japanned. Small
neat brackets are also available in brass which is chromium plated.

Peg Castor:
This castor is used for chairs, tables and other movable articles of furniture. A spring
sleeve is let into a hole bored in the leg and the serrated rim knocked into the wood. The
pin of the castor is pushed in and is free to revolve. Another type is screwed to the article
of furniture. The wheel may be metal, fibre or nylon.
54
Tea Wagon Castor:
This is used for light movable furniture such as tea wagons and is fitted in the same way as the peg castor. It has a
rubber or composition wheel for silent and smooth movement.

Shepherd Castor:
This is a newer type of patent castor. It is made in a number of sizes to suit light and
heavier articles of furniture.

KNOBS, HANDLES AND PULLS

Knob:
The knob itself may be obtained in a number of materials and finishes such as brass,
brass japanned, oxidised, glass and coloured plastic. It may be fixed to the door or
drawer by means of a bolt.

Drawer Pull:
These are usually made in stamped brass and may
be finished brass or oxidised. They screw on to the
outside surface of the drawer and are used more for office desks and kitchen
fitments than furniture.

Wooden Drawer or
Door Pull:
The wooden drawer pull is usually fitted to cheaper work or
where the pull is to be painted to match the rest of the job. It
is available in a number of shapes and sizes, although the
woodworker often prefers to make it himself.

Handles:
These handles have two thin threaded bolts and are bolted to
the door or drawer. The projecting threaded part is cut off
flush with the inside of the drawer after the nuts have been tightened. This type of handle is
available in a number of metals and finishes including coloured plastics.

NAILS

Nails are used to hold wood parts together. To do a satisfactory job, the nails must be correct type.

Box nails - much like common nails. They have a smaller

diameter body and larger, thinner head. They are used for box and
crate construction.

Finishing nails – have small heads slightly larger than the body.
They are use where nails head be hidden. The head is set below
the surface with nail set, and then filler is used to cover the hole.
They are used for furniture, and molding on cabinets.
Casing nails – look much like finishing nails, but have a large,
cone- shaped head. This gives them more holding power than
finishing nails.

55
RIVETS

A rivet is a permanent method of fastening two or more pieces of metal together. The head is performed by stamping,
the second head closed by pneumatic hammer or hydraulically whilst red- hot. Small rivets are closed by hammer and
set.

Screws
Wood screw are available in a wide variety of sizes, types, metals and finishes.

The part of a screw are:

The Head. This gives the screw its name, such as round head, countersunk and raised head.
The shank. The body of the screw which is threaded to a point for – about two thirds of its length.
The shank determines the thickness of the screw.
The thread. The spiral groove, which draws the screw into the timber and provides its holding
power.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The diagram shows a cross section through a tree trunk.

(i) Name the parts labelled A, B and C and describe the function of
each.

2. The conservation of tropical rainforests is essential for environmental reasons.

(i) Give TWO reasons why we should conserve these rainforests.
(ii) Suggest TWO ways in which we can continue to use attractive hardwoods in an environmentally
friendly manner.

3. Deforestation of our tropical rainforests is an important environmental issue. With reference to protection and
conservation:
(i) State TWO reasons why we should conserve our tropical rainforests
(ii) State TWO ways that the use of manufactured boards can help reduce the current rate of
global deforestation.

56
4. When timber is being seasoned it is important to allow air circulation around the boards. Make a neat freehand
sketch to show how this is achieved.

5. The diagram on the right shows a board which warped badly during
seasoning. Explain why this might have happened and, using notes and a
neat freehand sketch, show how the warping might have been prevented.

6. Briefly explain FOUR advantages that manufactured boards have over solid wooden boards.

7. Name the THREE manufactured boards labelled A, B, and C below.

8. The diagram shows a coffee table made from a hardwood.

(i) Name THREE clear finishes that could be applied to the

table. Select ONE finish that would be best suited for the
table and give TWO reasons for your choice.
(ii) With the aid of neat freehand sketches, describe in detail the
steps you would follow to prepare the wood for the finish
you have chosen.
(iii) State TWO specific safety precautions that should be
observed when using applied finishes.
(iv) Select a suitable hardwood for the manufacture of the coffee
table and give TWO reasons for your choice of hardwood.

57
 STRAND 4

BASIC HOME IMPROVEMENT

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Classify safety, materials, tools and processes of floor tiling, water plumbing and electrical theory
 Demonstrate hands-on skills in basic floor tiling, water plumbing and electrical theory

INTRODUCTION
Homes, offices and other buildings are equipped with plumbing systems so as to carry out the disposal of waste and
flow of water that a channelized operation can be carried out automatically to keep cleanliness and hygienic
atmosphere. Our sinks, bathtubs, showers, Faucet, Toilets and other fixtures are all dependent on this system. This is
why it is essential to keep it well maintained.

PLUMBING
A Plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as water heaters.

Plumbing is the skilled trade of

working with pipes, tubing and
plumbing for drinking water
systems and the drainage of
waste. Plumbing also refers to a
system of pipes and fixtures
installed in a building for the
distribution of potable water and
the removal of waterborne
wastes. Plumbing is usually
distinguished from water and
sewage system, in that a
plumbing system serves one
building, while water and sewage
systems serve a group of
buildings or a city.

The major categories of

plumbing systems or subsystems
are:
 Portable Cold and Hot Water
Supply
 Traps, Drains and Vents
 Septic System
 Rain Water and Surface Water Drainage
 Fuel/Gas Piping
58
Plumbing Regulations

 Plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or rural government agencies due to the direct
impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare.
 Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to
plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction
to future buyers.
 If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of
home or building owners.
 In Fiji the governing body is the Water Authority of Fiji which monitors or control the activities of plumbers
or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works to ensure that the work
done is safety and undertaken correctly.
 Drinking water or potable water is of high quality that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate
or long term harm to health.
 In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking
water standard, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.
 Water supply networks deliver potable water, whether it is to be used for drinking, washing or landscaping
irrigation.

Water Supply System

There are two types of water supply
system: Direct water supply system or
indirect water supply system. A direct
water supply system is one where
large high reservoirs provide a good
mains supply and pressure. In this
system the whole of the water to the
sanitary fittings is provided directly
from the main supply. The schematic
drawing shows the method of
installing the direct water system to a
small house.

Advantages Direct Water Supply System

 In a direct system all the cold water taps and WC cistern are fed off the rising main.
 Suitable drinking water is available from every cold tap and there is sufficient water pressure especially for
electric showers.
 There is a substantial savings in pipe work especially in multistorey buildings. This is due to the rising main
supplying water to all fittings and cold water distribution pipes being omitted from the cistern.

59
Disadvantages Direct Water Supply System
 The main disadvantage is a greater risk of contaminated water getting into the water main through back
siphoning.
 There is a tendency to have more trouble with water hammer due to more points being connected direct to the
main.
 During peak periods there is a tendency for the lowering of supply and with building on higher grounds, a
possible temporary loss of supply.

INDIRECT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

An Indirect Water Supply System is where only the kitchen sink is fed from the rising main, all other cold water
outlets are fed indirectly using gravity from head tank (cistern), usually situated above the roof level. The hot water
outlets are also fed from the same head tank. The schematic drawing shows the method of installing the direct water
system to a small house.

Advantages of Indirect Water Supply System

 In this system Back Siphonage of contaminated water is eliminated.
 In areas where the mains pressure is low, the storage or Head Tank ensures a constant supply of water.

Disadvantages of Indirect Water Supply System

 Larger and longer pipes are required.
 A large cistern or Head Tank is required.
 Difficult to accommodate the Large Cistern or Head Tank unless fixed in the roof space, this is generally
undesirable.
 Drinking water not available from all cold water outlets.
 Less chances of noisy pipes or water hammering.

60
VALVES
Valves used to control the flow along a pipeline are known as the globe or gate types. Both types close slowly and
therefore do not usually give rise to problems of water hammer.

Globe Valves
These are used on high-pressure systems. Shown below is a section of one type of globe valve; the metal-to-metal
seating type is often used for heating systems and the composition valve for very high-pressure systems where a
complete shut off is required. A stop valve is used for domestic water installations. When the valve is used on cold
water service pipe- work the jumper should be loose which tends to act as a non-return valve and prevent backflow
into the main.

Gate Valves
These are used for the control of fluids in low-pressure systems, such as on distribution pipe work from storage
cisterns, or on low-pressure heating systems. They offer much less resistance to the flow of fluids than the globe
valve.

TAPS
There are several types of taps, sometimes referred to as ‗screw down‘ types, which are designed to shut off the supply
slowly and thus prevent water hammer.

Bib taps are used for fitting over a sink, or for washing down purposes when it is then fitted with a hose outlet. The
tap can be plain brass or chromium plated.
Pillar taps which can be used for baths, wash basins and sinks.

61
REPAIRING LEAKING TAPS

Bib taps, pillar taps, mixing taps, hose taps, stop cocks, all consist of three parts: the handle, the head part (consisting
of the spindle, gland nut, gland, washer-plate, washer and washer nut) and the body. Two types of head parts are
available these days. The normal head part and a non-rising head part in deco taps.
Steps in Repairing Leaking Taps
Step 1-Turn off the water supply.
Step 2-Put the plug into the outlet of the bath, basin or sink to prevent small screws from falling down the drain.
Step 3-Remove the handle (except on brass taps or stopcocks).

Older taps with deco handles have a chrome edged insert screwed into the top of the handle. Remove this by
unscrewing with water pump pliers (protecting the chrome with a rag). Chrome cross handle taps have a grub
screw on the side. Undo the screw and remove the handle.

Step 4-Unscrew the chrome shield with a wrench again protecting with a rag.
Step 5-Unscrew the brass head part.
Step 6-Undo the small nut at the bottom of the washer plate with a small spanner, holding the plate with a pair of
pliers, and replace the washer. Make sure the washer is the same size as the washer plate. Do not over
tighten the washer-plate nut.
Step 7-Fit a new fibre washer to the head part.
Step 8-Re-assemble the tap in reverse order making sure that the tap is fully open (turn the spindle anti-clockwise)
when fitting the head part.

PLASTIC FITTINGS

 PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is used for cold water service and distributing pipes, water mains and drain pipe
systems
 It is not suitable for use with hot water pipes, but may be used for short periods of discharge of hot waste
water.
 The pipes have smooth internal surface, is light and easy to handle and can be obtained in various colours.
 The pipe may be joined by means of solvent cement, which is applied to the socket and spigot of the pipe.

Fittings are used in pipe and plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections, to adapt to different sizes or
shapes, and to regulate fluid flow.

Common fittings for both piping and plumbing

While there are hundreds of specialized fittings
manufactured, some fittings are used widely in
piping and plumbing systems.
Elbow
A pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe
or tube allowing a change of direction, usually 90°
or 45°.
Tee
A tee is used to either combine or split a fluid
flow. Most common are tees with the same inlet
and outlet sizes, but 'reducing' tees are available as
well.

Cross
A cross has one inlet and three outlets, or vice
versa. Crosses are common in fire sprinkler
systems, but not in plumbing due to their extra cost
as compared to using two tees.

62
Cap
A type of fitting that covers the end of a pipe. A cap has a similar function to a plug. In plumbing systems that use
threads the cap has female threads.
Plug
It is used to plug unused fitting outlet. Have female threads or a solvent weld spigot. In most cases a threaded plug is
used to provide a connection point for future use. If solvent welded in place the plug is never going to be removed.

Coupling
A coupling connects two pipes to each other. If the material and size of the pipe are not the same, the fitting may be
called a 'reducing coupling' or reducer, or an adapter.

Female adapter
Female adapters are used to add a female threaded pipe connection on a solvent welded pipe. Never use female
adapters when converting to a metallic pipe. The metal male pipe threads tend to split the PVC fittings. Metal male
threads should never be inserted into any female threaded PVC fitting.

Male adapter
Male adapters are used to add a male threaded pipe connection to a solvent weld pipe section.

Threaded Pipe
A threaded pipe is a pipe with screw-threaded ends for assembly.

Union
A union is similar to a coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient disconnection of pipes for
maintenance or fixture replacement. While a coupling would require either solvent welding or being able to rotate all
the pipes adjacent as with a threaded coupling, a union provides a simple nut transition, allowing easy release at any
time.

SOLVENT

A solvent is applied to PVC piping that

dissolves and fuses the adjacent surfaces
of piping. This is used with a sleeve-type
joint.
Connecting PVC pipe
Step 1-Cut the pipe to length, then remove
any burrs with a flat file. The cut should
be as square as possible to insure a leak-
free installation.
Step 2-Take the gloss off both ends of the
connection (the end of the pipe and the
inside of the fitting) with a piece of emery
paper, then wipe both ends with PVC
cleaner.
Step 3-If necessary fit the pieces together
dry and mark the alignment with a felt tip pen.
Step 4 -Finally, coat both surfaces with PVC solvent, connect the pieces together as far as you can and then give the
pipe a 1/4 turn to spread the solvent. Wait two hours before running water through the pipe.

63
ADDITIONAL FITTINGS

Wye fitting
A type of waste fitting tee which has the side inlet pipe entering at a 45° angle.

Clean-outs
Clean-outs are fittings that allow access to drains without removing plumbing fixtures. Cleanouts should be placed in
accessible locations throughout a drainage system, and outside the building as these augers have limited length. Clean-
outs normally have screw-on caps.
Sanitary Tee
A sanitary tee is a tee with a curved centre section designed to minimize the possibility of siphon action that could
draw water out of a trap. The centre connection is generally connected to the pipe which leads to a trap (the trap arm).

Double Sanitary Tee (Sanitary Cross)

It is similar to a cross. This fitting differs from a standard cross in that two of the ports have curved inlets. The fitting
has been used in the past for connecting the drains of back to back fixtures (such as back to back bathroom sinks).
Instead a Double Fixture Fitting is required.

Combo-Tee
A combination tee (combo tee) is a tee with a gradually curving centre connecting joint. It's used in drain systems to
provide a smooth, gradually curving path to reduce the likelihood of clogs.

Closet flange
The closet flange is the drain pipe flange to which a 'water closet' (toilet) is attached.

Trap primers
Trap primers regularly inject water into traps so that water seals are maintained. This seal is necessary to keep sewer
gas out of buildings. The trap primer must also be in a readily available place for easy access for adjustments,
replacement, and or repair.

Additional Fittings for Plumbing Systems

Wye-Clean-outsSanitary Tee Double Sanitary Tee

Combo-Tee Closet flange Elbow

64
MATERIALS
Types of Materials Used for plumbing:
 Plastic
 Copper Tubing
 Malleable Iron Pipe
 Caste Iron Soil Pipe
 Vitrified Clay Pipe

Type Characteristics Uses

 Low Initial Cost  Sanitary Drainage
 Ease Of Assembly  Vent Piping
 Lightweight  Storm Water Drainage
PLASTIC  Corrosion Resistant  Cold water lines
 Low friction loss  Drians
 Fire resistant  Irrigation
 Maintenance free

 Resists corrosion  Domestic water

 Will not burn or support combustion  Service and distribution
and decompose to toxic gases  Fire protection
COPPER
 Easy to join  Solar
PIPE
 Easily formable  Fuel/fuel oil
 Lightweight  HVAC
 Economical  Underground water
service
 strong  drain pipes
 susceptible to rust and corrosion  hot and cold supply
MALLEABLE  difficult to install
IRON PIPE

 Versatile  sanitary and storm drain

 Adaptable for use in all types of  waste and vent piping
building applications
CASTE IRON
 Low-Cost Installation.
SOIL PIPE
 Cast iron soil pipe can be
preassembled
 Product readily available

 Life expectancy: over 100 years  sanitary and storm drain

 Chemically inert: resistant to attack  waste and vent piping
from solvents, acids, alkalis, gases, applications
VITRIFIED etc.
CLAY PIPE  Low friction coefficient.
 Resistant to root penetration and
leakage.
 Economical

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TOOLS IN BASIC PLUMBING

Pipe Wrench
Plumbers use hand wrenches to grip, hold and twist pipes and plumbing fittings, especially nuts. A
pipe wrench is a heavy-duty, long-handled wrench with an adjustable opening. The interior of the
pipe wrench's opening features serrations, called "teeth," that grip rounded objects like pipe.

Screw and Nut Drivers

Screw and nut drivers tighten straps that hold pipes, tighten clamps that connect pipes and
aid in the installation of fixtures like sinks, grab bars or shower handles. Aside from the
common Phillips and flat-head screwdriver tips, tips with hexagonal openings, called "nut
drivers," grip nuts and the hex-head screws commonly featured on clamps.

Hacksaw
The hacksaw is a basic hand saw that may be used to cut through plastic and thin-
walled metal pipe. Hacksaws have a three-sided metal frame and pistol-grip handle.
The open, or fourth, side of the metal frame accepts a thin, many-toothed blade that
employs tiny, sharpened teeth to shave or "hack" away at metals and plastics.

Adjustable Spanner
An adjustable spanner is a wrench with a "jaw" of adjustable width, allowing it to be
used with different sizes of fastener head (nut, bolt, etc.) rather than just one fastener,
as with a conventional fixed spanner.

Pliers

Plumbers used to be known for carrying a pipe wrench to be used on just about
every job. Although the pipe wrench is still handy plumbing tools it has basically
been replaced with channel locks. Channel locks are just very handy, quick, and
they can take apart most plumbing easily and quickly. These pliers work best in
pairs, one for stabilizing the pipe and one to unscrew. Also, having a few different
sizes can make projects much easier. Channel locks are my go to tool for almost
all plumbing repairs.

SAFETY IN PLUMBING
Before beginning any do-it-yourself projects or repairs it is a good idea to review some plumbing safety basics. By
following some basic safety methods and precautions you can avoid injury and complete your projects successfully.

66
These plumbing safety precautions should be followed when doing any project whether big or small.

 Be informed - Check the local building and plumbing codes and laws before starting a plumbing project.
Know what work you can do yourself and what work will require a professional. Get a permit whenever it is
required for your plumbing project.
 Protect your eyes - Wear safety glasses when doing any plumbing work especially when doing anything that
potentially damage your eyes. Work such as snaking a drain, using a drill, hammering or even working under
a sink while looking up can pose a safety hazard for your eyes. Small objects can fall down or fly up right into
your eye when least expected. Eyes are very sensitive and easily injured so it is always a good practice to
protect them.
 Protect your hands - Wear appropriate work gloves to protect your hands. Hands come into contact with many
different materials and chemicals when doing plumbing projects, but using gloves is an easy way to prevent
injuries. When using a drain machine of any sort it is a good idea to wear latex gloves under leather gloves to
protect you from the germs typically found in drain lines.
 Protect your lungs - Use a face mask when necessary to protect your lungs. When projects involve sawing or
sanding do take the extra precaution of using a disposable face mask to prevent inhalation of dust particles.
 Be cautious - Exercise caution when using power tools and follow the recommended manufacturer
suggestions for use. Many people are injured by not keeping two hands on the power tool and staying focused
on the project. Be extra cautions when soldering or using any heat on pipes, especially in the wall or near any
insulation.
 Have a helper - Having a spotter or helper will make completing your projects easier and safer. Running a
drain machine can be difficult because in most cases you will have two hands on the cable and if you had to
unplug the machine quickly an extra hand would be beneficial.
 Read labels - Always read labels and instructions when using chemicals or machines. Follow the
recommendations for use at all times. Check the warning labels on products and equipment and know what to
do in case of an emergency.
 Work while impaired - Never work while you are overly tired, ill, or under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
Impaired reflexes or lack of focus is a sure way to invite injury especially when working with power tools.
 Misuse tools or equipment - Use tools and equipment for their intended purpose only. The misuse of tools can
result in injury and/or damage of the tool. Poorly maintained tools and equipment can also be a safety hazard.
Check power tools and equipment before using them to ensure they are in good condition.
 Ignore safety codes - Plumbing and building safety codes are put in place for the protection of the public so
they should not be ignored.
 Carry tools in your pocket - Use a tool belt or a tool box to carry sharp or pointed tools around. A sharp tool in
your pocket can cause an injury when you least expect it.
 Ignore the smell of gas - If you smell natural gas or suspect a gas leak stop what you are doing right away. If
it is safe to do so, turn off the gas, and call your gas company. Don‘t try to find the gas leak yourself.

ELECTRICITY
Electricity has a very large influence on our lives, but it is not well understood by many people. Electricity is used to
power many of the things that we use every day such as television computers, telephone, electric fans, microwaves
etc. Since electricity is so important to daily life, that it has become important to know something about it.

What is electricity? How is it created? How does it function? To understand all this, we need to know something about
atoms and their structure.

All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of smaller particles. The three
main particles making up an atom are the proton, the neutron and the electron.

Electrons spin around the centre, or nucleus, of atoms, in the same way the moon spins
around the earth. The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.
Electrons contain a negative charge, protons a positive charge.
Neutrons are neutral – they have neither a positive nor a negative charge.

67
When electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created. This is
what happens in a piece of wire. The electrons are passed from atom to atom, creating an
electrical current from one end to other, just like in the picture.

Electricity is conducted through some things better than others do.

Its resistance measures how well something conducts electricity. Some things hold their
electrons very tightly. Electrons do not move through them very well. These things are
called insulators. Rubber, plastic, cloth, glass and dry air are good insulators and have very
high resistance.

Other materials have some loosely held electrons, which move through them very easily. These are called conductors.
Most metals – like copper, aluminium or steel – are good conductors.

Electric current

An electric current is made up of large amount of electron moving roughly in one

direction, these electrons carry the electrical energy around the circuit.
An Ammeter is used to measure the amount of current flowing through a component or
branch of a circuit.

Since large number of electrons pass through the current in a second, single electron is
not counted but rather measured by a group of electrons called coulombs.

One coulomb is 6×1018 electrons. When one coulomb of electrons passes every second,
this is a current of one ampere.

A.C. – alternating current where the current repeatedly flows in one direction and then the
other.

D.C. – direct current is when the current continuously flows in the same direction.

Voltage is the potential energy between two points, and is the driving force that causes charge
to flow. Its unit is volt (V). One volt is defined as the potential difference that requires one
joule of energy to move one coulomb of charge. Voltage is always measured relative to some other point in a circuit.

Circuit is the path the current flows through is called an electric circuit. An operational circuit needs a voltage supply,
conductors and a load.

Series circuit Parallel circuit

Series circuit is an electric circuit connected so that current passes through each circuit element in turn without
branching.

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Parallel circuit is a closed circuit in which the current divides into two or more paths before recombining to complete
the circuit.
The electric current flowing in a circuit is measured using an ammeter and connected to the circuit.

Series circuit Parallel circuit

A Voltmeter can be connected to the circuit to find the voltage.

Prefixes are used to describe very small or large currents or voltage.

E.g. 1 kilovolt (1kV) = 1000 volt

1 milliamp (1mA) = amp
100 milliamp (l00mA) = amp = amp Voltmeter

Resistance is another important property that can be measured in electrical systems. This is measured in units called
ohms. Resistance is a term that describes the forces that oppose the flow of electron current in a conductor. All
materials naturally contain some resistance to the of electron current.

Resistor is a device that opposes the flow of current and in is common to every circuit known to man. Resistors are
designed to have specific values of resistance or impedance.

Ohms is the amount of electrical resistance that exists in an electrical circuit when one amp of current is flowing with
one volt being applied to the circuit. The following formula is used to calculate electrical values so that we can design
circuits and use electricity in a useful manner. Ohm's Law is shown below.

where, R = resistance in Ω, V= voltage in volts, I= current in Amps

Depending on what you are trying to solve we can rearrange it two other ways.
V=IxR

If the voltage stays the same, and the resistance goes up, then the current goes down. If the voltage stays the same, and
the resistance goes down, then the current will go up.

Example

A 2V accumulator is connected to a wire of

resistance 20 ohm. 2V accumulator
What current flows in the circuit?

V=I×R
2 = I × 20
I = 2/20 = 1/10 = 0.1 A
Wire of resistance 20 Ω
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Resistors in Series
The total resistance (R) of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the separate resistance (R1,R2).

R = R1 + R2

Example:

A p.d of 4V is applied to two resistors ( of 6 Ω and 2 Ω)

connected to the series
Calculate:
1. The combined resistance
2. The current flow
3. The p.d across the 6 Ω resistor

1. Combined resistance = R1 + R2
= 6 Ω and 2 Ω
= 8Ω
2. Current flow
V= I × R
4=I×8
I = 4/8 = 1/2 amp = 0.5A

3. The p.d across the 6 Ω resistor

V= I × R
V = 0.5 × 6
V = 3Vacross the 6Ω resistor
Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance (R) is less than either of the separate parallel resistances (R1, R2) because the electrons find
it easier to travel when they have more than one path they can take.
The combined resistance R can be found from:

Example:
A p.d of 6V is applied to two resistors (of 3 and 6 Ω)
connected to the series
Calculate:
1. The combined resistance
2. The current flow
3. The current across the 3 Ω resistor

The combined resistance

The current flow V= I × R

6=I×2
I = 6/2 = 3A in the main circuit

The current across the 3 Ω resistor

V= I1 × R
6 = I1 × 3
I1= 6/3 = 2A in the 3Ω resistor
70
Simple application of knowledge in wiring
The power supplied to our work places comes in as single phase or three phase power. Generally there are three wires
Active (or hot or live) wire, Neutral, returns the power or completes the circuit and Protective earth/ground for
bypassing excess current to avoid electrical shocks.

Colour code

Live wire Neutral Wire Earth/Ground

New Code Brown Blue Green and yellow
Old Code Red Black Green
Brings A.C. into the The A.C. leaves the This wire is connected to the ground. In case
house and into electrical electrical appliances and of short-circuits the excessive current goes to
appliances. the house. the earth or the fuse is burnt out or the circuit
breaker trips off.

MATERIALS

Copper
Copper is one of the most widely used electrical materials. It is electrically conductive. This makes it ideal for making
electrical wires, which need to transmit electricity from one place to another without losing too much of it to
resistance. Copper is also widely used for electrical purposes because it is resistant to corrosion, and because it is
easily formed into different shapes.

Batteries
Batteries are a core electrical component, in that they are used by many different kinds of electrical devices. They
store electricity, so that an electrical device can run off of it whenever it is hooked up to the battery. Batteries are often
made out of different metals and chemicals with reactions that make current flow at a particular voltage.

Transformers
Transformers are lumps of iron with two coils of wire wrapped around them. They change
AC voltage and current into higher or lower values through the principle of
electromagnetic induction. The transformer "steps up" or "steps down" the voltage or
current in order to fit it to the part of the circuit that it is in. This obviates a different power
source for each different voltage a circuit needs.

Fuses
Fuses are important electrical components because they protect other electrical
components from damage. Fuses are simple strips of metal engineered to melt when the
current in a circuit exceeds a certain level. When they melt (or "blow") the circuit is
broken and current stops flowing. This prevents excess current from damaging
expensive and delicate electronic parts.

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Switches
Switches are used to route electrical currents from one place to another. A switch is a hinged metal arm that can be
swung back and forth. When it touches the switch contact it is "closed," and electricity is able to flow. When it is
moved away from the contact it is "open," and can no longer conduct electricity.

Solder
Solder is another basic electrical material. It is a soft metal alloy (often lead and tin) that is
easily melted. A special tool cal led a soldering iron is used to melt it and apply it to
electrical components that need to be connected. When the solder cools, it hardens, binding
the components together and conducting electricity from one to the other.

BASIC ELECTRICAL TOOLS

Wire Strippers
Wire strippers are used to cut the insulation off of the wire. They are equipped with different sized
cutting teeth for various sized wires. They also have a cut-off portion in order to cut the wire.

Side Cutter Diagonal Pliers

These cutting pliers sometimes called side snips, are used to cut wire. They are specially
designed with a cutting edge that goes down to the tip of the pliers. The advantage being that
you can get into tight areas to trim wires. There are some that are equipped with live wire
detection capabilities

Linesman Pliers
These pliers are the do-it-all pliers. They cut, twist wires together, and grip wires for pulling.
They have a squared off end that is great for twisting wires together, a centre cutting blade for
cutting wire, and a grip area between the handles to pull wire

Screwdriver
A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning (driving or removing) screws. A typical
simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, and a tip that the user inserts into the screw head to
turn it. The shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting.

Digital Multimeters
Digital multimeters can solve most electrical problems - at the hands of a qualified electrical test
profession. In fact, with a good wiring diagram and a good meter, a trained electrical professional
can find the cause of almost any problem. There are two basic types of multimeters, digital and
analogue. Analogue multimeters have a needle and DMs have an LCD or a LED display. With
today's demand for accuracy in testing electrical systems, it makes more sense to have a digital
multimeter but an analogue multimeter still has its uses

SAFETY IN ELECTRICTY

Basic Electrical Safety is important, but by no means the end of the road when it comes to adequate protection against
electrical hazards. This article on basic electrical safety will by no means make you sufficiently prepared for tasks
involving work with or around electricity. Rather, this basic electrical safety discussion will give you a foundation on
which to build your knowledge to best protect against the dangers of electrical hazards.

72
Some safety requirements:

 Never use electrical tools on damp ground or around water

 Keep a safe distance from pad mounted transformers
 Do not overload electrical outlets with too many electrical plugs. Buy
one surge protector with many outlets instead of ‗daisy-chaining‘ smaller
power splitters
 Wear rubber gloves and rubber boots when working near electrical
components.
 Inspect tools and appliances for wear and damage prior to use
 Use electrical tape for power cord management, do not use staples
 Always use the correct size fuse, never use a fuse with a larger amperage
allowance than the original
 When working near power lines, use ladders made of wood instead of metal
 If you have a bad feeling about some work concerning electricity, stay away!
 Know where breakers and electrical boxes are in case of an emergency
 Label circuit breakers clearly
 Do not use electrical outlets or cords with exposed wiring
 Do not touch a person or electrical apparatus in the event of an electrical
accident. Always disconnect the current first.
 Do not clean tools with flammable or toxic solvents.

TILING
Tile is one of the most favourite design materials for both kitchen renovation and for bathroom renovation. It has been
used since Roman times, and even though excellent manmade materials have become popular in recent years, tile is
still valued for its beauty and cost-saving potential. All tiles can be classed into three different types: ceramic, quarry,
and stone.

1. Ceramic Tile
When we talk about tile being cost effective, we are talking about ceramic tile. While not all ceramic tile is cheap, it is
possible to find bargain ceramic tile which still can add to the beauty of your home.
Ceramic tile starts with clay—shale, gypsum, and sand—and is worked into a material called bisque. The bisque is
shaped into tiles and is fired in a kiln up to 2500° F. The higher the temperature, the stronger the tile will be.

2. Quarry Tile
In the past, quarry tile came from quarries. Just like you see in old photographs of Vermont quarries, the tile was cut
away, ground, and polished. But now manufactures use the extrusion method for making a vitreous clay tile that is
almost as hard as natural stone.

Quarry tile has a rough surface, which means that it is perfect for flooring because it provides a good grip. But it also
means that quarry tile is not good for kitchen countertops because it is very porous. However, even though quarry tile
can be sealed to make it less porous, it is still not appropriate for food preparation surfaces.

3. Stone
In recent years, granite has become the big winner in the kitchen design sweepstakes. It should be noted, though, that
granite looks great but it does have its problems. Granite easily cracks , and like quarry tile it is porous, so it must be
sealed and polished on a regular basis. Not only that, granite and marble are easily scratched and are not always
resistant to high temperatures such as those from hot kitchen pots.

73
Still, the variegated colouring and texture of natural stone cannot be duplicated by ceramic tile. It is endlessly
fascinating and provides unique design accents for your house. So, despite natural stone‘s shortcomings, it still wins
out from a design perspective

Processes in Floor Tiling

The following information is a brief description of the steps involved in using the thin set method to install tile. It is
not meant to be an instruction manual; rather, it will familiarize you with the basic steps involved in installation.

1. Subfloor Preparation
This is the most important step in accomplishing a satisfactory installation. The subfloor must be structurally sound,
rigid, smooth, flat, and free of curing compounds and waxy or oily films.

2. Floor Layout
In this step, the room is squared off and measured, and the chalk lines are
snapped. Once the chalk lines are in place, the installer will verify the floor in
both directions to balance the room.

3. Preparing the Tiles

Slight tone variations are to be expected from tile to tile. A good installer will prevent this from becoming a problem
by mixing the tiles from several cartons before installation. This blends the tiles together, and any shade variations add
to the character of the floor.

4. Spreading the Thin set

Using the chalk lines as a guide, the installer will begin applying the thin set in one
section at a time. He will spread one coat using the flat side of the trowel and then
immediately come back with a second coat, using the notched side of the trowel.

5. Laying the Tiles

The tiles are then placed one at a time in the thin set by twisting and pressing while
allowing appropriate spacing for the grout. A straight edge or spacers may be used to
align the tile.

6. Grouting
The installer will generally begin grouting the following day. It is important to allow
the thinnest enough time to set up before applying the grout. The grout is applied
over one small section at a time and is spread by means of a rubber float or a
squeegee. Pulling the grout firmly over the surface will both push the grout into the
joints and clean off most of the excess grout. Then the tile is rinsed using a damp
sponge. Very little water is applied. After approximately ten minutes the surface of
the tile is cleaned again with a damp sponge (even drier this time), or on some shiny
tiles, just buff with a dry towel

TILING MATERIALS

1. Tiles
2. Thin-set mortar
3. Grout

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TILING TOOLS

Notched Trowels
A notched trowel is necessary when applying tile. They're used to make sure that you apply the
proper depth of setting material to the surface. Notched trowels come in different sizes and depths as
well as in rectangular or V-shaped notches.

Grout Float
A grouting float is a flat, rectangular piece of metal with a handle on the top that is used to apply
grout to a tiled floor. The float is used during one of the final stages of the tiling process and is
relatively simple to use.

Nippers
A Nipper is a tile tool that‘s primarily used to make circular cuts in ceramic tile that are difficult
for your tile saw to accomplish.

Spacers
People use spacers to keep each tile an equal distance apart as they install it on your wall,
floor or countertop. When you install tile yourself, spacers make it possible to keep straight
grout lines and square tiles together as the adhesive dries

Sponge
A sponge and water is to clean off the tile surface and should be
kept clean

Tile Cutter
The tile cutter is an excellent inexpensive tool use to make
precise straight cuts in ceramic tile. The tile is placed into
position in the cutter and is scored by firmly moving a tungsten
carbide scoring wheel from bottom to top across the face of the
tile surface. By then placing the pressure bar pad across the tile
and applying firm and gently increasing pressure, the tile will
snap across its score line.

Chalk Line
Need a straight line to hang wallpaper, lay wood floors or put in ceramic tiles? You'll
need a chalk line - a small, eye-shaped case filled with blue or orange chalk and
string. It has a metal tab on one end for pulling chalk-coated string out, and a reel on
the side for winding the string back in

Tape Measure
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic,
fibre glass, or metal strip with linear-measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool.
Its design allows for a measure of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and
permits one to measure around curves or corners

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TILING SAFETY

There are a couple of hazards in installing ceramic tile. But basic precautions will prevent injury. First, when cutting
tile always wear goggles and a mask. Flying debris is common and flying dust is even more common. Tile nippers are
perhaps the worst offender at shooting shards of ceramic that seem inevitably to fly toward someone's eyes.

Try to keep tile adhesive and cement from exposed skin. Neither will strike you dead or blind with short exposure, but
they are harmful over time. Tile adhesive can remain sticky for long periods and if left on fingers could come off on
furniture upholstery or eating utensils at dinner (don't want to anger the spouse - who tends to be finicky about such
things). Rubber gloves will go a long way to preventing skin exposure. Tile adhesive can be removed with the
application of mineral spirits. Wash your hands thoroughly.

Knee pads can prevent a few aches and pains, but they can sometimes be awkward. In any case, it is good to have a
board or something to kneel on when applying tile, if only to spread your weight and to keep the tiles from sliding.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. (i) Explain the direct and the indirect water system.

(ii) Give two advantages of the direct water system.

(iii) Name two fixtures used in plumbing.

(v) State the pipe fitting that will be used when two pipes are joined at 90°.

2. A bathroom floor in a domestic house needs to be tiled

(i) Name the appropriate tile for the bathroom floor.
(ii) Give a reason for the choice of tile made in (i) above.
(iii) Name a common adhesive that can be used to fix the tile.

3. A p.d of 12V is applied to two resistors ( of 6 Ω and 2 Ω)

connected to the series
Calculate:
1. The combined resistance
2. The current flow
3. The p.d across the 6 Ω resistor

76
 STRAND 5
MACHINES AND ENGINES

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

1. Name the parts, attachments and understand the function of motorized portable machines.
2. Demonstrate hands-on skills in use of motorized portable machines.

INTRODUCTION
Unlike hand tools, which can be traced back to ancient times, power tools are considered to be a recent innovation
evolving over the past fifty years or so. At first these power tools were heavy, cumbersome, extremely dangerous and
lacking in safety features. Today power tools are highly sophisticated, lightweight and double insulated to prevent
electrocution. In addition, many power tools have a range of additional features which make them invaluable tools for
the trade‘s person.

It could be said that the tradesperson of today could not operate a business successfully without a comprehensive kit of
modern power tools. It has also been said that power tools can perform the same task as hand tools, only faster and
better, however to make this statement the tradesperson would need to have acquired the necessary skills to use these
power tools safely and accurately.

DEFINITIONS
Portable Power Tools: are basically hand tools which may be driven by an AC or DC electric current or by
compressed air. As they are not fixed to a floor or a bench, and are relatively compact, they can be easily transported
to the worksite.

Machine Tools: are tools usually fixed in place, or are too large to transport easily, which requires the user to take the
job to the machine.

Power tools are grouped into three main categories:

1. Cutting
2. Fixing
3. Finishing

PORTABLE CIRCULAR POWER SAW

There are many types of powered saws used within the
building industry such as the jig saw, chain saw, brick
cutting saw, mitre saw, and sabre saw, with the
portable circular saw being the most common. Circular
saws are available in a variety of sizes (184 mm to 260
mm), with the name of the saw being governed by its
blade size, and may be used for many cutting
operations such as:
Ripping / Crosscutting /Compound cutting / Grooving
/ Rebating / Trenching

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SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE PORTABLE POWER SAW

To use the portable power saw CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:

 Check all adjustments are tightened before use; the saw must be fitted with a hood guard and a spring guard.
The spring guard below the guide plate must operate freely and return to cover the blade when not in use;
 Never tie the guard back; operate the saw with both hands; do not force the saw. If it stalls or loses speed, free
the blade by pulling the saw back. Wait for the saw to regain full speed before continuing the cut;
 After the cutting operation is complete, check to ensure the guard springs back to the closed position before
placing on any surface;
 Always switch off before removing the saw from the timber;
 Rest the saw on blocks when not in use, to prevent damage to the guard;
 Keep fingers and hands clear of the blade;
 Use the correct type of blade for the work being performed;
 Never use the saw above your head;
 Do not stretch to make a cut;
 Switch off the power and remove the plug before making any adjustments to the saw;
 Unless governed to a depth of cut, the blade should be set to full depth at all times to prevent kickback and
provide optimum performance;
 Keep the work area clean and free from off-cuts;
 Always wear safety glasses and hearing protection;
 All extension leads must be well behind the saw and run up and over the operators shoulder to ensure it does
not drop under the work being cut.

USING THE SAW

Ripping
The material being cut should be well secured, i.e. it should be cramped or
nailed to a bench, solid surface or to saw stools. This will allow both hands to
control the saw so an even pressure may be applied. As the saw passes along the
length of the timber being ripped the section already cut tends to close in on the
blade, which can lead to jamming, labouring of the motor or even kickback. To
prevent this occurring most saws are fitted with a ‗riving knife‘, but when this is
not fitted the operator may insert a wedge or a chisel in the cut behind the saw
to prevent the saw kerf closing. A fence guide may be fitted to the saw for
parallel cutting.

When ripping sheet material beyond the capacity of the standard fence guide it is
necessary to support the sheet on either side underneath the cut. This will allow
the blade to pass through without cutting the stools or bench below and also
prevents the sheet dropping against the blade.

Crosscutting
The material may be cramped, nailed or held with a knee onto the saw stool
while the saw cuts across the width of the timber or sheet material. A guide may
be cramped or nailed to the face of the material to be cut allowing the sole plate
to be pushed up against it, which will ensure a straight cut. This is particularly
useful when cutting wide or sheet material.

Rebating and Grooving

When rebating timber, the saw is fitted with a standard fence guide and set to the
required width from an edge, set to depth and run the full length of the timber. It
is then set to the required distance from the face, set to depth and run the full length of the timber which allows a full
length square or rectangular piece to be removed. This may also be achieved by use of a patent type guide plate or a

78
timber fence nailed to the job a distance equal to the width of the sole plate plus the amount of rebate required, less the
thickness of the blade. This is generally used for wide boards. The same procedures may be used when grooving
timber on the face and/or edge, however when grooving the bottom edge of a sliding door, the door must be held
securely over a bench or saw stool in an upright angle to allow safe cutting.

Rebating Grooving

Portable Electric Router

The portable electric router is a high speed spindle
moulder and shaper, which may be used in the
workshop or on-site. The versatility of the router
lies in the variety of bits and cutters that are
designed for its use and unlike the joinery shop
fixed bench type spindle moulder, it is portable. It
has a high speed revolving cutter (2000 - 27,000
r.p.m) that gives a very neat, clean cut.

There are a wide range of routers available, which

have differing power and speed ratings to suit a
variety of work. They are usually purchased with
accessories such as an adjustable fence, template
guide etc.
Routers fall into two (2) main categories:

1. Standard Routers
2. Plunge Routers

Standard Router
The standard type has an adjustable base which screws in or out to gain the
required cutter depth. With this type of router the cutter protrudes past the base
plate at all times, therefore care must be taken to avoid contact with other
materials, including the operator‘s fingers.

Plunge Router
This type is a fairly recent development with the advantage of having the base
plate spring loaded. When the machine is not in use the base is fully extended
and covers the cutter, protecting the operator and the cutter from accidental
damage. Most of these machines have a number of adjustable stops, which can
be present to the depth of the cut required.

SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE PORTABLE ELECTRIC

79
ROUTER

To use the electric router CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:

 Always wear safety glasses and hearing protection;
 Make sure the collet and bit shanks are clean;
 Always ensure the cutters are sharp;
 After installing the cutting bit ensure the collet nut is tightened firmly;
 Oil external faces of the spring pillars on the plunge router frequently to ensure Smooth operation;
 Before connection to power outlet ensure that all adjustments are tight, the cutting
 Bit moves freely and the switch is OFF;
 The depth of the cut may vary, depending on the hardness of the timber being cut.
 It is more practical to take three light cuts rather than one heavy cut;
 Operate the router in the correct direction of feed in relation to the bit rotation, as shown below. Note that the
direction of rotation is clockwise when viewed on plan:

 Hold the machine firmly with both hands while operating;

 Ensure that the motor has completely stopped before removing the router from the work;
 Always lay the router on its side with the exposed cutter away from the operator when not in use; and use a
fence, guide, bits with pilot bearings or a template wherever possible.

Router Bits
As previously mentioned, there are special bits with shaped
cutting edges for special jobs. They may be of ground tool
steel or fitted with tungsten carbide cutters. The tungsten
cutters provide a superior cutting edge which remains keen for
longer, especially when used on very hard timbers or abrasive
materials such as particleboard and fibreboard. The most
common diameter shanks are 6 mm and 12 mm, with the
larger shanks recommended for heavy work and high speed
routers. The router should never be forced when cutting,
especially when 6 mm bits are used, as the heads have been
known to shear off under load causing job damage and
operator injury. The end of the cutter may be square, have a
moulded shape, and have a solid pilot guide or a ball bearing
pilot guide. The ball bearing pilot guide allows for easy cutting
as the bearing reduces the friction between the timbers.

PORTABLE POWER PLANER

The power planer is a very high speed tool with

a cutting head which revolves at between 12,000
- 16,000 revolutions per minute. The width of
cut on most common types available is 82 mm,
110 mm or 155 mm. The depth of cut is variable
but is limited when rebating due to the
projection of housings and guards on the sides
of the planer.
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Rotating cutter head
Usually consists of two cutter blades, which are bolt fixed on opposite sides to a cylindrical cutter head. The head
rotates in a downward direction when the blades pass the rear base or heel and in an upward direction when the blades
pass the front base or toe. The blades are set so they contact the timber at the same point on each rotation, which
allows the cutting work to be shared by both blades.

Fixed rear base (Heel)

This provides a stable foot for the planer similar to that of the common bench hand planes. The cutters are set so they
are flush with this base so the planer can pass over the timber at a constant depth.

Adjustable front base (Toe)

This is where the depth of the cut is controlled. The front adjusting screw knob may be turned to allow raising or
lowering of this base. There is a graduated scale at the base of the adjusting knob, which is usually set in millimetres
so a controlled depth of cut can be maintained.
Body handle
This is where the operating trigger is located and allows the operator to hold the planer with both hands and depress
the trigger at the same time. It also allows pressure to be maintained at the rear of the planer once the front base is no
longer in contact with the job, to prevent rocking during use.

OPERATION OF THE PLANER

STEP 1 Secure the timber in a vice, cramp it down or fit a stop

block at the front end as the cutting action of the planer tends to push
the timber forward.
STEP 2 Adjust the depth of the front base to suit the job. It should
be noted that the planer performs more efficiently when not under
load, therefore a minimum of depth and a greater number of passes is
the best approach. This is even more critical when planning very
hard timbers.
STEP 3 Place the front base on the timber, making sure the blades
are not touching the end, then depress the trigger allowing it to gain
full speed. Push forward in a steady motion, while maintaining
pressure on the front until the whole planer is supported on the
timber. The position of the hands is usually the left hand on the front
adjusting knob and the right on the rear handle and trigger, but this
position may be switched.

STEP 4 When the planer is near the end of the timber; transfer the main pressure to the rear handle. This will allow
the front base to pass off the end without tipping, which causes the cutters to bight into the timber and damage the job.
When the cutters are no longer in contact with the timber, release the trigger, allow the cutter to stop rotating, then
remove the planer and rest it on its side or rest the front base on a block.

SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE PORTABLE POWER PLANER

To use the portable power planer CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:
 Always wear safety glasses and operate the machine with both hands;
 Rest the toe of the plane on a block of scrap timber when not in use to prevent accidental contact with the
cutters and to provide protection to the cutting edges;
 Keep fingers clear of the underside of the base, cutters and exhaust chute;
 Do not force the planer or try to remove excessive amounts of waste as it
may overload the motor and tear the grain in the timber;
 Make sure the cutters are sharp and correctly adjusted for maximum
performance;
 Always wait until the motor has stopped before removing the planer from
the job.

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PORTABLE ELECTRIC BELT SANDER

The portable electric belt sander is a light easily used tool weighing only between 4.5
and 6.8 kg depending on the type and model. Its size is usually named for the width of
the belt; for example a 75mm sander has an endless belt 75mm wide. This is the usual
size, although they are made in sizes from 50mm to larger than 100mm.

Most sanders have some means of collecting the wood dust. In some machines a dust
bag is fitted to the machine, while in other a flexible hose is provided which may be
connected to an ordinary domestic vacuum cleaner or similar unit.
SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE PORTABLE ELECTRIC BELT
SANDER

To use the portable Electric Belt sander CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:

 Do not switch the machine on or off while it is resting on the work.

 Allow the machine to gain full speed before lowering it carefully on to the work. Lower the sanders so that the
back part of the belt touches first, then quickly bring it to the horizontal position.
 Move the sander backwards and forwards and from side to side without too much pressure. It should go a little
over the edges of the work.
 If the surface to be sanded is rough, the machine may be used across the grain in a diagonal direction. Final
standing is carried out with the grain.
 Keep the power cable clear of the work or it may be overrun on the backward stroke of the sander, causing it
to be caught up the wrapped around the rollers.
 Keep the spare belts in a dry, warm place.

ORBITAL FINISHING SANDER

The orbital finishing sander is a small electric, hand-sanding machine for fine
finishing work. It is driven by a small electric motor which supplies power to
a base plate which moves with the flat orbital (circular) motion. The orbital
movement is usually about 8mm in diameter and it makes 4000 to 5000 of
these a minute depending on the make of the tool.

JIG SAW

This is a light tool used mainly for making internal cuts not possible or
practicable with the band saw or circular saw. It can also be used for straight
line cutting, cross cutting and angle cutting. A saber blade, that is ,a blade
held at one end only, is fixed into the jaws of a chuck up and down as much
as 4000 strokes may be 12mm to 25mm depending on the type of tool.

As the blade is fitted with the teeth pointing upwards, it cut only on the ‗up‘
stroke and so tends to pull the tool against the material being cut. The down
stroke tends to push the tool upwards, causing some vibration, so it must be
held firmly. Some tools are designed so that the blade is drawn back slightly
on the non-cutting down stroke to clear the work, and so eliminate much
vibration.

SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE JIG SAW

To use the Jig Saw CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:
 As for all portable power tools do not force the jig saw and over-load the motor, use the correct type of blade
and make sure it is shape.
 Carry out the usual electrical and mechanical safety checks before use.
82
  Make sure the work is held securely to prevent vibration or flutter and press the jig saw firmly on the jig saw
firmly on the surface keeping the sole plate flat.
 Don‘t wear loose clothing – keep fingers well away from blade.

Uses
Jig saw can be used for straight, curved or irregular sawing either internally or externally. For internal sawing a hole is
usually bored in the material form which the cutting starts. Some jig saw can be started, for internal cuts, by tilting the
saw on the saw on front of its forked sole plate, and then while the tool is operating it is gradually lowered to its
normal position – the pointed sabre blade pulls itself into the wood. N.B. The jig saw cuts on the upward stroke of the
blade.

Besides cutting wood up to about 50mm thick, the saw can be used with special blades for sawing metals up to 10mm
thick (depends on the hardness and type of metal), for cutting plastics, rubber, paper, cardboard and leather. Use a
lubricant when cutting metals. Some models can be reversed and held in the vice or fitted to specially designed stand
or table and used as a fixed bench jig saw.
Bevel cuts can be made with saws provided with tilting sole plates, and those which can be fitted be fitted with a
special base can be used for corrugated materials such as corrugated roofing iron and asbestos sheets.

PORTABLE ELECTRIC DRILL

The portable electric drill is the most commonly used electric tool, 6mm drill being the most popular.

Drill Size
The size of the drill refers to the maximum diameter of bit or
shank that can be held in the chuck. Thus the 6 mm drill will
take any bit or accessory which has a6 mm shank. This means
that hoes larger than 6 mm can be as long as the shank is not
larger than 6 mm in diameter. However, it is wise not to bore
hole much larger than this size because of the possibility of
overloading the motor.

Chuck
There are three common types of chucks: those tightened by
hand like an ordinary hand drill, those tightened by an Allen key
and those tightened by a geared key. The geared key is the most
satisfactory type as it provides a quick, effective means of
holding the bit firmly in the chuck. The key is usually fastened
to the cable by a light chain to prevent loss.

SAFE OPERATION AND USE OF THE PORTABLE

ELECTRIC DRILL
To use the portable Electric drill CORRECTLY and SAFELY you MUST:
 Do not use switch lock when hand drilling.
 Make sure the job is secure and over a waste block if drilling right through.
 Use a drill stand if possible-drilling pressure can be controlled more easily than with ―free-hand‖ drilling.
 Make sure the drill or bit is secure in the chuck- remove chuck key.
 Allow the motor to attain full speed before commencing to drill.
 Back the drill or bit out of the hole frequently to remove chips.
 Remove pressure as the tool commences to through the wood or metal.
 Make sure the drill or bits are sharp and are properly sharpened.

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GRINDERS
A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power
tools or machine tools used for grinding, which is a type of machining
using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the
wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the work piece via shear
deformation.
Grinding is used to finish work pieces that must show high surface
quality (e.g., low surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and
dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in grinding is on the order of
0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing operation
and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth.

Angle Grinder
An angle grinder, also known as a side grinder or disc grinder, is a
handheld power tool used for cutting, grinding and polishing. Angle
grinders can be powered by an electric motor, petrol engine or compressed
air. The motor drives a geared head at a right-angle on which is mounted
an abrasive disc or a thinner cut-off disc, either of which can be replaced
when worn. Angle grinders typically have an adjustable guard and a side-
handle for two-handed operation. Certain angle grinders, depending on
their speed range, can be used as sanders, employing a sanding disc with a
backing pad or disc. The backing system is typically made of hard plastic,
phenolic resin, or medium-hard rubber depending on the amount of
flexibility desired.

Angle grinders may be used both for removing excess material from a
piece or simply cutting into a piece. There are many different kinds of discs that are used for various materials and
tasks, such as cut-off discs (diamond blade), abrasive grinding discs, grinding stones, sanding discs, wire brush wheels
and polishing pads. The angle grinder has large bearings to counter side forces generated during cutting, unlike a
power drill, where the force is axial.

SAFETY
Angle grinders are widely used in metalworking and construction, as well as in emergency rescues. They are
commonly found in workshops, service garages and auto body repair shops angle grinders produce sparks when
cutting ferrous metals. They also produce shards cutting other materials. The blades themselves may also break. This
is a great hazard to the face and eyes especially, as well as other parts of the body, and as such, a full face shield must
be worn and other protective clothing. Angle Grinders should never be used without their guard or handle attached;
they are there as a necessary precaution for safety. All work should be securely clamped or held firmly in a vice.

BUFFER
Buffing and polishing using wheels and 'compounds' is somewhat like using
wet and dry sanding paper, only much faster. Instead of using 'elbow grease'
you will be using the power and speed of an electric motor.

The edge, or face, of the wheel is the 'sanding block', which carries a thin layer
of 'compound' which is the sandpaper. Varying types of wheel are available,
and the different grades of compound are scaled similar to sandpaper. The
compounds are made from a wax substance which has the different abrasive
powders added to it. When this hard block is applied to the edge of a spinning
buffing wheel, the heat from the friction melts the wax, and both wax and
abrasive are applied in a thin slick to the face of the wheel.

84
SAFETY
Basic safety rules should be followed when using the polishing/buffing machine.
1. Always wear goggles - small pieces of mop and polish will fly out of the machine whilst it is being used.
Goggles will prevent damage to eyes.
2. Always wear an apron or overall. These will hold back loose clothing. For example, a tie could easily be caught
by the rotating mop, this would pull the machine operator into the polisher. This would result in a very
dangerous and possibly fatal accident.
3. Always apply the work to the lower portion of the mop, never the top.
4. Never allow the top edge of the work to be caught by the mop.
5. Always be ready to use the foot stop (emergency stop button). Have your foot ready to press it if necessary.
6. Although the buffing machine has two mops that rotate at the same time. The machine can only be operated by
one person.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. State the correct name and special features of the power tools given below.

A. B. C.

2. Give some of the reasons of the breakages of drilling bits.

3. Why do we use eye goggles in drilling?

4. Describe five sawing operations which may be carried out on with a portable circular saw.
Sketch the shapes produced by each operation.

5. State two purposes of the saw guard.

6. What precautions should be taken when cutting curves with the Jig saw?

85
 STRAND 6

APPLIED ENGINEERING

STRAND OUTCOME
After completing this strand students should be able to:

 Classify safety, materials, tools and processes in simple joinery works.

 Demonstrate hands-on skills in simple joinery works.
 Classify safety, materials, tools and processes in electric welding
 Demonstrate hands-on skills in electric welding
 Classify safety, materials, tools and processes in simple cutting and forming techniques involved in sheet
metal fabrication.

 Demonstrate hands-on skills in simple cutting and forming techniques involved in sheet metal

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

INTRODUCTION

Carpentry and joinery are both construction trades. To oversimplify, joiners join wood and carpenters fix it. Joiners
normally work in workshops dealing with joining pieces of timber together to obtain a desired piece of furniture or
built-in. Carpenters normally work on site and their skill is to make and install structures and fittings such as windows,
doors, stairs and furniture from wood and wood materials. Besides knowledge and skills carpenters and joiners also
needs to be physically fit and able to work well with their hands. They as well have to pay attention to detail and an
eye for shape and colour is also important.

Grain
The grain refers to the direction of the wood fibres and cells in the timber piece. It is caused by the development of
these in the growing tree and affected by subsequent milling.

With the Grain refers to the direction of planning, when the fibres are pushed down by the cutting iron, to give a
smooth surface.
Against the Grain refers to planning when the plane is pushed in the opposite direction and the fibres are pushed up
giving a rough surface.
Across the Grain refers to working or setting out done across the fibres, i.e., at right angles to the length.
End Grain
The end grain is porous surface of the timber exposed after cutting across the fibres.
Working End Grain - due to the direction of the fibres, end grain planning will cause splitting unless care is taken.
On wide boards, the ends should be planed from the corners so that the cutting iron moves only slightly past the
centre. On narrow boards a chamfer cut on the corner away from the operator allows the cut to be carried through and
prevents the back corner from splitting. Scrap timber firmly cramped against the back edge of the board also allows
planning across the end grain. This method should be used where a chamfer cannot be cut.

86
The technique of ‗Skewing the plane‘ slightly
when working end grain gives a slicing action and
allows the plane to be pushed more easily and
gives a better finish. End grain may also be
finished on the shooting board or by disc sanding.

Length of Timber
The length of timber is measured along the grain
on the face of the piece.
Width of Timber
The width of timber is measured across the grain on the face of the piece.
Thickness of Timber
The thickness of timber is measured across the grain on the edge of the piece.

Preparation of Timber

The preparation of rough, undressed timber accurately is important to get a good finished job.It is useful to first
understand that every piece of timber has six faces: two sides, two edges and two ends and all of these have to be
prepared before the piece becomes a suitable project member.

In order to carry out the construction of a job, it is necessary to understand clearly the correct procedure to be followed
in preparing each member of the job to the required sizes. There are six steps that need to be followed to obtain best
results. FEWTEL is a way of remembering the sequence of these steps: F: Face side E: Face Edge W: Width T:
Thickness E: End L: Length. Hand tools used in the preparation of timber includes the plane, try-square, marking
gauge, straight edge, winding sticks and a pencil.

We begin with choosing the best looking side and the one you want to show on the outside of the project. The face
side is simply the datum (a surface to work from) from which all other measurements and angles will be taken. It
should have the three physical properties. To be: flat in length, flat in width and out of twist

Face marks are used to show clearly the prepared and tested sides and edges which are square (at right angles to one
another) for gauging and squaring, and to assist in assembling and testing the work.

Step 1 Face Side

Select the face side and plane it perfectly flat. Test for flatness with
winding sticks and straight-edge. Test lengthwise, crosswise and
diagonally. Mark with a face side mark pointing to the edge which has been
selected as the face edge.

Face Side Mark

87
Step 2 Face Edge

Plane the face edge perfectly straight and square to the face side. Test for
straightness with the straight-edge, and for squareness to the face side with
the try-square. Mark this edge with a face edge mark pointing to the face
side.

Face Side Mark

Step 3 Gauge to Required Width

Gauge to the required width on the both sides, using the marking gauge
from the face edge. Plane down to the gauge lines. Test for straightness and
squareness.

Step 4 Gauge to Required Thickness

Gauge to the required thickness on both edges, using the marking gauge.
Plane down to the gauge lines. Test for straightness.

Step 5 Shoot End

Square, cut and shoot (plane) one end. Test for squareness to face side and
face edge.

Step 6 Cut to Size

Measure the required length from the prepared end on the face side and
transfer the mark to the face edges. Cut and shoot off waste using a tenon
saw or cross-cut saw.

WOODWORKING JOINTS

Successful woodworking depends mainly on the correct and accurate joining of pieces of wood. Woodwork joints are
generally classified in three main groups:

 Widening Joints or Edge Joints.

 Corner Joints.
 Framing Joints.

88
Widening or Edge Joints

These joints are used when fitting together two or more pieces of timber to make up a wide surface. For this reason
they are often called widening joints

Butt Edge Joint

This is used when a wide board is to be made up of a number of narrow boards glued and clamped together, such as
table tops and carcase ends.
Dowelled Edge Joint
This joint is prepared in the same way as the cramped butt edge joint; that is, a slight hollow is planned along the
length of the boards. Dowel holes are bored at regular intervals into which dowels are glued and the boards glued and
clamp together to produce a strong joint.
Tongued Edge Joint
This is a strong joint. It is similar to the ordinary butt joint except that a groove is run along the edge of each piece into
which a tongue is inserted. For extra strength, the tongue is usually cross-grained or plywood.
Tongued and Grooved Edge Joint
This is a strong joint which is usually made by machine. Its strength lies in the extra gluing surface provided by the
tongue and groove.
Angle or Corner Joint
These joints are used in the construction of boxes and
plinth, etc., where the piece are joint with their faces
at right angles.
Butt Angle Joint
This is the cheapest type of construction. The ends are
cut square, butted and nailed together at right angle; it
is used in the construction of cheap boxes, packing
cases, etc.
Shoulder Butt or Rebated Butt Angle Joint
This is a better type of construction. The end of one Shoulder Butt Joint
piece is fitted and nailed into a rebate cut on the other. Butt Angle Joint
It has the disadvantage of having one face free of nail
holes and, if glued, provides a strong, neat joint. It is
used for boxes, plinths, cheap drawers.

89

Tongued and Grooved Common Dovetail Angle

Joint Joint
Tongued and Grooved Angle Joint
When glued and cramped together, this is a strong joint showing no nail holes. It is used extensively for cabinetwork,
plinths, carcase ends, etc.
Common or Through Dovetail Angle Joint
This is possibly the strongest form of angle joint. It consists of one or more ‗dovetail‘ cut on the end of one piece and
sockets on the other piece. The more dovetails the stronger will be the joint. Used in construction of strong boxes, tool
chests and joints where strength is the main requirement.

Framing Joints

Joints used in frame-like constructions, where the members usually jointed end to edge, with their edges at right
angles. Framing joints are normally used in the construction of Panelled doors tables, chairs, picture frames, etc. The
face sides of the members are usually flush to each other.

Mortise and Tenon Joint

The mortise and tenon joint is one of the oldest framing joints known to man. The ‗tenon‘ is the tongue piece cut in
one member and the ‗mortise‘ is the hole or recess cut in the other. The thickness of the tenon is usually one third the
thickness of the timber.

Common or Through Mortise

and Tenon Joint Haunched Mortise and Tenon Joint

Long and Short Shouldered Barefaced Mortise and Tenon

Mortise and Tenon Joint Joint
Common or Through Mortise and Tenon Joint
This is the simplest form of the mortise and tenon joint. It is used when a rail meets a stile some distance in from the
end.
Haunched Mortise and Tenon Joint
This joint is used when the rail meets the stile or leg at the end.

90
Long and Short Shouldered Mortise and Tenon Joint
When the rails and stiles have been rebated as for paneled and glass door frames, the rail must have one shoulder cut
longer than the other to fit into the rebate.
Barefaced Mortise and Tenon Joint
This joint is used where the rail is of thinner material than the stile or the leg.the tenon has only one shoulder, and is
approximately half the thickness of the rail

Halving or Half –lap Joints and Bridle Joints

These are joints used in making of frames and for this reason often called ‗framing‘ joints.

Angle Halving Joint Mitre Halving Joint

Tee Halving Joint Dovetail Halving Joint

Angle Halving Joint

It is used for framing in building work, frames for cores of cheap flush doors, screen doors etc. If glued and screwed
from the back; it provides a neat, strong joint.
Mitre Halving Joint
This is similar to the angle halving joint except that the lap or pin of one is mitred to fit against the mitred shoulder of
the other. It is used for appearance where the piece is moulded as in mirror frames and picture frames.
Tee Halving Joint
This is a halving joint in the form of a T shape. It is used in frames for connecting cross-pieces and divisions.
Dovetail Halving Joint
This is a stronger form of the tee halving joint and is used where pull may be exerted on the cross member, such as in
top plates on buildings.

91
Angle Bridle Joint Tee Bridle Joint Cross Halving Joint
Angle Bridle Joint
This is some time called an ‗open mortise and tenon joint‘. It is used in the construction of frames where strength is
important, such as tennis racket presses.
Tee Bridle Joint
This corresponds to the tee halving joint and is used for the same purpose, but is a much stronger joint. It is also used
where a leg meets a rail or rim on a table.
Cross Halving Joint
This is used where two piece cross each other, such as the cross rail of table or frame.

CABINET, TABLE AND STOOL CONSTRUCTION

TECHNICAL TERMS

Parts of a panelled cabinet door

The frame of a panelled cabinet door surrounds the panel and should not be the same width all around. For balance of
design the width of the stile should be slightly less than the top rail and the top rail again slightly less than the bottom
rail.

Stile - are the outside vertical piece of a door and in a small cabinet they should be
approximately 40 mm wide.

Top rail - is the horizontal top member of a door and should be slightly wider than the
stile, about 44 mm.

Bottom rail - should be slightly wider than the top rail, about 48 mm.

Muntin - is the name given to the centre up right piece. Small doors do not usually
contain a muntin, but if included it should be slightly narrow than the stiles. One purpose
of the muntin is to break-up a large area so that there is less likelihood of panel bulging
or in the case of solid timber panels, so that there is less shrinkage.

Flush Panel door

Before the introduction of core-boards, solid
timber was used for flush doors, this was not
always satisfactory as shrinkages and warps
had to be taken into account and even when
the doors are end clamped, some movement
often resulted.

Core-board due to their laminated

construction is ideal for flush panel doors as
they do not shrink or warp. The main
disadvantage of using them for flush panel
doors are that the end grain of the core and
the covering veneers is visible. This does not
matter for cheap or painted work, but does
not present a pleasing appearance on a good
job.

92
DRAWERS

There are several different methods of making drawers; some involve the use of machines. However, the construction
of drawer by hand methods, although considered difficult by wood workers with little experience, is not at all difficult.

Parts of a Drawer
Every drawer has the same basic parts: front, back, sides,
and bottom. But these parts can be assembled in a variety
of ways to produce different types of drawers.
The Drawer Front
The drawer front is usually 20 to 22 mm thick with a 5 x
5mm groove run along the bottom inside edge.
The Side
Are usually 13 mm thick and they may be grooved in the
same way as the front, while this is quite a normal
practise, a stronger and better method is to provide
―drawer slips‖.
The Back
Is usually thinner than the sides and approximately 10
mm thick. It is also narrower to allow the plywood to
slide underneath. It should stand down a little below the
side so that planning the drawer side when fitting the
completed drawer is easy. The top edge is usually
rounded off.
The Bottom
Is usually 5 mm thick and made either of plywood or hardboard. Solid timber is rarely used for drawer bottoms
because of shrinkage.
The Slip
Are pieces of wood, grooved and fixed to the drawer side to take the drawer bottom. The drawer slips serve two
purposes, when nailed and glued to the drawer side they give greater strength and wider wearing surfaces to the
drawer sides.

DOORS

A door is a movable structure used to open and close off an entrance, typically consisting of a panel that swings on
hinges or that slides or rotates inside of a space. When open, they admit ventilation and light. The door is used to
control the physical atmosphere so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled.
Doors are significant in preventing the spread of fire. They also act as a barrier to noise. Doors are also used to secure
passages into a building from the exterior for reasons of safety and climate control.

Types of Exterior Doors

Whether at home or at work, external doors are not only methods of entering or exiting a building, but also intended as
protection from weather or unauthorized entry and exterior decoration. Exterior doors are available in a broad range of
sizes, styles, and functionalities to meet many different needs.

Ledged and Braced Door

These types of doors consist of tongue and groove boards held together by ledges nailed across their width. The joint
at the face of the door are used to hide the small gaps which develop when the board shrink. The door must be braced
to prevent sagging.

This is done by cutting and nailing diagonal braces between the ledges. These braces must be sloped upwards from the
hinge side of the door. These types of doors are usually hinged to the frame by ‗T‘ hinges and fixed with a Rim or
Night Latch lock.

93
Framed Ledged and Braced Door
This type of exterior door has a better appearance than the Ledged and Braced door. It consists of a frame, held
together with mortise and tenon joint with a centre panel or sheathing of tongue and grooved boards. The top rail and
stile are rebated to receive the panel. These boards pass over the face of the middle and bottom rails. The tongue and
groove board are planned on the front side to form a double vee at the edges and are usually about 13 mm thick and
are nailed in place.

The top rail is joined into the stile with a haunched mortised and tenon joint and is the same thickness as the stile. The
middle and bottom rail are thinner to allow for the thickness for the tongue and groove boards and are mortised into
the stile using a barefaced mortise and tenon joint. These doors are sometimes made with the glass panel to admit
light. The glass is puttied into the rebate machined for the tongue and groove boards.

Types of Interior Doors

For interior situation or entrances, a door of better appearance than the braced and ledged door is generally required
and this is usually provided by a flush door or a panel door.

Panelled Door
Although the panel door has been largely superseded by the modern flush door, they are still preferred by many. The
panel of this door is best made of plywood to avoid the shrinkage or timber movement likely with solid timber. The
panel may be grooved into the rails and stiles and framed with the door.

Glazed Door
There are many different designs of these doors these doors are designed to admit light through the entrances. The
rails and stiles are rebated with a moulding on the face, a plain bevel moulding been the most used. The glass usually
3 to 4 mm thick, is puttied into the frame. It may be clear glass or translucent (obscured) in a number of decorative
patterns. In heavier doors the glass may be beaded in to the frame.

Flush Doors
The main advantages of flush doors are ease of cleaning, cheapness of construction and lightness. The use of special
veneers on the face of the door can make it very decorative. There are two types of flush doors;Solid Core Flush Door
and Hollow –Core Flush Door.

Solid Core Flush Door

This door is constructed in the same way as core board except that it is of a much thicker timber core. A solid core of
the door is arranged with growth rings alternating. The inner veneers are laid across the direction of the slats and the
face veneers are laid in the direction of the slats. In some cases the face may be formed by pressing a sheet of three-
ply to each side instead of holing veneers.

94
Hollow –Core Flush Door
This is constructed with a
simple outside frame
usually held together at
the joint by simple
tongue and groove or
simply by corrugated
fasteners. The inside of
the fastener is formed by
fixing light slats spaced
at about 150mm centres
or it is packet with light
spiral shavings specially
made or with one of the
several types of
cardboard honeycomb
packing. These keeps the
plywood skins perfectly
flat and parallel but do
not add greatly to the
weight. A block of wood
is fitted in to take the
door lock. A facing of skin of plywood is glued to each side of the frame and the edges tipped or clashed with a thin
strip of solid timber.

Door frames consist only of the rebated jambs and head. The door opening in the low concrete wall is cemented
smooth with a slope towards the front to provide weathering and to form a sill. The frame is made by checking the
jambs into the head and nailing. The projecting horns are cut off later to suit the door opening between the studs. A
temporary spreader is also necessary at the bottom of the frame.

TABLES

The simplest form consists of a top supported by four legs framed together with rails. There are two acceptable
method of joining the rail to the legs, the dowelled joint and the mortise and tenon joint. If the dowelled joint is used at
least three dowels are required. To obtain maximum depth of mortise the end of the tenon are usually mitred. A
haunch is cut on top of the tenon and these prevent the rail from twisting.

A Wooden Tiled Table A Metal Framed Table A Computer Table

95
Construction

Allowance must be made for movement on the wide top. This is usually done by means of buttoning. The button
maybe made of wood, or metal. They are screwed to the top and fit into grooves or slot in the rails thus allowing the
top to move in the case of shrinkage or swelling.

Sometimes the top is pocket screwed to the rails. This does not allowed for the movement and should be avoided when
the top is wide.

Wooden Button
Metal Button

`
Buttoning

Pocket screwing

STOOLS

Stools are one of the simplest pieces of furniture that one can make, but it is quite fascinating that there are so many
different forms of this simple assemblage. The practical value of this type of furniture is exceptionally high. Stools can
be used for sitting, as a stand, to put your legs when sitting on the chair, you can step on it to reach some things on a
high place or it can help a small child to reach the sink in the bathroom... One of the major advantages of the stools
compared to the other furniture is that they are small and lightweight, so they can be easily moved around. In general,
stools (except for some bar stools) have no back rest and they are not designed to enjoy while sitting, but for the work.

A Wooden Framed Stool A Metal Framed Stool A Shower Stool

96
Construction
To make one stable and well manufactured stool, it is necessary to pay special attention to making precise parts and
the joints. Stools can be made out from different materials, but they are mostly made out of wood and metal. And also
various industrial plastic stools can be found on the market. The construction of wooden stools is very simple. They
consist of only a few parts, and the various woodworking joints and can be built from almost any wood. This stool will
be not only practical part of furniture, but also a beautiful interior decoration.

Leg to rail joints

Corner details Upholstered seat details

TRADITIONAL SEATING

97
BUILDING PRELIMINARIES

Before the building of any type, large or small, can be commenced, permission must be sought and given by the local
authority. In the case of a house the building must be sited on the section with due consideration to distances from
boundaries, storm-water drainage, sewage disposal and, for the owner‘s own satisfaction, sited to gain the best use of
the sun, view, access, etc. A permit to erect a building can be obtained by making application on a special
‗Application for a Building Permit‘ form which is obtained from the office of the local authority. The building
restrictions and bylaws may, and do, vary from town to town, but are similar in most respects.

This application form must be accompanied by the following:

 Site Plan
 Building Details
 Specifications

Other forms are also required to be completed and certain fees must be paid.
The application form, together with the other necessary forms and fees, is handed in to the local authority, which in
due course will issue a building permit.

Site Plan
The site plan, drawn to a scale of not less than 1:200, must show the following:
 Legal description of the site, street number, street, district, area of section, frontage, depth, lot number, D.P.
number (Deposited Plan Transfer Office).
 North Point
 Boundaries
 Location of proposed buildings
 Position and dimensions of driveway and footpath crossing Levels of land
 All registered easements and public drains
 Storm-water disposal system
 Drainage connections and public drains

Building details
The drawings of the buildings are to be drawn to a scale of not less than 1: 100 and should show the following:
 Floor plan
 Four elevations—to show the external appearance of the building, doors, windows, the height relative to the
ground level and the materials used
 Cross section through the building to show constructional detail

Specifications
These are typed descriptions of the work to be carried out, the materials and fittings to be used and the standard of the
work to be done.
 Number of Copies of Documents Required
 Site Plan—3 copies, 1 copy to show a plan of the proposed drains
 Floor Plan and Elevations—2 copies
 Specifications—2 copies
 Note: Further copies of these will be required for subcontractors, loan companies, banks, etc.

Relevant Forms
These are available from the local body and must be completed before building can be commenced.
 Building permit application
 Storm water application
 Vehicle crossing form
 Water connection application
 Plumbing and drainage application
 Road damage deposit form

98
Fees
Before a permit can be issued the following fees must be paid:
 Building permit fee (this varies with the size of the job)
 Building research levy
 Plumbing permit
 Drainage permit
 Cost of permanent vehicle crossing
 Deposit to cover possible street damage (road damage deposit)
 Water service connection

As soon as the permit has been issued the builder is free to commence work and arrange, if and when necessary, for
subcontractors to commence work.

Inspections
Inspections of the building are carried out at various stages of construction by the local authority‘s Building Inspector,
and the Health Inspector for drainage etc.

Setting out Foundations

Two types of foundation are outlined for the workshop or shed. These are a concrete foundation with a concrete floor
and pile foundation with the wood floor.

Profiles
Profiles are temporary guides made up of about 75×25mm or larger battens fixed to stakes driven into the ground.
They are set up at each corner of the proposed building but with a clearance of 450 to 500mm to allow room to move
about when setting out.

Lines
A base line or setting-out line is stretched across the tops of two of the profiles in the required position for one side or
one end of the shed.
A second line is then stretched and fixed at right angles to the base line. To obtain this right angle, the 3-4-5 method is
used.

To use this method, two small pegs are driven into the ground directly below the base line, one being placed at the
corner which is to contain the right angle. A plumb bob and line are used for this. These pegs should be 1.8m apart to
form the first side of the 3-4-5 triangle.

To prevent the lines from moving and to allow them to be moved to one side when digging, etc., nails can be driven
into the top edge of the profiles. A better method, however, is to make small cuts with a saw in which the lines may
rest as shown in.

99
Foundations

Foundations for concrete wall and floor. When a concrete wall extends round a structure, as in this case, it is called ‗a
continuous concrete foundation wall. For a shed of this size, the foundation walls should be 100mm thick, and where
the soil is hard and solid these walls may continue down and form both footing and wall as shown

The trench
This is dug to a depth of 300mm and is 350mm wide (fig. 1). If the soil is inclined to be loose, it is wise to ‗box‘ the
sides of the trench. This will prevent the loose soil breaking away and falling into the trench.

Concrete
Concrete is run into the trench to a depth of 100mm (fig. 2). Boxing maybe used to make a straight, neat job of the
footing but is not usually necessary.
100
Reinforcing
A 10mm diameter mile steel rod, usually marked D for deformed, and R for plain round on plans, is necessary to
provide reinforcing to the wall and footing. It is laid in the centre of the footing and must continue around the building
and is kept up off the ground by means of a piece of concrete (biscuit).

Boxing
The boxing—or formwork as it is often called—for the concrete walls is erected with the bottom edge resting on the
footing. The boxing is held firmly in place by means of braces, cleats and walers and fixed pegs driven into the
ground.

Concrete
The concrete is mixed and placed as explained in the later section on concrete. To obtain a bond between the wall and
the footing, the top of the footing should be left rough and starting rods left protruding.

Holding-down Bolts
These are required to hold the bottom plate of the shed to the concrete wall. They should be placed near the corners of
the shed and approximately 1.4m apart along the walls.

Removing Boxing
When the concrete has set, the boxing is removed and the space around the wall filled with soil. To provide a solid
foundation for the concrete floor, about 100mm of earth inside the shed walls should be removed and replaced with
the hard fill of shingle or scoria and well tamped down.

Concrete-block Base Wall

Instead of boxing up a concrete wall, the wall may be constructed of concrete blocks laid on top of the footing. This is
often an easier method of construction, the result being much the same except that the walls will be thicker.
Concrete Floor
The concrete floor may be laid in sections but a better job is obtained if it is laid in one operation as follows. A screed
of 75×50mm timber is laid on its edge alongside or near the wall at each side of the shed, levelled and held in position
be small pegs driven into the ground.

Pile Foundations for Wood Floor

The foundations for this type of construction consist of rows of 200×200mm concrete piles set into the ground to
support bearer plates and floor joists, on to which is nailed to tongue and grooved wood flooring or a particle board or
plywood flooring.

Digging and Placing the Piles

Holes 300 * 300 mm at least 300mm deep are first for the corner piles. A pad of concrete 300 * 300 * 100 mm is laid
at the bottom of each hole to serve as a footing for each pile as shown in the diagram. The pile is set in place and
levelled up before the concrete has set.

Bearer Plates
Two 100×75mm bearer plates are set on their edges, one to each row of piles, in the direction of the length of the shed.
They are held in place by wire ties cast into the concrete piles and stapled to the sleeper plate.

Damp-proof Course
A damp-proof course (D.P.C) of bituminous fabric must be placed between the concrete pile and the timber bearer
plate. This will prevent dampness passing from the concrete pile to the timber.

Floor Joists
Floor joists of ex 150×50mm timber are laid across the shed, resting on the bearer plates at either side. They should be
spaced at about 450mm centres maximum, and serve to support the flooring. To ensure a perfectly level floor, the tops
of the floor joists must be even and in line.

101
Foundations

102
Footings and Walls

103
WELDING AND FABRICATION
Welding is the process of permanently joining two or more metal parts, by melting both materials. The molten
materials quickly cool, and the two metals are permanently bonded. When wielding other considerations must be
made such as the thickness of the material wielded, spacing of welds, centre of weld to edge and the heat requirement.

Manual Metal Arc Welding (MAW) OR Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
Flux shielded metal arc welding (FSMAW) also known as ‗manual‘ metal arc welding (MAW) is a group of arc
welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a flux
coated consumable electrode and the work piece. The flux coated on the electrode serves as a shielding gas to prevent
atmospheric contamination of molten metal.

Description and Operation of Manual Metal Arc Welding

An electrode holder which holds the electrode firmly forms one pole of the electric circuit while the work piece to be
welded forms the other pole. Either AC (Alternating Current) or DC (Direct Current) can be used to supply the
required current for welding.

The electrode used in this process is a metallic wire which is made of the same material or nearly the same chemical
composition as that of the work piece material. The electrode acts as a ‗Filler metal‘ to supply the additional material
to fill the gap between the two work pieces. The metallic wire is coated with a flux material, calcium fluoride,
cellulose and iron powder. The flux gives off gases as it decomposes to prevent weld contamination, to form slag,
improve arc stability and weld quality.

In operation, an arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode on the work piece (similar to striking a match stick)
and instantaneously the electrode is separated by a small distance of 2 - 4 mm such that the arc still remains between
the electrode and the work piece.

The high heat at the tip of the arc melts the work piece metal forming a small molten metal pool. At the same time, the
tip of the electrode also melts. The molten metal of the electrode is transferred into the molten metal of the work piece
in the form of globules of molten metal.

 The deposited metal fills the joint and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal.
 The electrode is moved along the surface to be welded to complete the joint.
 The arc is extinguished by increasing the arc length by widening the gap between the work piece and
the electrode.

104
Advantages of Manual Metal Arc Welding
 Process is simple and inexpensive. Hence, suitable for shop jobs and field work.
 The process dominates other welding processes in maintenance and repair industry.
 Used to weld ferrous and a few non-ferrous metals like aluminum, nickel, copper alloys etc.
 Eliminates skilled labour
Disadvantages of Manual Metal Arc Welding
 Weld times, are rather slow, since the consumable electrode must be frequently replaced.
 Weld spatter, poor fusion, Shallow penetration and cracking are a few major problems associated
with the process. However, by proper welding practice, they can be minimized.

Applications of Manual Metal Arc Welding

The process finds applications in building a bridge construction, ship building, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication,
joining of large pipes and penstock and in almost all repair and maintenance work.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding - Basics

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding is a welding process where the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc between a
flux covered metal electrode and the work. The filler metal is deposited from the core wire and the electrode covering
(flux) that also provides the arc shielding along with other essentials. Other names for this process include the
European term "Manual Metal Arc Welding" (MMAW), "stick welding" or "stick electrode welding".

The shielded metal arc welding process is a simple and versatile arc welding process. This process is used
predominantly to weld ferrous metals above 2mm thick in all the welding positions. The welding arc is visible and
under the control of the welder. The electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of
the electrode in relation to the material being welded. The arc is struck, maintained and stopped manually by the
welder.

Welding Positions
The welding position is the orientation of the electrode with respect to the work piece to deposit the molten material,
these positions are down hand (flat), horizontal, vertical (up or down), and overhead.

Equipment
The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding
process consists of a power source, welding leads,
electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. A
diagram of the equipment is shown below.

Applications
SMAW is widely mostly used for medium to heavy
fabrication, and for maintenance and repair (including surfacing). It is particularly suited to onsite/field work such as
buildings and bridges, and for pipelines for gas, oil or water. Materials that can Welded with SMAW include:
• Carbon and low alloy steels, cast irons (ductile and gray), copper and its alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys,
stainless steels, nickel and its alloys.

105
Power Source
• Constant current (CC) static characteristic.
• Either AC or DC depends on type of electrode, joint type and position, power source. In DC the electrode can be
positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
• Choice of electrode polarity can be used to advantage. Electrode negative (DCEN or "straight polarity") generally
produces a higher deposition rate. Electrode positive (DCEP or "reverse polarity") is generally used where deep
penetration is needed. The polarity to be used is often governed by the type of electrode.
• Open circuit voltage (OCV) of 50 or 70 volts to reliably establish the AC arc.
• Arc voltage range of 16 to 40 volts (also strongly dependant on the arc length).
• Welding current will be set in the range 30 to 550 amps.

Types of Electrodes for Welding Steel

Most electrodes fall into 1 of 3 general types; cellulosic, rutile or basic. There are coatings that do not fall into these
categories including non-ferrous and stainless steel types.

Advantages of SMAW
• SMAW is a widely accepted, versatile and well developed welding process.
• High quality welds are readily achieved on all steels in both the workshop and on site.
• The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive and portable.
• The shielding gas provided by the burning flux is less sensitive to wind and drafts when compared to a process
with an external shielding gas.

Limitations of SMAW
• Deposition rate is generally lower than GMAW, FCAW or SAW.
• A layer of solidified slag that needs to be removed covers the deposited weld.
• A high welder skill level is required for high quality welds.

Discontinuities and Defects Common to SMAW

The AWS refers to discontinuities and defects of various types and sizes. Below some given acceptable level these
are not considered harmful, however above that level they are considered defects. The following weld problems may
occur; these are a collection of the more common types of flaws: Overlap, Slag inclusions, Weld spatter, Incomplete
penetration, Incompletely filled groove, Excess penetration, Undercut, Craters, Crater pipes, Uneven profile, Uneven
root penetration, Unequal leg lengths, Burn through, Wormholes, Arc strikes
Lack of fusion may occur in the following forms: Lack of inter-run fusion, Lack of sidewall fusion, Lack of root
fusion.
Porosity may occur as: Isolated, Group, Linear, Uniform or Stop-start.
Cracking that may occur is Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in low alloy and alloy materials. Other types of cracking can
also occur.

Tools used in Welding

Welding Helmet with flip front

A welding helmet is a type of headgear used when performing certain types of
welding to protect the eyes, face and neck from flash burn, ultraviolet light,
sparks, infrared light, and heat.

Most commonly used with arc welding processes such as shielded metal arc
welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and gas metal arc welding. Welding helmets
are necessary to prevent arc eye, a painful condition where the cornea is inflamed.
Welding helmets can also prevent retina burns, which can lead to a loss of vision.
Both conditions are caused by unprotected exposure to the highly concentrated
ultraviolet and infrared rays emitted by the welding arc

106
Slag Hammer
Slag hammer, also known as a chipping or a welding hammer is a very useful power
tool. Even though using a slag hammer is quite similar to using most power tools,
there are a few specifics you will need to take care of. Moreover, as is the case with
almost all power tools, you will need to be extra cautious when using a slag hammer
because the risk of personal injury is always there.

Vice grips
Vice-Grips are pliers that can be locked into position, using an over-center action.
One side of the handle includes a bolt that is used to adjust the spacing of the jaws,
the other side of the handle (especially in larger models) often includes a lever to
push the two sides of the handles apart to unlock the pliers. "Mole" and "Vice-Grip"
are trade names of different brands of locking pliers.

Steel Brush
Steel Wire Brushes are suitable for a wide variety of applications and are generally the most
economical and most widely available of the different wire brush options. Steel wire is the
hardest of the commonly offered brush wires, providing a high fatigue life and durable
cutting action. Steel wire is most appropriate for work on steel and iron work pieces, but
may also be used on wood, aluminium, brass and copper; however the softer the material to
be brushed, the more likely that a steel wire brush will cut into the material and remove base
material in addition to the targeted coating or contamination.

Electric grinder
This tool is really versatile. It can be used for lots of materials including
steel, concrete, asphalt, tile, pavers, in rescue work (to extricate victims from
cars), metal bars and more. It‘s used to grind off rust, to remove old mortar,
to remove paint and to polish various metals

Welder's respirator
A welding respirator is worn by a person who welds. Welding produces harmful
and potentially fatal fumes which are extremely dangerous for a person to breathe.
Filters in the welding respirator stop the harmful gases from being inhaled by the
welder, thereby protecting the welder against poisoning and toxic contamination.
The welding respirator is especially important when welding inside a closed area
and is often a welder's only lifeline and means of protection against toxic fumes.

SAFETY IN ARC WELDING

Welding is a safe occupation when sufficient measures aretaken to protect the welder from potential hazards. When
these measures are overlooked or ignored, however, welders can encounter such dangers as electric shock,
overexposure to fumes and gases, arc radiation, and fire and explosion; which may result in serious, or even fatal
injuries.

Personal Protective Equipment

Welders, like firemen, must wear clothing to protect them from being burned. Of all injuries to welders, burns are the
most common due to sparks landing on bare skin. Welding arcs are very intense and can cause burns to skin and eyes
with just a few minutes of exposure.

The actual gear varies with the job being performed, but generally protective clothing must allow freedom of
movement while providing adequate coverage against burns from sparks, weld spatter, and arc radiation. Many types
of clothing will protect you from ultra-violet radiation exposure, which appears as a skin burn (much like sunburn).
Under the worst conditions, however, severe burns and skin cancer may result from excessive radiation.

107
 Arc Rays
It is essential that your eyes are protected from radiation exposure. Infrared radiation has been known to cause retinal
burning and cataracts. And even a brief exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation can cause an eye burn known as
―welder‘s flash.‖ While this condition is not always apparent until several hours after exposure, it causes extreme
discomfort, and can result in swelling, fluid excretion, and temporary blindness. Normally, welder‘s flash is
temporary, but repeated or prolonged exposure can lead to permanent injury of the eyes.

Noise
There are two good reasons to wear ear muffs or plugs:
 to keep flying sparks or metal out of your ears; and
 to prevent hearing loss as a result of working around noisy arc welding equipment, power sources, and processes (like
air carbon arc cutting or plasma arc cutting).
Fumes and Gases
Because of the variables involved in fume and gas generation from arc
welding, cutting and allied processes (such as the welding process and
electrode, the base metal, coatings on the base metal, and other possible
contaminants in the air), we‘ll have to treat the subject in a rather general
way, lumping all but the more hazardous situations together. The
precautions we describe will hold true for all arc welding processes.

The fume plume contains solid particles from the consumables, base
metal, and base metal coating. For common mild steel arc welding,
depending on the amount and length of exposure to these fumes, most
immediate or short term effects are temporary, and include symptoms of
burning eyes and skin, dizziness, nausea, and fever. For example, zinc
fumes can cause metal fume fever, a temporary illness that is similar to the
flu. Long-term exposure to welding fumes can lead to siderosis (iron
deposits in the lungs) and may affect pulmonary function. Bronchitis and
some lung fibrosis have been reported.

Care and Cleaning of the work area

Keeping the area around your work neat is as important as maintaining
your equipment. Perhaps even more-so, as the risk of injury is amplified by the larger group of people involved. You
may have already inspected your equipment and found it to be OK, but all your caution won‘t matter when, for
example, a co-worker trips over your cable, causing you, and/or the people around you, to be injured by shock, hot
metal, or from falling.
Keep all your equipment, cables, hoses, cylinders, etc. out of any traffic routes such as doors, hallways, and ladders. A
good practice is to avoid clutter … and clean up your work area when you‘re done! Not only will it help to protect
yourself and others, you'll find it much easier for you to work efficiently.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Refrigeration:
It can be defined as the process of transferring heat from a low temperature region to a high temperature region. In
other words it is the process of cooling a substance. This can be achieved only if the heat is removed from that
substance.

Principle of refrigeration:
The principle of refrigeration is based on second law of thermodynamics. It states that heat does not flow from a low
temperature body to a high temperature body without the help of an external work. In refrigeration process, since the
heat has to be transferred from a low temperature body to a high temperature body some external work has to be done
according to the second law of thermodynamics as shown. This external work is done by means of compressor,
condenser etc.

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The machine, which works under this principle and serves the purpose of refrigeration is called a Refrigerator work
input Heat.

Terms in refrigeration

1. Refrigerator
It is a machine used to extract heat from a body at low temperature and reject this heat to a body at high temperature.
Thus it cools the body.
2. Refrigerant
It is substance, which is used as a working fluid in refrigerators. The refrigerant has low boiling point, which means
that it vaporizes at low temperature and takes away the heat from a substance.

Examples: Freon 12 used in Domestic refrigerators. Freon 22 used in Air Conditioners.

Properties of good refrigerant:
1. Have low freezing and boiling point
2. Have high COP
3. Be non-toxic and non-corrosive to metal
4. Be non-explosive
5. Easily be liquefied
3. Capacity of Refrigerator
It is defined as the rate at which heat can be removed from the cold body. Simply it is the rate at which refrigeration
can be produced. Its unit is expressed in terms of Ton of Refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is defined as the
quantity of heat removed to freeze one ton of water into ice at 0oC in 24 hours. Its value is 3.5 KW.
4. Refrigeration Effect
It is defined as the ratio of the quantity of heat removed to the time taken.
Refrigeration Effect = Heat removed / Time taken
5. Coefficient of Performance (COP)
It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed in a given time (Refrigeration Effect) to the work done

Types of Refrigerators:
1. Vapor Compression Refrigerators
2. Vapor Absorption Refrigerators

Vapor Compression Refrigeration System

This type of refrigeration system is the most commonly used system in domestic refrigerators. In VCRS the vapor
alternatively undergoes a change of phase from vapor to liquid and vice versa during a cycle.

Construction:
Vapor compression refrigeration system has the following components at its basic parts.

1. Compressor: The function of the compressor is to compress the input refrigerant of low pressure and low
temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant increases. Generally reciprocating
compressors are used in a refrigeration system. An external motor is used to drive the compressor.
2. Condenser: The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are made of copper. This is used to condense the refrigerant
which is in the form of vapor. And convert into liquid.
3. Expansion Valve: this is otherwise called throttle valve. This valve is used to control the flow rate of refrigerant
and also to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant.
4. Evaporator: This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept in the space where cooling is required. It
is a coil of tubes made up of copper.

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Working Principle
The refrigerant, which is at low pressure and low temperature flows into the compressor. In the compressor the
refrigerant is compressed and converted into a high pressure and high temperature refrigerant.

This high pressure and high temperature

refrigerant in vapor form then passes
through the condenser where it is
condensed into high pressure liquid
refrigerant. The high pressure liquid
refrigerant thus produced passes through
the expansion valve. In the expansion valve
the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant drops and it partly evaporates. It
is the allowed to flow into the evaporator at
a controlled rate. In the evaporator, the
partly liquid and vapor refrigerant is mostly
evaporated and converted into a low
pressure vapor. During this process, the
refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of
vaporization from the material that is to be
cooled. Thus the body is cooled in the
evaporator.

Then the low pressure vapor refrigerant enters the compressor and the cycle is repeated. Thus a material is cooled in
vapor compression system. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System:
The compressor in the vapor compression refrigeration system consumes lot of energy. To avoid this, the vapor
absorption refrigeration system has been developed. In this system, the compression process of vapor compression
cycle is eliminated. Instead of that the three following process are introduced.

 Ammonia vapor is absorbed into water

 This mixture is pumped into a high pressure cycle
 This solution is heated to produce ammonia vapor.

Construction: The vapor absorption refrigeration system has the following components.

Generator: the generator receives the strong solution of aqua-ammonia from the absorber and heats it. Because of this
heating, the aqua-ammonia solution gets separated into ammonia vapor at high pressure and hot weak ammonia
solution which contains mostly water.

Condenser: The condenser converts the high pressure ammonia vapor received from the generator into high pressure
ammonia liquid. This condensation is done by means of circulating cool water.

Expansion valve: This valve is otherwise called the throttling valve since the expansion, which takes place here, is
throttling. While passing through this valve, the liquid ammonia gets expanded and gets converted into low pressure
and low temperature ammonia.

Evaporator: The evaporator is otherwise known as cold chamber. Here the refrigerant absorbs the heat from the
material which is to be cooled and gets evaporated. It has many coils made of copper.

Absorber: The absorber receives the low pressure ammonia vapor from the evaporator and the weak ammonia
solution from the generator and mixes them well to form a strong solution of aqua-ammonia.

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Working Principle
The working fluid in vapor absorption refrigeration system is normally ammonia.
The ammonia vapor and water are mixed to form a strong solution of aqua-ammonia in the absorber. This aqua-
ammonia solution is then pumped into the generator. In the generator, this solution is heated. Because of heating,
ammonia gets evaporated at high pressure and leaves behind the weak ammonia solution, which mostly contains
water.

The high pressure ammonia vapor produced by the generator is condensed in the condenser and it becomes ammonia
liquid, which is at high pressure. This high pressure liquid ammonia is allowed to pass through the expansion valve or
throttling valve where it expands and becomes a low pressure and low temperature ammonia which mostly contains
liquid ammonia and a little vapor ammonia.

Ammonia at low pressure and low temperature then passes through the evaporator where it absorbs the heat from the
material which is to be cooled and gets evaporated. The evaporator is where the real cooling takes place. Because of
the heat absorbed by ammonia, it gets evaporated and becomes low pressure ammonia vapor. The low pressure
ammonia vapor is then sent into the absorber and the cycle is repeated.

Applications of Refrigeration
 In manufacturing ice
 For Preserving perishable food materials
 For Cooling water
 For preserving of blood, tissues and medicines
Air Conditioning: It is the process of controlling and maintaining the properties of air like temperature, humidity,
purity, direction of flow etc in a closed space. One can have the desired condition around him using air conditioning.

Terms in Air Conditioning

 Psychrometry: It is the study of the properties of moist air. The properties of the air and water vapor mixture
are called psychometric properties.
 Dry Air: Atmospheric air without presence of water vapor is called dry air. It is combination of 79% of
nitrogen and 21% of oxygen by weight.
 Moist Air: It is the mixture of dry air and water vapor. The amount of water vapor present varies according to
the temperature.
 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): It is the temperature of the air measured using an ordinary thermometer. This
temperature is not affected by the water vapor present in the air.
 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT): It is the temperature measured by ordinary thermometer when its bulb is
covered with wet cloth and exposed to air. It is always less than DBT.
 Wet Bulb Depression (WBD): The difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb
temperature. If the air is fully saturated then the wet bulb depression is zero.
 Dew Point Temperature (DPT): The temperature at which the water vapor in the air begins to condense
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 when the temperature of the air is continuously reduced.
 Humidity: the quantity of water vapor present in the air is known as humidity. It depends on the temperature
of the air and is independent of the pressure of the air.
 Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air at a
given temperature to the mass of water vapor present in the same volume and temperature of the air when it is
fully saturated.

Working of an Air conditioning system

It consists of dampers, air filter, cooling coil, spray type humidifier, heating coil and a fan. Atmospheric air flows
through the dampers. The quantity of air depends upon the "load and the dampers control it. Air then passes through
the Air filter. The filter removes dirt, dust and other impurities.

The air now passes over a cooling coil. So when air is cooled below its dew point Temperature, the water vapour is
removed from the air in the form of water droplets. The surface temperature of the cooling coil has to be maintained
below the dew-point temperature of the atmospheric air to accomplish dehumidification. The quantity of water
removed from air is collected in the sump and is drained. The temperature of air leaving the cooling coil is lower than
the ambient temperature for comfort. During the dry weather the spray type humidifier is used to increase the humidity
of the conditioned air.

During wet weather condition the relative humidity of the air is high, is controlled by the heating coil. For the comfort
condition required is DBT around 23oC and relative humidity 60%. So the air is to be cooled and humidified to the
comfort condition. Now the conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space by a fan and ducts.

Layout of a Window Room Air Conditioner

It is called a window air conditioner because it is usually fixed in a window. The Window or Room air conditioner is
used to cool a single room or a large space. This window room air conditioner system has four main components.

They are:
 An entire cooling system, which includes a condenser, compressor and an evaporator.
 A fan and adjustable grills to ensure proper circulation of air.
 A filter, which is made of fiber, mesh or glass wool to remove the impurities in the air.
 Controlling equipment to regulate the properties of the air.

The working of the window air conditioner is shown in the Figure. The refrigerant vapour leaving the compressor is at
high pressure and temperature. It then passes through the condenser. Outside air is drawn in by the fan and it cools the
refrigerant in the condenser, the refrigerant then becomes liquid. The high pressure, low temperature liquid refrigerant
enters the expansion valve. The pressure and temperature of the refrigerant falls when it leaves the valve. The cold
refrigerant from the valve passes through the evaporator (the evaporator side of the air conditioner faces the room to
be cooled). The warm air from the room is drawn in by blower. The evaporator cools this air and the liquid inside the
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evaporator tube gets vaporized by absorbing the heat from the warm air. The cool air is again sent to the room through
the opening at the top of the air conditioning unit. The liquid and vapour refrigerant from the evaporator passes to the
compressor and is compressed to high-pressure, high temperature liquid. The operation hereafter is carried out in cycle
as the same manner as explained.

The amount of air circulated into the room can be controlled by the dampers provided. When air flows over the
cooling coil or the evaporator coil, the moisture in the air gets condensed and they are made to drip into the trays
provided below the coils. This water evaporates to some extend and thus helps in cooling the compressor and
condenser. For every cycle, the temperature of the air keeps on reducing. The unit automatically stops with the help of
thermostat and control panel, when the required temperature is reached

Tools used in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Tube Cutter – is a refrigeration tool use to cut copper tubing from sizes 1/8‖ to 1/2‖ outside
diameter. A larger tube cutter is also available for large tube diameters. Tubes are mark first
before cutting. Slight pressure is applied to the copper tube during cutting. The burr inside the
tube is cleaned with blade reamer.

Flaring Tool – is a refrigeration tool use to spread the copper end outward until a flare is
formed. File and ream the copper tube before flaring. The copper tube is inserted into the flaring
block with 30% of its diameter protruding. Turn the flaring yoke slowly until the flare is
completed. Remove copper tube and inspect for defects.

Swaging Tool – is a refrigeration tool use to expand the inside diameter of

a copper tube so that the resulting diameter is the same as the outside diameter. It is used to join
two copper tubes of the same diameter. Clamp the copper tube by the flaring block so that an
'equal to the outside diameter' of the copper tube length is to be swagged.

Brazing Torch – is a refrigeration tool use in soldering the joints of two copper tubes together. 800
degrees Fahrenheit is required to solder copper tubing. Map gas is generally used in these
application, although oxygen-acetylene is also popular except they are bulky and heavy. It can reach
a temperature of 3600 degrees Fahrenheit. When brazing copper tube joints, do it in a well-ventilated
area. Prolong inhalation can cause cancer.

Copper Tube Bender – is a copper tube bending refrigeration tool. It has a three-size molded half-
round wheels. The most common sizes are from 1/4 of an inch diameter, to 5/16, then 3/8. Copper
tubes are bent beautifully using this professional bending tool.

Adjustable wrench – is a wrench with an adjustable jaw. A six inch adjustable wrench
is very useful in the field of refrigeration repair. It can accommodate nuts and bolts'
sizes from 1/8 of an inch to 1 inch. It can fit into the tool box easily.

Allen Wrench – is an angle hexagonal driving wrench. They are made of hardened steel. You will
need allen key when removing the squirrel caged fan of a window type air conditioner. The circular
fan of an indoor unit is fastened with an allen screw.

Long Nose Plier – is a plier with a long pointed nose. A 7 inch long nose plier is very useful and is a
good addition to your tool box. You will find the many uses of a long nose plier; from hard to-reach
areas like removing a clip from a fan or holding the copper tube when brazing alone.

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 Slip Joint Plier – is a mechanical plier with a slip joint in order to adjust the size. Either for
fastening a 1/2" pipe to loosening a 1" water pipe, it is a very handy tool to have. I have with me a
10" slip joint plier all the time.

Electrical Plier – Insulated plier use by electrician. An 8 inch electrical

plier is a must have in your tool box. There is time when it is necessary to
remove a live fuse from a fuse box or arranging the stranded wires.

• Pipe Wrench – is a wrench for fastening tubes and pipes. A 12 in pipe wrench must
be in your tool box as well. Sometimes we have to remove a rounded hex nut.

• Socket Wrench set – wrench with driving socket. We

have the 1/2" drive and the 3/8" drive and the 1/4" drive. I
carry all of them when I am on the field. You will need a socket wrench to remove a
remote hex nut or bolt where you have to add extension just to remove it. The set come
with a ratchet which is also a very handy tool.

Half Round Files – Half round shaped long hardened steel with cutting ridges. When it is
necessary to make a hole larger where the application of a round file is not practical. The
half round side can finish a curve surface, and the flat side for the flat surface.

• Tape measure – steel tape measuring device. Put one in your pocket whenever you are going out
into the field. Either you are going to make measurement for the length of the copper tubing you will
need for a certain project, or measuring the volume of a room.

• Hack Saw – a hand tool with tooth blade used to cut iron pipes or iron bars,
maybe you need to shorten the length of a certain PVC pipe, or fabricating a bracket for a new air
conditioner. Making a new home air conditioner installation. Cutting the window frame so that the
new air conditioner will fit.

Electric Drill Gun – is also a good refrigeration tool a refrigeration mechanic should have. We measure the size of a
drill gun by the size of the chuck. I have with me a 1/2 inch chuck, and it is all I need in
doing different things, like installing a new compressor and I need to make new holes for the
anchor bolts.

Gauge Manifold – refrigeration tool pressure gauges. Whenever you are reprocessing a
refrigerator, or replacing a new compressor for a freezer, or charging refrigerant to your
automotive air conditioner, you need a gauge manifold to tell you if you are doing it right.

SAFETY IN REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Compressor Safety
A compressor in a refrigeration or air conditioning plant has to be provided with some safeties to protect it from
operational faults. The three common safeties provided are the high pressure trip, the low pressure trip, and the low oil
pressure trip among the others. A compressor has to be protected against high pressure that can cause structural failure
therefore a high pressure cut out is provided, similarly any deficiency in the oil pressure can damage the bearings and
a low oil pressure cut out has to be provided, a lower atmospheric in the pipe line can cause air ingress and therefore
must be avoided. In this article we discuss the different safeties one by one.

High Pressure Cut Out

High pressure can be caused in a refrigeration plant due to various causes like over charge, loss of cooling water, high
ambient temperature, air, or other incompressible gases in the system, and obstruction in the discharge line of the
compressor. For protecting the compressor from high pressure and subsequent failure, a high pressure cut out is
provided that take a pressure tapping from the discharge line and when it detects an over pressure, it stops the
compressor. The HP cut out is not resettable automatically but has to be reset manually by the operator. This is
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because the high pressure is a serious fault and the cause must be investigated and corrected before the plant is started
again.

SHEET METAL FABRICATION

Simple Hand Cutting of Sheet metal

Hand cutting of sheet metal can be tricky and
frustrating. The edges are sharp, the cut offs are
stiff and get in the way, the snips bend or difficulty
in trying to negotiate the curve. These problems
are common for those workers who do not work
with sheet metal every day. But with the right tool
and a few simple techniques, any cut can be made
with ease. Always wear leather or other strong
gloves when working with sheet metal as the edges
are very sharp.

Cutting with snips

The handles of snips are made of mild steel, this metal being welded to the tool steel of the blades. The rivet (pivot) is
also made of mild steel which will hold the two parts together. The cutting action of the snips is known as a shearing
action, therefore the two blades slide over each other with a consequent severing of the metal in between.

The snips are used for cutting sheet metal not

exceeding 2mm in thickness. Thicker metals should be
cut with bench shears or cold chisels. Snips should not
be used for cutting wire, as this causes pressure to be
applied over a very small area of the blades, which
tends to ‗gap‘ them. There are many types of snips in
common use, the two main types, however, being the
―Straight‖ snips and the ―Curved‖ snips;

The Straight Snips are used for cutting along straight lines and round
the outside of curves (convex cutting)Modern snips are designed to cut
freely with a minimum curling of the metal. The snips are generally
held in the right hand, at right angles to the work as shown below, open
the blades widely to obtain maximum leverage. Do not permit them to
close completely at the end of a cut or a rough edge will result.

The Curved Snips are used for cutting out holes in sheet metals and
around the inside of curves (concave cutting)

The universal or circular cutting snips will cut curves, circles or straight
lines. It is possible when cutting with this type to turn right or left or to
double back again without kinking the metal.

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Points to Remember in the Operation of the Snips
The snips are held in the right hand with the index finger between the
handles. The finger in this position has the effect of a spring and
forces the handles apart. Light types of snips can be obtained with a
spring device for this purpose, fitted between the handles.

The snips should be held at about the forearm‘s length from the body
and more or less stationary. By this is meant that the work should be
moved into or ―chase‖ the work.

The work should be cut well up in the mouth of the snips. It is not
advisable to allow the blades to close completely at every cut, as this
leaves small ridges on the work, consequently marring the smoothness
of the surface.

For small work it is often convenient to clamp the lower handle of the snips in a vice and to effect the cut by using the
top lever only.

To ensure clean and smooth cutting, the snips should be kept keenly sharpened on an oilstone, with the cutting edges
at an angle of 87°. The cutting edge should be at right angles to the work. Open the snips as far as possible. Cut the
metal to within 12mm of the end of the blade. Open and repeat the cutting. Cutting is done most often on the right
edge of the sheet. To cut into corners or to cut notches, use the point of the blade. To cut an irregular shape or a curve,
first rough-cut to within 3mm of the line. Then cut right to the line. This thin edge of metal will curl out of the way to
get a smooth edge.

Cutting with Bench Shears

Bending Shears firmly secured to the bench provide a very convenient and satisfactory means of
cutting sheet metals up to, but not exceeding 5 mm in the thickness.

Simple Forming Process

Sheet metal forming processes are those in which force is applied to a piece of sheet metal to
modify its geometry rather than remove any material. By doing so, the sheet can be bent or
stretched into a variety of complex shapes.

Bending Sheet Metal

Simple bending - Hand Process In workshops
where machinery is not available there is often
occasion to bend sheets of metal of varying
widths at an angle. There is often occasions also
to make a bend that is deeper than can be bent on
a bar folder. Then a bench with a square edge
can be used. If not available, square the edge of a
piece of hardwood and clamp it on top of a
bench or other solid support. Place the metal to
be bent on the piece of hardwood and then
follow the correct bending procedure.

Procedure for Bending

 Select, layout, and cut the stock to size.
 Lay off the position at which the bend is
to be made and mark with a scriber. Use a
pencil if a scriber mark on the metal is
objectionable.
 Turn the marked side down, and then
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 place the sheet of metal on the edge of a bench having a square edge, preferably faced with metal.
 Adjust the sheet of metal so that scribed line is exactly even with the e‘ of the bench, then place a strip of on
the metal and clamp it in position.
 Starting at one end, begin bending metal down by striking light blows with mallet along the full width of the
sheet. Work back and forth making a grail bend, until the metal is forced down against the edge of the bench.

Stiffening of Fabricated Materials

There are numerous types of edges, joints, seams, and notches used to join sheet-metal work. We will discuss those
that are most often used.

Edges
Edges are formed to enhance the appearance of the work, to strengthen the piece, and to eliminate the cutting hazard
of the raw edge. The kind of edge that you use on any job will be determined by the purpose, by the sire, and by the
strength of the edge needed.

The Single hem edge is

shown can be made in any
width. In general, the heavier
the metal, the wider the hem
is made. The allowance for
the hem is equal to its width.

The Double hem edge is used when added strength is needed and when a smooth edge is required inside as well as
outside. The allowance for the double-hem edge is twice the width of the hem.

A Wire edge is often specified in the plans, Objects, such as ice-cube trays, funnels, garbage pails, and other articles,
formed from sheet metal are fabricated with wire edges to strengthen and stiffen the jobs and to eliminate sharp edges.
The allowance for a wire edge is 2 ½ times the diameter of the wire used.

As an example, you are using wire that has a diameter of 6mm.

Ø 6mm × 2 ½ = 15mm

Therefore 15mm will be allowed when laying out sheet metal for making the wire edge.

Types of Seams
There are many types of seams are used
to join sheet-metal sections. When
developing patterns, ensure to add
adequate material to the basic
dimensions to make the seams. The
folds can be made by hand; however,
they are made much more easily on a
bar folder or brake. The joints can be
finished by soldering and/or riveting.

Lap seams can be joined by drilling

and riveting, by soldering, or by both
riveting and soldering.

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Grooved seam joint consists of two folded edges
that are locked together with a hand groover.

Standing seams are used for joining metals where extra stiffness is needed, such as
roofs, air housing and ducts. is a cross section of the finished standing seam.
Dimensions and rivet spacing will vary with application.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. With the aid of notes and neat freehand sketches, describe in detail the
steps you would follow to mark out the barefaced mortise and tenon joint
shown in the diagram.

2. The diagram shows a small storage unit for DVDs made from solid
timber. The top is inlaid with a decorative strip of plywood. With the aid of
notes and neat freehand sketches, describe in detail the steps you would
follow in order to insert the plywood strip.

3. A rectangular tool shed (3.6m × 2.4m) is to be constructed as shown below.

Specifications:
-continuous strip footing (300 × 150)
-100mm reinforced concrete floor
-timber framed wall

(i). State five steps to be followed in setting out the foundation of the
tool shed shown.
(ii). With the help of diagrams, explain the method of checking the
squareness of the foundation.
(iii). Name and sketch an alternative type of footing that could be used
for the shed.
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4. An application for a building permit from the Local Authority is normally submitted with the Site Plan, Building
Plans and Specification.

Explain briefly the following terms:

(i) Specification.
(ii) Site Plan.

5. State two important aspects of a building plan for a proposed building that should be submitted to the City
Council or Local Rural Authority in order to obtain approval for erecting the building.

Explain briefly the responsibilities of the following persons in relation to the building construction:
(i) An architect
(ii) A builder

REFERENCES:

1. Woodwork, Frank Wilkins.

2. Metalwork Technology, Metric Edition, G H Thomas.

3. Metal Craft Theory & Practice, John R Bedford.

4. http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Gas-
welding-b)
5. goggles.jpg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gas-welding-
goggles.jpg&usg=9DI=&h=355&w=638&sz=14&hl=en&start=12&zoom=1&itbs=1&tbnid=
gczaNMORA7ia0M:&tbnh=76&tbnw=137&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dwelding

6. http://blog.dugnorth.com/2008_03_01_archive.html

7. http://www.ehow.com/lathes/

8. http://www.woodmagazine.com/woodworking-tools/power/woodworking-power- tools/?page=10

9. www.worldwideweb.com

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